An attempt of comparison of the content of woodcut and copperplate t h maps issued in Europe until the beginning of the 19 c e n t u r y

LUCYNA SZANIAWSKA W a r s a w l u c y n a [email protected]

A b s t r a c t. Social expect ations regarding the century, before any printing techniques came content of maps changed over the centuries and led into use in Europe. Gradually, though slowly, it to the development of new map editing methods and replaced leathers tanned to vellum. Paper -ma- the rejection of outdated reproduction techniques. king spread in Italy since 1268, with Fabrino The article focuses on the circumstances of the in - troduction of the woodcut and, t hereafter, replace - near Ancona being the site of the first paper - ment of the woodcut by the copperplate and the mills; in France paper -making began in 1320 positive results of that change. (the first paper -mills there were established on K e y w o r d s: history of cartography, woodcut the Hérault riv er, Languedoc) and in Germany maps, copperplate maps, content of maps, density of (in Cologne since 1320, and, thereafter, in Nu - message on map remberg since 1390). The first paper -m i l l i n 1 England was built in 1494, and in Holland over 1. Introduction a hundred years later (H.U. Wallis, A.H. Robin - Social expectations rega rding the content of son 1987, p. 278). maps changed over the centuries and led to 2. Multiplication m a p s before the the emergence of new map editing methods introduction of the woodcut techniques and the rejection of outdated map reproduction techniques. Today we expect a map to contain It is known that to create a map it is essential an ever growing amount of geographical data to gather data, to develop a concept for the and should ever more accurately reflect the map and to finally make it. In manuscriptal reality. But have these always been the ex - maps we often deal with one map maker. pectations with regard to the data presented on Thereafter, a copyist neede d a lot of time to the map? Or maybe these expectations have make each new copy. The multiplication pro - evolved along with the development of civili - cess was time -consuming and, therefore, sation and accumulation of knowledge about costly. However, it had one advantage – e a c h t h e w o rld? What did the authors of old maps subsequent hand copy could be significantly want to show, or ‘what was the goal defined revised and completed. Usually maps could be both by map authors […] and by their future produced to order, w ithout bearing the risk of users’ (W. Ostrowski 1974, p. 14). Unfortuna - not finding a buyer. That method of map pro - tely, old cartographers rarely gave a direct duction continued to work very well even after answer to this question. Instead, one can s e e the invention of print. From the end of the 13 t h what they showed on their maps. The article century at least until the end of the 16 t h c e n t u r y aims to outline the goals that might have been portolan charts were hand -reproduced, w h i c h behind the making of maps by means of a each time enabled the addition of more accu - content analysis of selected old woodcut and rately measured and newly discovered areas of copperplate maps which in their own time seas and coasts. Already within a few days’ enjoyed recognition of their user s . after the return to the mother harbour of the The kind of support for a printed cartographic ship whose pilot described the unknown coast - image discussed in this article has been limited lines, the ship could set off for the next voyage to paper surface. It was not the only type of with updated maps. This gave a lot of preval - support used for that purpose, but within the ence over the competition and brought huge analysed period, i.e. from the end of the Middle profits in trade. It is probably for this reason that Ages until mid 1 9t h century it was definitely the in the area of the Mediterranean Sea for over most popular one and used from the beginning three centuries (14 t h –1 6 t h century) the man u- of that period. Paper was manufactured in pa - scriptal reproduction of navigational maps had per mills in Spain and Italy already in the 13 t h not been replaced by print.

1 T h e orig i n a l a r t i c l e w a s p u b l i s h e d i n : Polski Pr z e gląd Kartograficzny, Vol. 46, 2014, no. 3, p. 297–306. 1 3. Woodcut maps ure of encyclopaedic Christian knowledge about the history of the world, based on the The introduction of printing techniques entail - Bible. It contained several longer geographical ed a necessity of cooperation of map produc - descriptions of the worl d and the Holy Land ers at all stages of the map production process. and two two -page maps covering these areas. The nearly complete con trol of a cartographer The round map of the world ( mappa mundi ) o f over the hand -made map is evident, but all the a 38 cm diameter was based on information stages of map production that followed at the contained in the works of either ancient or order of the map’s publisher, including the pro - mediaeval writers, such as Herodotus, Pliny the duction of the negative matrix and printing, we - Elder, Solinus , Bartholemaeus, John Chrysos - re beyond his control. It was the publisher w h o tom, Isidore of Seville and John Mandeville. An decided about the use of materials and the unknown author took ideas from the earlier method of copying, as well as the method of mappae mundi , including the location of lands the map’s distribution, either as a self -s t a n d i n g and seas in relation to one another, the round map, added to the text or as a map included in shape of the ecum ene and the meaning of th e the collection of maps, later called the atlas. eastern orientation underlined by the paradise The map as one of th e graphic elements de - placed there, but used a different convention of corating manuscriptal and later on printed cod - content selection. He did not surround the i c es was a very w e l c o m e addition for readers. It image of the continents by a universal ocean. didn’t have to contain additional geographical Apart from Rome, marked by a figure of the information. In the Middle Ages the aesthetic Pope, he did not mark othe r cities, but the values basically sufficed. However, the inclu s- densely placed icons of fictitious cities on the ion of a map was associated with increased map, lacking any specific reference, have been book production costs. Hence the map was ex - diversified in size and shape. The author of the pected to be decorative and to give the feeling map covered the entire surfaces of the conti - of luxury. The map, together with other illustra - nents with mounds emerging from water which tions, decorative initials, illuminations, elaborate h e m ostly marked by nearly one hundred na - marginalia and co mplex borders, made up the mes of states and lands. In southern Asia he, complex graphic decoration surrounding the among others, placed the names: ‘Persia, graphically after all rather austere text. Arabia, Terra amaleth, Sabea, Ophir and Pa - The earliest preserved map printed with the lestina’; in northern Asia – ‘Armenia, Affaria, use of the woodcut method is the miniature Albania, Amasonia, Galilea, Medea, Samar i a , image of Earth, not exceeding the size of Siria and Judea’; in Africa – ‘Lybya, Egiptus, 7 . 5 c m , i n c l u d e d i n Etymologiae , the work by Ethiopia, Maditania’ (probably Mauritania), the bishop of Seville, Saint Isidore, published whereas in Europe, from east to west, he for the first time in Augsburg in 1472 (L. Sza - 2 m a r k e d – ‘Tartariea, Ciprus, Creta [both islands niawska 2008, pp. 174, 179 –1 8 2 ) . A miniature marked as states], Moscauia [the Duchy of ‘T -O’ map of the world inserted into the text Moscow], Littauia [Lithuania] , Pruscia [Prussia], was printed with a woodblock in the Gü n t h e r Slauia minor, Grecia, Ponegaria [perhaps it is Zainer printing house. Most probably, that Bulgaria], Macedonia, Polonia, Vngaria, Bo - miniature could not meet the aesthetic expect - hemia, Saxonia, Holsacia, Vinland, Gothia, ations of the audience, but started a certain Frisia, Liuonia [Latvia], Dacia, Anglia, Morauia process in incunables. [Moravia]’ etc. It follows from the above list that The earliest printed maps had a relatively the location of lands in relation to one another modest share in decorations surrounding the is not the map’s strength. Along the coastline of m a i n text. The ones that followed and were Asia and Africa, the author placed also names printed from woodblocks as a collection illust - of islands or mountains, e. g. in south -e a s t e r n rating the work about universal history were Asia he marked ‘Tabrobana’ (it seems it is the more impressive. The incunable titled R u d i - only Ptolemaic, s lightly distorted name of the mentum Novitiorum sive chronicarum histo - island Taprobana) and next to it the mountain riarum epitome was printed in Lübeck by Lu cas ‘Mons auri’, and further to the west ‘Tile insula’ Brandis of Schass in 1475. Similarly to E t y m o - (if it were to be Thule Island, its location in this l o g i a e , it presented a typical mediaeval struct - part of the map would make no sense), whe - reas in southern Africa mountains: ‘Mons cales - 2 More about the woodcut t e c h n i q u e , cf.: S. Peliwo 1991, p p . 9 –23; F. Grenacher 1970, pp. 31 –41; D. Woodward ti, Mons alpharye, Mons aliariorum’. The only 1975, pp. 25 –50, J. Stebnowski 1933, pp. 5 –2 2 . name on the map referring to the sea is ‘Mae 2 amasoneorum’ (perhaps it is the Caspian Sea) from left to right, giving the image of a mirror located in the northern part of the map. reflection, e.g. ‘LIBIA IИFERIOR’, ‘MARE IИD - The author marked relatively many names of IOCVM’. The same occurred on other maps of states and lands, as for a woodcut map of the this edition, e. g. on G e r m a n i a in the words: world (T. Campbell 1987, pp. 144 –1 4 5 ) . T h e OCCEAИVS GERMAИVS and GERMAИIA much later maps included in the Chronicle by MAGИA’. But on th is specific map the letter ‘N’ Hartman Schedl (1493) or Sebastian Münster in the name ‘OCCEANVS SARMATICVS’ is (1532) and the later ones printed in Geography printed correctly (K. -H. Meine 1982, fig. 17 and (since 1540) and Cosmography (since 1544) 25). One more error crept into that map of the by the same author contained no more tha n a world in both editions. The tropics of Cancer

Fig. 1. Central Europe on parts of maps: A – 1475, original part 7×10 cm (whole map 38 cm diameter), B – 1488, original part 7×9.5 cm (whole map 36 cm diameter), C – 1491, original part 6.5×9.5 cm (whole map 30.5 cm diameter) half of these names, but instead they were and Capricorn at times were described correct - marked in places that were closer to their act - ly, i. e. the northern one as ‘Tropicus cancri’, ual location. Taking into account the number of and the southern one as ‘Tropicus Capricorn’, names, it should be underlined that the p r e - but in a part of the impressions the tropic of sentation of the geographical content on t h e Capricorn received the name of the tropic of map of the world in Rudimentum Novitiorum Cancer. In fact, it is not known whether the was more efficient than in the case of other 15t h error was corrected or i ntroduced during the a n d 1 6 t h century woodcuts maps (as well as repair of the woodblock, because it occurs in 1 5 t h century copperplate maps to be discussed c o d i c es dated 1482 and 1486 3. below). In addition, its three editions may indic - In a later p e r i o d , e.g. in the publishing house ate a large interest of the users. of Sebastian Münster, the same woodblocks The map from Rudimentum Novitiorum , s i m i - were used for several editions of Claudius larly to other maps printed from woodblocks, P t o l e m y’ s G e o g r a p h y i n t h e years 1540, 1542, had one fundamental disadvantage. For each 1545 and 1552, but they underwent many edition of the work the woodblocks had to be repairs, including completions and replace - made anew which as it can be seen in figure 1 ments of inscriptions set from types. Despite was a reason to additi onal errors. And thus in this errors were not avoided. The most frequent the French language edition of La mer des hys - errors were letters that were mixed around, t o i r e s prepared by Pierre L e Rouge and Guil - inscriptions prin ted upside down or missing laume le Bret in Paris in 1488, including a map inscriptions caused by a missing woodblock printed from new woodblocks, the name ‘ P o l o - insertion in the slot of the main woodblock. On nia’ was replaced by the name ‘Poulame’. In the account of low durability of the material cases next French language edition, engraved again of trade in woodblocks are unknown. and printed in Lyon by Jean Dupré in 1491, The above presented examples of woodcut ‘Polonia’ was changed to ‘Pousaine’ (fig. 1C). m a p s f r o m E t y m o l o g i a e a n d Rudimentum Novi - No more solid were the woodblocks used t o t i o r u m accompanied texts that contained only print maps in the editions of Ptolemy’s G e o - small fragments referring to the geographical g r a p h y published in Ulm in 1482 by L i e n h a r t description of the world. Henceforth, the auth - Holle and in 1486 by Johann Reger. The map ors did not have many data to convey on the of the world included there according to the maps thus they were relatively empty. The ca - concept of the ancient geographer’s map was se with the editions of G e o g r a p h y f r o m U l m drawn by Johannes Schnitzer. The printers of the first and second edition did not avoid errors 3 In the book of K. -H . M e i n e 1 9 8 2 , Fig. 25, t he tropics are and the letter ‘N’ wa s in many cases reversed given correct names, and in R. Shirley 1987, pl. 20 their names are mixed up. 3 was different. Here many data were included, dimensions of 27×127 cm so it could fit into the but the format of the book – f o l i o and of the format of a codex (32×23 cm, folio), was folded m a p s – p l a n o gave large surfaces to fill with in six. The map has an eastern orientation, and content and that is why also these maps make its part depicting Jerusalem has a western the impression of being empty. I t might have orientation. It presen ts the Middle East area been different in the case of regional maps, from Tripoli to Alexandria, covering in the east e.g. of Palestine which was known since the the mountain ranges dividing Palestine from Antiquity and often visited by Europeans. Thus Syria, Syria with Damascus, Lebanon, the Red the map of its territory might have contained Sea and Arabia with Mecca, and in the west many details. the coast of the Mediterranean Sea (R. Röh - As an example of a woodcut map I chose the r i c h t 1 9 01, pp. 131 –132). In the middle of this m a p of Palestine authored by a wood engraver area is inserted a bird’s eye view plan of Jeru -

Fig. 2. Parts of the map of the Holy Land from the work by Bernhard von Breydenbach Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam o f 1 4 8 6 : A – a part of Jerusalem, original part 9×16.5 cm, B – a map’s legen d, original part 11×21 cm, C – Alexandria, Cairo, the Red Sea and Mount Sinai, original part 26×20 cm (from the collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art) and printer, Erhard Reuwich (1480s), coming salem in a scale several times bigger than the from Utrecht and active in Mainz. In the years rest of the map. Also the scale of individual 1 4 8 5 –1486 he made the illustrations and the objects changes depending on their meaning map of the Holy Land and Egypt to the work by which is typical for maps from t he Middle Ages Bernhard von Breydenbach (ca. 14 4 0 –1 4 9 7 ) and the beginning of the Renaissance. And Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam printed by thus the Mount Sinai (fig. 2C) is relatively big - Peter Schoffer the Elder in 1486. The author of ger than the area occupied by for instance the text together with E. Reuwich went on a Bethlehem. At the bottom of the map, in its mid - pilgrimage to the Holy Land from April 1483 d l e part, a picture of a sail -equipped galley was until January 1484 and described their obser - p l a c e d ( p erhaps it is a faithful image of the gal - v a t i o n s ( Bernhard von Br e y d e n b a c h ... 1911). ley known to the authors from their pilgrimage), Their journey took them from Mainz to Venice, which sailed into the port of Jaffa. Next to the and then to Corfu, Crete and Rhodes from whe - port, there is a note saying ‘Jaffa or Joppe, t h e r e they sailed in a galley to Jaffa. They visited port where pilgrims arrive in the Holy Land ’4. Jerusalem, Bethleem, Mount Sinai, Cairo and Alexandria.

The map of the Holy Land and Egypt prin t e d 4 The original inscription reads: ‘Jaffa sive Joppe, portus, from three woodblocks having in total the ubi peregrini applicant ad terram sanctam de Mari’. 4 In the background an undulating landscape The fact that proves its popularity is that alrea - has been drawn, with pilgrims and horses. It dy in 1488 the map was printed from a cop p e r - ends at the walls of Jerusalem behind the plate and included in subsequent descriptions Golden Gate (next to the inscription CIVITAS of pilgrims’ travels. The new image of Jerusa - IHERVSALEM), the stream of Cedron flowing lem came into being only in the middle of the underneath and, on their left side, the Valley of 1 6 t h c e n t u r y . J o s a p h a t ( ‘Vallis iosephat’) and the Sepulchre In several European countries, the first two of Absalom (‘Sepulthium absaloms’). Inside the decades of the 16 t h century saw the efforts to walls many complexes of buildings were p r o d u c e a modern, Renaissance -inspired ge - drawn, in a variety of architectural styles, but neral map of their territories. Those countries only some of them, probably the most import - were the Czech Lands, France, Hungary, as ant ones according to Reuwich, were supp l i e d well as Poland and Lithuania. The outcome of with a name or a note, such as e. g. The Tem - those efforts were woodcut maps of: ( i ) t h e ple of Salomon (‘templum Salomonis’) (on its Czech Lands authored by a doctor and printe r ruins later the Al -Aksa mosque was built) and Mikuláš Klaudyán, published from woodblocks at the rightmost edge of the walls the St. Ste - at the scale ca. 1:685,000 in Nuremberg in phen’s Church – ‘locus ubi sanctus Stephanus 1518, containing 280 names of towns ( D a w n e fuit lapidatus’ (fig. 2 A). The legend placed i obecne mapy 2013, p. 1); ( i i ) F r a n c e N o v a t o - against the background of the sea at the entr - tius Galliae descriptio Orontius F. Delphinas ance to the port of Jaffa says that ‘in the place f a c i e b a t produced by a French m athematician marked with a double cross one may obtain an and cartographer Oronce Finé and printed from absolute indulgence from sins and in the place four woodblocks for the first time by a printer marked with a single cross a partial indulgenc e from the University of Paris, Simon de Colines is available, i. e. an indulgence of seven years in 1525, at the scale ca. 1:1,800,000 with 124 a n d s e v e n quadragenes [280 days]’ 5 (fig. 2B). towns for which geographical coordinates were With a simple cross are marked among others: c a l c u l a t e d a n e w 7; ( i i i ) Poland and Lithuania by the cemetery of the pilgrims ‘Sepultura pereg - Bernard Wapowski according to Karol Buczek rinorum’, and on the left side of the town – t h e t i t l e d Mappa, in qua illustrantur ditiones Regni place where the ang el brought Mary the palm Poloniae ac Magni Ducatus Lithuaniae pars ‘Ubi angelus attulit marie palmam’ and where printed at the scale ca. 1:1,000,000, in Cracow Christ taught the Apostles the Pater Noster at Florian Ungler’s with the names o f o v e r p r a y e r – ‘ubi Christus docuit apostolos pater 1,000 towns and villages (K. Buczek 1963, pp. noster’. With three double crosses and a relat - 2 8 –3 1 ) ; ( i v ) Hungary by Lazarus (secretary of ively extensive note the map’s authors marked the Cardinal of Esztergom) Tabula Hungariae t h e Mount Zion with its important sites such as ad quatuor latera engraved and printed from the Tomb of David, Virgin Mary’s Basilica and four woodblocks by Petrus Apianus in Ingol - the Room of the Last Supper where ‘Christ had stadt in 1528, 67.3×53.6 cm, containing 1, 270 the Last Supper and where the Holy Ghost towns, including 356 from the territory of t o - came down upon the apostles, Matthew was day’s Hungary (Z. Török 2007, pp. 1821 –1 8 2 5 ) . appointed an apostle and many other t h i n g s All those maps were woodcut maps. h a p p e n e d ’ 6. To present the content of the map Three of these maps – of France, Poland only few characteristic examples were chosen and Hungary, as it is shown in figure 3 – w e r e to demonstrate its tourist and pilgrimage -o r i e n - characterised by simi lar density and method of ted nature. It seems that for the first time, spe - presentation of the individual elements of the aking in terms of the content about the Holy settlement network, river network and oro - Land, the map wa s just as important as the graphy. The size of the letters and the form of main text, and one may even presume that for geographical names’ highlighting were also other pilgrims it was a sufficient document that very similar. The main difference was addition helped them to organize their own memories. b y Wapowski of a cartographic graticule, but unfortunately little can be said about it on the

5 basis of the small preserved parts. The original inscription reads: ‘Nota quod ubicu m q u e r e p e r i t d u p l e x ‡ crux signata In eo loco est plenaria remissio omnium peccatorum . Ubi vero simpla + crux, Ibi est Indul - gencia septennis cum tottidem carenis’. 7 The oldest preserved copy of the map comes from 1538 6 The original inscription reads: ‘Coenaculum in quo and is held in the collection of the University Library in Basel. Christus caenam fecit et Spiritum Sanc tum misit, Mathias For more data about the map cf. M. Pelletier 2007, p p . electus fuit in apostolum, multa alia in isto loco sunt facta’. 1 4 8 0 -1 4 8 3 . 5 The earliest of them all, the map of the O n t h e m a p of France the borders were not Czech Lands, had a relatively dense road net - graphically highlighted. Their existence was work, i. e. the element linking the capit a l w i t h signalized by breaking off the content along the towns. It stood out against the other maps lines marking the objects that naturally create

Fig. 3. Parts of woodcut maps (reduction ca. 1:1.5): A – P o l o n i a by Bernard Wapowski of 1526, B – G a l l i a by Oronce Finé of 1525; the 1538 edition, C – Tabula Hungariae by Lazarus of 1528 and, D – Czech Lands by Mikulaš Klaudyán of 1518 through the use of appropriate cartographic the state borders: the sea, the Rhine, the Pyre - signs reflecting the functions of all towns (fig. nean Mountains and the Alps. 3D). The territory of the Czech Lands was sur - D e s p ite certain differences in the selection of rounded by a drawing marking large forest information about the territory of the state, the complexes. It seems tha t they substitute on the degree of detail and the legibility of data was map the drawing of the borders. On the maps similar. The scope of content allows to qualify of Hungary and Poland they were presented the maps as general purpose maps, and also respectively as a line composed of rows of dots to think that they were meant for educated, on the map of Hungary, and rows of trees m i d d l e -class persons who reached for them to delineating the borders on the map of Poland 8. expand knowledge or to look for entertainment. Probably for this reason the maps did not have 8 According to Polish scholars: Karol Buczek and Henryk to contain more information, and the width of R u t k o w s k i . 6 the line obtained thanks to the woodcut tech - were printed from woodblocks. At the same n i q u e gave sufficient reading comfort as shown time, south of the Alps, in Italian c ities maps in figure 3. were printed from copperplates. The choice of The above general maps were of fundam - the printing technique was probably linked with ental importance for their 16 t h century creators. the printing house’s experience. A good exam - B. Wapowski’s map, despite the fact that most ple can be provided by the subsequent editions of the impression was burnt, was definitely of Ptolemy’s G e o g r a p h y , wherein the geogra - known to Gerard Marca tor and served to pre - phical contents on all map versions were the sent this part of Europe on his globe and map same but the type of the matrix was different. of Europe (according to S. Alexandrowicz 2014, The first edition of 27 Ptolemy’s maps printed p p . 6 6 -68). The maps of the Czech Lands a n d from copperplates and edited by Nicolaus Ger - Hungary provided a basis for Sebastian Mün - manus took place in the Bologne -based print - ster’s maps of the territories of those states for ing house of Domenic o de Lapis in 1477. The C o s m o g r a p h y . The map most criticised of them same number of maps, though from different all was the map of France which received bad plates, were printed by Arnoldus Buckinck in reviews, however not due to the used printing Rome in 1478. The next edition of Francesco technique but due to the outdated Latin names Berlinghieri printed by Nicolo Todescho in Flor -

Fig. 4. Parts of maps: A – a woodcut map P o l o n i a by Barnard Wapowski of 1526, reduction ca.1:1.5, B – a copperpla t e m a p A c c i - p e c a n d i d e … by Giacomo Gastaldi of 1562, scale ca. 1:1 (from the collections of the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana in Venic e) based largely on K. Ptolemy’s map 9 ( M . P e l l e - ence in 1482 was the first edition to contain 31 tier 2007, pp. 1480 –1483). Carto graphers of maps in total, including 27 Ptolemeian maps the second half of the 16 t h century: Giacomo a n d 4 tabulae modernae . The first edition had Gastaldi, Gerard Mercator, Abraham Ortelius, an impression of ca. 500 copies, the later ones Gerard de Jode 10, Matthias Quad and their were even bigger. followers, by copying the geographical informa - In Italian towns, the craft of engraving maps tion were at least generally considered correct in copper plates developed for the following and made the names of the creators famous. one hundred years. The first known b o o k s e l l e r who acquired and sold copperplate maps was 4. Copperplate maps a Florentine painter and engraver , Francesco t h R o s s e l l i (1445–1513) (D. Woodward 2007, Towards the end of the 15 century in cities t h t h like Mainz or Augsburg, and later on also in pp. 773-774). At the turn of the 15 a n d 1 6 Basel, Cracow, Paris and Nuremberg, maps centuries, copper plate engravings in carto - graphy were still a fledgli ng technique and the 9 Its author, after nearly forty years, made a new map cosmographers and engravers active at that ti - which was issued in 1561 using data derived from Renais - me, such as Francesco Rosselli, Marino Sanu - sance sources and astronomic calculations. 10 To make a map of Po land, Abraham Ortelius and to, Francesco Berlinghieri, introduced an array Gerard de Jode used the 1562 map by Wacław Grodecki, of innovations in their maps. The positive feat - whereas the maps of the Czech Lands and Hungary they ures of this material consisted primarily in the drew on the basis of works by Mikuláš Klaudyán and fact that the copperplate was relatively durable L a z a r u s . 7 and the engraved image could be stored for erated with A. Salama nca, and after his death dozens of years without any major detriment to he continued to trade in maps and atlases with its clarity. One could add new fragments after great success, and even invented a special obliteration or etching of the previous engraving formula for them. A. Lafreri’s atlases were ma - (J. Stebnowski, 1933 , p p . 2 2 –2 6 ) 11. T h e g r o w - de from maps previously printed to order or ing collections of copperplates were gradually bought from other publishers and held in the developed and sold. b o o k s hop or sometimes impressed from the When the age of discovery began, the dem - purchased copperplates and put together into and for the latest geographical information was b o o k -format collected editions. Those editions huge and Italian publishers started to make a contained maps of various countries and reg - lot of money on geographical a nd travellers’ ions in Europe. Over 600 maps passed through books as well as guides to Italian cities in which the warehouses of A. Lafreri’s bookshop they included newly made or just copied maps (R. Tooley 1970, p. 20) and he included them or plans. After the successes of the Roman edi - in the subsequently published atlases. The main t i o n s o f G e o g r a p h y (4 editions in the years: cartographer whose work was commissioned 1487, 1490, 1507, 1508), the bookseller Antonio by A. Lafrieri was Giacomo Gastaldi. His maps S a l a m a n c a ( 1 5 0 0 –1562), active since around were a typical example of cartographic docu - 1540 in Rome, and brothers Michele and Fran - ments impressed from copperplat e s . cesco Tramezzino, who were printers since As we compare the image of the lower cour - 1527, originally based in Rome, and then also se of the Vistula on the 1526 B. Wapowski’s in Venice opened bookshops in 1550 in Veni- map with an analogous image on the map of G. ce, greatly extended their assortment in ma p s Gastaldi titled Accipe candide lector absolutis - (C. Witcombe 2004, pp. 112 –1 1 4 ) . simam Septentrionalium regionum, Suetiae, The first half of the 16 t h century was also a Gotiae, Norvegiae … published in Lafreri Atlan - period of a significant growth of influx of pil - t e s in 1562 (fig. 4A,B), we can see that the grims to Rome. Their interest in the books content of the map of the Venetian carto - describing the Eternal City and its architecture grapher is poorer despite the fact that it was

Fig. 5. Parts of copperplate maps (reduction ca. 1:1.5): A – P o l o n i a by Wacław Grodecki of 1570, B – Totius Galliae descriptio by Oronce Finé of 1561 contributed to the development o f publications made over 40 years later and impressed from a showing the Roman monuments and heritage plate allowing a much greater density of the sites, and to the increase of supply of prints drawing. Only the map of Poland and Lithuania b y A. Salamanca and Tramezzino brothers. by Wacław Grodecki Poloniae finitimarumque I n 1544, they were joined by Antonio Lafreri locorum descriptio edited by Abraham Ortelius, (D. Woodward 2007, p. 775). At first, he coop - published for the first time in Theatrum orbis

11 For a broader discussion of the copperplate technique c f . a l s o: D. Woodward 1975, pp. 51 –73, J. Stebnowski 1933, p p . 2 2 –2 8 . 8 t e r r a r u m in 1570 at scale ca. 1:2,600,000 12 Over the next centuries, the content of (examined within a fragment of the same reg - maps and graphic symbols underwent gradual i o n , fig. 5A), contains a similar amount of infor - modifications. Cartographic signs within indivi- mation as B. Wapowski’s woodcut map issued dual groups underwent significant unification, 40 years earlier. but the line in linear elements remained equal- ly thick as in woodcuts and the inscriptions containing geographical names filled a major part of the map’s surface. The possibilities of increasing the density of the drawing in a copperplate were large as it is shown in figure 6, but on the 16th century general purpose maps they were not used in full. Already the work issued in Cologne in the years 1572–1617 by a team of cooperating artists-cum-craftsmen, Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg, Civitates orbis terrarum, Fig. 6. A part of the urban landscape and walls of Szczecin on a plan by Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg of 1588 right from the first volume contained plans and (original fragment 4.3×8 cm, sheet 33×47.5) panoramas of towns characterised by very rich content and an image filled with lines. Failure to use the technical possibilities offer - A bird’s eye plan of Szczecin Alten Stettin ed by copperplate can also be seen if we ana - published in volume 4 dated 1588 provides a lyse the content of some copperplates issued in t h good example. t h e s e cond half of the 16 century, e.g. the Also on the maps issued later it is clear to maps of Oronce Finé Totius Galliae descriptio see how the authors fail ed to fill the paper and cum parte Angliae, Germaniae, Flandriae, the copperplate with content. A good illustration Brabantiae, Italiae, Romam usque Orontio F. of this phenomenon is provided by the naviga - Delph. autore issued in Venice by Dominicus tional map by a popular Dutch engraver and Zenoy in 1561 and their renewed edition i s s u e d publisher, Frederick de Wit, active in Amster - there by Bibliothecae divi Marci in 1563, at the dam in the period around the year 1700. It was scale ca. 1:3,700,000. Figure 5B shows the published for the first time as Occidentalior middle part of France with the dominating Tractus Indiarum Orientalium a Promontorio Paris. A comparison was made between a se - Bonae Spei ad C. Comorin in 1675 and it was lected part of W. Grodecki’s map and the reproduced until 1715. It might thus be presum - matching part of O. Finé’s map of F r a n c e . ed that it enjoyed popularity. Those areas were drawn on the maps in similar The map presents the western part of the scales and show relatively densely populated I n d i an Ocean with eastern coasts of Africa and and developed territories. Despite this, maps western coasts of the Indian Peninsula. Due to contains almost equally little information, and its purpose, it presented in detail only the many blank places have remained on their coastline of the seas with only those points surface. Both maps fe ature names printed in marked which are essential for navigation, such large letters and rivers of significantly over - as harbours, bays, shallows, rocky capes etc. scaled widths. t h Their image, though, was far from complex. Starting from the end of the 15 century, the The line delineating the coastline is still thick, increased demand for prints brought with it the schematic and clearly falls short of any growth of publishing houses and the increase accuracy. At the same time, on the same map of impressions, whereas the woo dcut was gra - the title cartouche has been embellished with dually replaced by the copperplate. This hap - a very detail -rich genre scene. The map’s en - pened not because of the lack of possibility to graver, to create an illusion of 3 -dimensionality present more detailed information. The wood - i n a drawing depicting a lion used all of his cut was a less durable medium and was hardly c r a f t s manship and artistic skills as illustrated in fit for data updating. Besides, conservation of figure 7C. The content elements of copperplate wood was a tr oublesome process. maps and their decorative ca rtouches were prepared in a similar way until the end of the 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . 12 For a description of the history of the map’s original of 1558 and the reprinted index of names, cf: W. Grodecki, F. Melanchton 2011. 9 The first visible changes in the drawing’s Secondly, H. Berghaus introduced a different density appeared on topographic maps com - set of graphic signs from the one used by G.D. missioned by various state authorities already Reymann. The sheets of the first edition of a towards the end of the 18 t h century. The need map of an area of Silesia were given the new

Fig. 7. The Ind ian Ocean on the map by Frederick de Wit of 1675: A – original whole map 42×53.5 cm and its parts: B – coastline of the middle part of Mosambique, original 4.5×7.5 cm, C – decorations of the map’s cartouche, original part 4.5×7.5 cm t o include many details that were necessary to s t y le of a Reymann’s map. This is well illustr - manage the territory caused that the map’s ated by figure 8 A with the part of sheet no. 1 1 2 , surface began to, as it were, run out of space. engraved by K. Jäck. The next edition of the A good example here is the map of Gottlob content of the sheets was prepared in the years Daniel Reymann designed at the beginning of 1 8 2 2 –1838 when the new legend was deve l o p - t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y Topographische Sp ecial Karte ed for the entire map under the direction of H. von Deutschland scale 1:200,000, edited and Berghaus. In 1831, the 112. Gross Glogau published systematically from 1806 until as late sheet part was edited and drawn again by artil - as 1920 (L. Szaniawska 1996, pp. 91 –9 8 ) , o n lery lieutenant Fils, and engraved by Heinric h which one can see changes in the graphic Brose and Siebert (fig. 8B) 13. Its most distin - layout of the copperplate map associated with ctive features are the significantly smaller size the user’s changed e xpectations. The sheets of of the lettering and the use of new cartographic the map elaborated by G.D. Reymann and signs (L. Szaniawska 1996, p. 95, fig. 37). issued from 1806 until 1816 feature drawings The degrees and minutes of geographical made in a relat ively thick line, whereas those latitude marked on the left frame served as a made in later periods were given finer lettering basis to show the scale of the presented frag- and a more delicate line. The sheets published ments. Changes in the location of towns with i n the years 1816 –1821 when their production respect to one another and changes in the dir- was supervised by the geographer Heinrich ections of roads are clear to see. Cartometry Berghaus are characterized by a more modern of the sheet differed so widely that showing t o u c h . the same area entailed the necessity to chan- First of all, on the territory of the Kingdom of ge the dimensions of the figure 8B versus Prussia topographic works were in progress figure 8A. then, under the direction o f Carl Wilhelm Oes - For the sheets of the map that were drawn feld, and the density of points in the triang - anew in 1838 the set of signs was extended by ulation network was increased. New measure - W. Hammer. After the map then called R e y - ments helped to improve the cartometry of the mann’s Special Karte was taken ove r i n 1 8 4 4 presented areas. 13 The data on the sheet’s authorship are behind the ins - criptions placed beneath the sheet’s bottom frame. 1 0 by Karol Fleming’s publishing house, the meth - 5. Conclusion od whereby the new sheets were prepared and The article foc uses on the circumstances of published plus the old sheets of G.D. Rey - the introduction of the woodcut and, thereafter, mann’s map reedited remained practically un - replacement of the woodcut with the copper - changed, and the set of graphic signs and the plate and the positive results of that change. size of the lettering ap plied therein were used The above presented examples of first woodcut throughout the period when the map was m a p s f r o m Etymologiae a n d Rudimentum Novi - renewed, i. e. until 1920. t i o r u m accompanied texts that contained only

Fig. 8. A part of the Gottlob Daniel Reymann’s map’s sheet no. 112 Gross Glogau (enlarged ca. 1:1.5): A – before 1821, B – i n 1 8 3 1 Examples of sheets of G.D. Reymann’s small fragments referring to the geographical map demonstrate that the abandonment in mid description of the world. Henceforth, the auth - 1 6 t h century of unstable woodblocks for the ors did not have many data to convey on the benefit of copperplates opened up the pos s i - maps thus they were relatively empty. It seems bility to mark more detailed geographic infor - that for the first time, th e map of the Holy Land mation, i. e. to use the medium’s surface in a and Egypt printed from three woodblocks more efficient way. It needs to be underlined (1486) was extensive picture and just as impor - that this advantage of copperplates began to tant as the main text. be fully used only in the 19 t h c e n t u r y . 1 1 In the first two decades of the 16t h c e n t u r y (which can also be seen in O. Finé’s map of they printed woodcut maps of the Czech Lands, France of 1561). Maps printed until mid 19th France, Hungary, as well as Pola nd and Lith - century, the sheets of the G. D. Reymann’s uania. Despite certain differences in the select - map were discussed which provide a good ion of information about the territory of the example of several stages of miniaturisation state, the degree of detail and the legibility of of cartographic signs and lettering paired with data was similar. The scope of content allows the gradually increasing density of presence to qualify the maps as general purpose maps, of topographic objects. The effects of carto- a n d a l s o to think that they were meant for edu - graphers’ work visible in the map’s content cated, middle -class persons who reached for have also helped to demonstrate the expect- them to expand knowledge or to look for enter - ations of users of old maps (private persons tainment. Probably for this reason the maps did and institutions). Social expectations regard- not have to contain more information, and the ing the content of maps led to the develop- width of the line obtained thanks to the woodcut ment of new map editing methods and the re- technique gave sufficient reading comfort. jection of outdated reproduction techniques. On the basis of B. Wapowski’s and G. Gas- Although the Europeans’ needs changed over taldi’s maps presenting southern Prussia it the centuries, publishing houses for maps and has been proved that early copperplates did atlases continued to flourish which means not depict a larger number of objects than that, in each period, they were successful in woodcuts and contained many blank spaces satisfying users’ expectations.

R e f e r e n c e s

Alexandrowicz S., 2014, Kartografia ziem Wielkiego M e i n e K . -H . , 1 9 8 2 , Die Ulmer Geographia des Ptole - Księstwa Litewskiego w epoce panowania Jagiello - mäus von 1482. Zur 500. Wiederkehr der ersten n ó w . „Polski Przegl. K a r t o g r . ” V o l . 46, 2014, n o . 1 , Atlasdrucklegung nördlich der Alpen. Ausstellung p. 6 2 –7 6 . u n d K a t a l o g . Ulm: Anton H. Konrad Verlag. Bernhard von Breydenbach and his Journey to the Ostrowski W., 1974, Sprawność kartograficznej formy Holy Land 1483 –4. A bibliography , 1911, compiled p r z e k a z u . „ P o l s k i Przegl. Kartogr.” Vol. 6, 1974, by Hugh W. D a v i e s . London: J. & J. Leighton. no. 1, p. 14 –2 3 . Buczek K., 1963, Dzieje kartografii polskiej od XV Peliwo S., 1991, Drzeworytowe mapy ziem polskich do XVIII wieku. Zarys analityczno-syntetyczny. z wydawnictw książkowych XVI w . „Studia i Mate - Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich riały z Historii Kartografii ” V o l . 1 0 . Wydawn. PAN. Pelletier M., 2007, National and regional mapping in Campbell T., 1987, Earliest printed maps: 1472 –1 5 0 0 . France to about 1650 . I n : The history of cartogra- London: British Library Publications and University p h y , V o l . 3 , Cartography in the European Renais - of California Press. s a n c e , part 2. Chicago; London: The University of Dawne i obecne mapy z terytorium Republiki Czes- Chicago Press, p. 1480–1 5 0 3 . kiej. Przewodnik po wysta wie. Wystawa ze zbiorów Röhricht R., 1901, Die Palästinakarte Bernhard von Centralnego Archiwum Geodezyjnego i K a t a s t - Breitenbach’s . „Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palaesti - ralnego Urzędu Geodezyjnego w Pradze , 2 0 1 3 , n a -Vereins“ Band 24, Leipzig, p. 1 2 9 –135. Praha: Zeměměřický Úřad. Shirley R.W., 1987, Mapping of the world. Early Grenacher F., 1970, Woodcut map. A form -c u t t e r o f printed world maps 1472 –1700. London: The maps wanders through Europe in the first quarter H o l l a n d P r ess Limited. of the sixteenth c e n t u r y . „Imago Mundi” Vol. 24, Stebnowski J., 1933, Historia druku map . „Grafika” p. 3 1 –4 1 . Vol. 3, no. 1, p. 5 –3 8 . Grodecki W., Melanchton F., 2011, Dedykacja Szaniawska L., 1996, Ewolucja Reymannowskiej Mapy Polski królowi Zygmuntowi II Augustowi mapy topograficznej Europy Środkowej wydawanej i List polecający z wywodem o pochodzeniu w latach 1844 –1874 w Głogowie przez Zakład Kar - Polski, wydał i wstępem opatrzył Józef Król. Gro- tograficzny Karola Flemminga . In: Kartografia ofi - dziec – Cieszyn. cyny Karola Flemminga w Głogowie . M a t e r i a ł y Kozica K., Pezda J., 2005, Dantiscum Emporium z XV Ogólnopolskiej Konferencji Historyków K a r t o - totius Europae celeberrimum. Gdańsk i Bałtyk na grafii, Wrocław 17 –18 listopada 1994 , „ C z a s o - mapach, widokach oraz dokumentach ze zbiorów pismo Zakładu Narodowego Imienia Ossolińskich” Tomasza Niewodniczańskiego (Bitburg, Niemcy). Vol. 7, p. 89 –1 1 0 . Gdańsk: Muzeum Historyczne Miasta Gdańska. Szaniawska L., 2008, Mapy typu O -T jako przykład M e d y ń s k a -Gulij B., 2002, Mapy księstw śląskich syntezy obrazu świata . In: Analizy przestrzenne ś w i dnickiego, jaworskiego i legnickiego z II połowy w kartografii , red. Wiesława Żyszkowska, Wa l d e - XVII wieku Fryderyka Khünoviusa . Wrocław: GAJT mar Spallek. Wrocław: Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Wydawnictwo. p . 1 7 3 –1 9 1 .

1 2 Tooley R.V., 1970: Maps in Italian atlases of the terms to 1900 . London: Map Collector Publications sixteenth century, being a comparative list of the L t d . Italian maps issued by Lafreri, Forlani, Duchetti, Witcombe C., 2004, Copyright in the Renaissance. Bertelli, and others, found in atlases . “ I mago Prints and the privilegio in sixteenth -c e n tury Venice Mundi”, 1939, V o l . 3 , p. 1 2 –4 7 . a n d R o m e . “Studies in Medieval and Reformation Török Z.G., 2007, Renaissance cartography in East - Thought” Leiden: Brill, Vol. 100. Central Europe, ca. 1450 –1 6 5 0 . In: The history of Woodward D., 1975, Five centuries of map printing . cartography , V o l . 3 , Cartography in the European Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Renaissance , part 2. Chicago: The University of Woodward D., 2007, The Italian map trade, 1480 –1 6 5 0 . Chicago Press, p. 1806–1 8 5 1 . I n : The history of ca rtography, Vol. 3, part 31, Wallis H.U., Robinson A.H., ed., 1987, Cartographical p . 7 7 2 –8 0 3 . innovation. An international handbook of mapping

Summary

The analysis of the c o n t e n t of maps showed to used. Using the example of the map taken from what extent the quality of the 15 t h a n d 1 6 t h century Rudimentum Novitiorum, it has been shown that a maps was the result of the available copying tech - graphically primitive map may contain a greater niques and to what extent the possibilities provided number of geographical objects than maps newer by by the woodcut and the copperplate were used. On even half a century later and l o o k i n g s e e mingly more the basis of notes from E. Reuwich’s map of Pales - professional. tine it has been proved that the authors of maps, On the basis of B. Wapowski’s and G. Gastaldi’s bearing in mind the intention to reach as many users maps presenting southern Prussia it has been proved as possible, next to data typical for the description of that early copperplates did not depict a larger number lands and towns, provided also information that was of objects than woodcuts and contained many blank important for each Christian (indulgences). Using the spaces (which can also be seen in O. Finé’s map of example of a 17 t h century navigational map by F. de France of 1561). Maps printed until mid 19 t h c e n t u r y , Wit, it has been demonstrated what great attention the sheets of the G.D. Reymann’s map were dis - cartographers have attached to graphical decor a t i o n s cussed which provide a good example of several that made the map more attractive even if they stages of miniaturisation of cartographic signs and contributed nothing new to the geographical content. lettering paired with the gradually increasing density At the same time, it has been proved that as far as of presence of topo graphic objects. The effects of embellishment was concerned the engraver’s skills cartographers’ work visible in the map’s content have ‘went hand in hand’ with the cartographer’s ins uf- also helped to demonstrate the expectations of users ficient attachment to detail. of old maps (private persons and institutions). Al - The comparison of the woodcut maps of the Czech t h o u g h t he Europeans’ needs changed over the Lands, Hungary, Poland, as well as France from the centuries, publishing houses for maps and atlases beginning of the 16 t h century demonstrated a similar continued to flourish which means that they were scope of their content and a similar image density successful in satisfying users’ expectations. while a variety of graphic signs and typefaces were Translated by K.D. Diehl

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