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NGL.Cengage.com/School | 888-915-3276 Best Practices in Science Education Teaching Science During the Early Childhood Years by Dr. Kathy Cabe Trundle

IF YOU HAVE EVER WATCHED A YOUNG CHILD collect and test ideas, and develop positive attitudes toward science rocks or dig in the soil looking for worms you probably (Eshach & Fried, 2005). Quality science learning experiences recognize that children have a natural tendency to enjoy provide a solid foundation for the subsequent development of experiences in nature. Young children actively engage with scientific concepts that children will encounter throughout their environment to develop fundamental understandings of their academic lives (Eshach & Fried, 2005; Gilbert, Osborne, & the phenomena they are observing and experiencing. They Fenshama, 1982). This foundation helps students to construct also build essential science process skills such as observing, understanding of key science concepts and allows for future classifying, and sorting (Eshach & Fried, 2005; Platz, 2004). learning of more abstract ideas (Reynolds & Walberg, 1991). These basic scientific concepts and science process skills begin Engaging science experiences allow for the development of to develop as early as infancy, with the sophistication of scientific thinking (Eshach & Fried, 2005; Ravanis & Bagakis, children’s competency developing with age (Meyer, Wardrop & 1998). Supporting children as they develop scientific thinking Hastings, 1992; Piaget & Inhelder, 2000). during the early childhood years can lead children to easily The Importance of Science in transfer their thinking skills to other academic domains which Early Childhood Education may support their academic achievement and their sense of self-efficacy (Kuhn & Pearsall, 2000; Kuhn & Schauble, & Garcia- Research studies in developmental and cognitive psychology Milla, 1992). indicate that environmental effects are important during the early years of development, and the lack of needed stimuli may Early childhood science learning also is important in result in a child’s development not reaching its full potential addressing achievement gaps in science performance. (Hadzigeorgiou, 2002). Thus, science education in early Although achievement gaps in science have slowly narrowed, childhood is of great importance to many aspects of a child’s they still persist across grade levels and time with respect to development, and researchers suggest that science education race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), and gender should begin during the early years of schooling (Eshach & Fried, (Campbell, Hombo, & Mazzeo, 2000; Lee, 2005; O’Sullivan, 2005; Watters, Diezmann, Grieshaber, & Davis, 2000). Lauko, Grigg, Qian, & Zhang, 2003; Rodriguez, 1998). Lee (2005) describes achievement gaps in science as “alarmingly There are several reasons to start teaching science during the congruent over time and across studies” (p 435), and these early childhood period. First, children have a natural tendency achievement gaps are evident at the very start of school. Gaps to enjoy observing and thinking about nature (Eshach & Fried, in enrollment for science courses, college majors, and career 2005; Ramey-Gassert, 1997). Young children are motivated to choices also persist across racial/ethnic groups, SES, and explore the world around them, and early science experiences gender (National Science Foundation, 2001, 2002). Scholars can capitalize on this inclination (French, 2004). have linked early difficulties in school science with students’ Developmentally appropriate engagement with quality decisions to not pursue advanced degrees and careers in science learning experiences is vital to help children science (Mbamalu, 2001). understand the world, collect and organize information, apply Science education reform efforts call for “science for all students” mealworms’ bodies change from worm-like, to alien-like, to to bridge the science achievement gaps. Yet attainment of this bug-like (larva to pupa to adult beetle). However, they have goal has been impeded by a lack of systematic instructional difficulty noticing that the population count remains constant frameworks in early childhood science, insufficient curricula that throughout the weeks of observation. are not linked to standards, and inadequate teacher resources Children’s concepts are mostly undifferentiated. That is, (Oakes, 1990). Poor science instruction in early childhood children sometimes use labels for concepts in broader or contributes to negative student attitudes and performance, and narrower ways that have different meanings than those used these problems persist into the middle and high school years by scientists (Driver et al, 1985; Inagaki, 1992). (Mullis & Jenkins, 1988). Eshach and Fried (2005) suggest that positive early science experiences help children develop Children may slip from one meaning to another without being scientific concepts and reasoning, positive attitudes toward aware of the differences in meaning, i.e., children use the science, and a better foundation for scientific concepts to be concept labels of living and non-living differently than do studied later in their education. adults or scientists. For example, plants are not living things to some young children because they do not move. However, Young Children’s Early Ideas about Science the same children consider some non-living things, such as In order to help children learn and understand science clouds, to be living things because they appear to move in the concepts, we must first understand the nature of their ideas sky. Finally, children’s ideas and the applications of their ideas about the world around them. A number of factors influence may depend on the context in which they are used (Bar & children’s conceptions of natural phenomena. Duit and Galili, 1994; Driver et al., 1985). Treagust (1995) suggest that children’s conceptions stem from Children’s ideas are mostly stable. Even after being formally and are deeply rooted in daily experiences, which are helpful taught in classrooms, children often do not change their ideas and valuable in the child’s daily life context. However, despite a teacher’s attempts to challenge the ideas by offering children’s conceptions often are not scientific and these counter-evidence. Children may ignore counter-evidence or nonscientific ideas are called “alternative conceptions.” Duit interpret the evidence in terms of their prior ideas (Russell & and Treagust proposed six possible sources for alternative Watt, 1990; Schneps & Sadler, 2003). conceptions: sensory experience, language experience, cultural background, peer groups, mass media, and even Effectively Teaching Children Science science instruction. Contemporary instructional approaches described in science The nature of children’s ideas, the way they think about the education literature draw heavily on the constructivist natural world, also influences their understanding of scientific philosophy. Although there are many forms of constructivism, concepts. Children tend to view things from a self-centered or all of the instructional applications of constructivism view human-centered point of view. Thus, they often attribute children as active agents in their personal construction of new human characteristics, such as feelings, will or purpose, to knowledge (Fosnot, 1996; Gunstone, 2000). Further, these objects and phenomena (Piaget, 1972; Bell, 1993). For example, instructional approaches aim to promote active learning some children believe that the moon phases change because through the use hands-on activities with small groups and the moon gets tired. When the moon is not tired, we see a full with sense-making discussions. A common expectation is that moon. Then, as the moon tires, we see less of the moon. learners are more likely to construct an understanding of science content in this type of inquiry-based learning Children’s thinking seems to be perceptually dominated and environment (Trundle, Atwood, Christopher, & Sackes, in press). limited in focus. For example, children usually focus on change rather than steady-state situations, which make it difficult for However, minimally guided instructional approaches, which them to recognize patterns on their own without the help of place a heavy burden on learners’ cognitive processing, tend an adult or more knowledgeable peer (Driver, Guesne, & to not be effective with young children. A heavy cognitive Tiberghien, 1985; Inagaki, 1992). For example, when children burden leaves little capacity for the child to process novel observe mealworms over time they easily recognize how the information, thus hindering learning (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004). As educators consider young children’s for the children. Examples should be highly relevant to the limited cognitive processing capacities, inquiry-based main idea so that children can establish connections instructional approaches, which are guided by the teacher, between the text content and their own personal seem to offer the most effective way for young children to experiences (Beishuizen et al., 2003). engage with and learn science concepts. • Diagrams also support science learning. Effective, clear A guided inquiry-based approach allows for scaffolding of diagrams that represent causal relationships in the text new scientific concepts with the learner’s existing mental support children’s comprehension of causal mechanisms models (Trundle et al., in press). In a guided inquiry approach, (McCrudden, Schraw, & Lehman, 2009). children are expected to be active agents in the learning • Illustrations and images in textbooks can be effectively activities, which strengthens children’s sense of ownership in integrated into inquiry-based instruction. Learning by their work and enhances their motivation. With this inquiry involves, among other skills, observation in nature approach, children usually work in small groups, which over time. However, teachers are presented with several promotes their collaboration skills and provides challenges when they try to teach science concepts through opportunities to scaffold their peers’ understandings. actual observations in nature. For example, some Meaningful science activities, which are relevant to children’s phenomena are not observable during school hours. daily lives, allow children to make connections between what Weather conditions and tall buildings or trees can make the they already know and what they are learning. Sense-making observations of the sky difficult and frustrating, especially for discussions promote children’s awareness of the learning and young children. Also, observations in nature can be time concept development and facilitate the restructuring of consuming for classroom teachers who want to teach alternative ideas into scientific mental models. science more effectively through an inquiry approach. Images can be used to allow children to make observations As teachers work with children to develop their inquiry skills, and inferences. Teachers also can have children compare the instructional strategies should move toward more open observations in nature to illustrations and images in books. inquiry where children are posing their own questions and While many science educators might argue that observing designing their own investigations (Banchi & Bell, 2008). phenomena in nature is important, the use of illustrations and images in the classroom offers a practical and effective Integrating Text with Inquiry Learning way to introduce and teach science concepts with young • Traditional science instruction has unsuccessfully relied children (Trundle & Sackes, 2008). heavily on didactic textbook-based approaches. A growing body of literature suggests that traditional, text-based Conclusion instruction is not effective for teaching science because Young children need quality science experiences during their children are usually involved in limited ways as passive early childhood years. Science and Literacy provides a recipients of knowledge. However, nonfiction, expository systematic instructional framework, a standards-based text can be integrated effectively into inquiry-based curriculum, and high quality teacher resources. This program instruction. Researchers suggest that the use of expository also effectively integrates text, illustrations, and diagrams into text should be accompanied with appropriate instructional inquiry-based instruction. strategies (Norris et al., 2008). Teachers should ask questions that activate students’ prior knowledge, focus their attention, and invite them to make predictions, before, during, and after reading the expository text. These types of questions promote children’s comprehension of the text and improve science learning (Kinniburgh, & Shaw, 2009).

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SCL22-0429A · 07/09 Teaching Science during the Early Chldhood Years—Trundle