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The Mediterranean Melting Pot: Commerce and Cultural Exchange in Antiquity

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The Mediterranean Melting Pot: Commerce and Cultural Exchange in Antiquity The Mediterranean Melting Pot: Commerce and Cultural Exchange in Antiquity By the Bronze Age (ca. 3000–1100 BCE), the great sea-faring cultures of the Greek mainland, the Aegean, and Crete were already trading with Egypt and the Near East, as the archaeological record fully attests. By the 7th century BCE, the Greeks had cast their commercial net even wider, ultimately encircling the Mediterranean with colonies that stretched as far west as Spain, across North Africa, and through western Asia and south Russia. The result was an expansive nexus of towns and cities that traded in oil, wine, marble, and luxury goods such as perfumes, silk, ivory, gemstones, and precious metals. In the aftermath of Alexander’s conquests, and during the subsequent Roman Empire, the trade network expanded even further, sprawling into central Asia, India, and Arabia. Along with the unprecedented movement of material goods, new ideas and customs continuously swept the Graeco-Roman world, particularly influencing the religious realm, which saw foreign gods admitted to the Graeco-Roman pantheon. Fantastic creatures such as sphinxes and griffins, as well as other exotic motifs, were also imported and began to populate the arts. Coinage, introduced in the 6th century BCE, revolutionized commerce and replaced old bartering systems. The Mediterranean Melting Pot: Commerce and Cultural Exchange in Antiquity examines material evidence for commercial and cultural interchange in the ancient Mediterranean during the apogee of Graeco-Roman civilization, which spans more than a 1,000 year period. Representative objects include coinage, perfume bottles, wine, oil, and transport vessels, religious iconography, marbles, luxury goods, and various other objects illuminating the history of this commercial and cultural exchange. Money The invention of coinage around 600 BCE in ancient Lydia revolutionized commerce and replaced old bartering systems. The use of coins rapidly swept the Mediterranean, and many cities began minting their own identifying coinage. Portrait heads of Greek and Roman rulers would later replace many of the older images and these formed the prototype for today’s coins. Nomisma, the Greek word for money, derives from the Greek word nomos, meaning law. Aristotle [Nicomachean Ethics] explains this etymology and how money’s value could be manipulated: “...demand has come to be conventionally represented by money; this is why money is called nomisma, because it does not exist by nature but by law (nomos), and we have the power to alter it or even render it useless …” When merchants or others traveled, it was often necessary to exchange foreign money for the local currency, which required a trip to the moneychanger. Coins were assessed by type, condition, and possible counterfeiting. Assayer weights and other methods might be used to meet local standards. If the coins were accepted, they were held as a deposit. Visitors could then withdraw the equivalent amount in local currency and attend to their business. Afterward, money could be changed back into the visitor’s currency, but an interest rate would be charged on this exchange. 1. Globular Jar with Barbotine Decoration Roman, late 1st or 2nd c. CE Allegedly from Palestine Pottery (70.197) The raised dots and curling tendrils on this jar are known as “barbotine” decoration, which was made from a thick slip applied through a pointed tube. The shape of the jar and its decoration are most closely related to types from central France. If this jar was made in ancient Gaul, it had a long journey to Palestine and represents one of a very few examples of Gaulish pottery from that region. 2. Denarii of the Roman Emperors Vespasian, Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus, and Caracalla Roman, 1st c. CE–2nd c. CE Silver (72.73, 68.352, 87.100, 68.341, 65.85, 68.345, 68.358, 68.346, 68.370, 69.537, 68.368, 69.570, 68.339, 68.371, 67.89, 69.594, 75.34, 68.365, 68.338, 68.356, 67.96, 67.95, 64.65.3, 67.97, 57.715) The denarius was the most common type of Roman silver coin for many years of the Empire, and it would have been a common sight in commerce from east to west. 3–6. Inscribed and Monogrammed Weights Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Ca. 3rd c. BCE–6th c. CE Bronze and lead (85.6, 68.325, 68.310, 68.412) Flat bronze and lead weights such as these were used for assaying multiple quantities of coins. The weight with the zebu equals one-quarter of a mna, which was equivalent to 25 drachmas in the Hellenistic East. The Greek letters delta and lambda (ΔΛ) on the lead weight (allegedly from Gaza) indicate a system that was used to assay the weight of Phoenician drachmas. The Byzantine example with a cruciform monogram weighs two ounces and assayed the weight of 12 gold nomismata (a Byzantine coin type, but also the general Greek word for “money”). The other Byzantine example, inscribed with a gamma and an alpha (ΓΑ), weighs one ounce, the equivalent of six gold nomismata. Known legislation reflects continuing efforts to standardize measures by distributing weights throughout the Greek, Roman, and Byzantine empires. Luxury Goods The Roman historian Pliny wrote in the first century CE that 100,000 sesterces annually were spent by Rome’s elite on exotic goods from China, India, and Arabia alone. “That is the sum our luxuries and what our women cost us,” he quipped sarcastically. Before Pliny’s time, the Greeks were already trading with foreign lands for precious materials. As Rome formed its great Empire, the demand for luxuries by the wealthy increased to staggering proportions, as Pliny reports. The most sought after luxury items were precious metals, gems, and ivory. Gold had near magical connotations since it did not degrade or tarnish. Elephant ivory, prized for its beauty and ease of carving, came from Asia and Africa. Among the favorite gemstones were emeralds from central Asia and Egypt; rubies, pearls, sapphires, and garnets from India. Agate, sardonyx, and rock crystal from Egypt and India were also carved into gems and sumptuous vessels. The Baltic Sea area was known for the prized fossilized tree resin amber, used in jewelry as well. Oddly enough, there was no interest in diamonds since they are colorless. Other precious objects included exquisite glass vessels, which could be colored with precious minerals or embellished with gold or silver. 1. Necklace Greek Gold and sapphire (46:1924) Lent by The Saint Louis Art Museum 2. Necklace Greek or Roman Turkey Glass and lapis lazuli (82.276) Weinberg Fund In antiquity, lapis lazuli came from the mountains of Afghanistan, today in the Badakhshan region. Those mines have been worked for over 6,000 years. 3. Necklace Greek or Scythian, 4th c. BCE Gold and pearl (388:1923) Lent by The Saint Louis Art Museum 4. Pendant Roman, 1st c. BCE Gold, onyx, garnet, chrysoprase [or emerald] (115:1954) Lent by The Saint Louis Art Museum 5. Pair of Bracelets with Serpent-Head Terminals Greek, ca. 500 BCE Silver and bronze (64.68) 6. Bracelet with Isis Bust Terminals Greek, 300–100 BCE Egypt Gold (84.AM.851) Lent by the J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu 7. Pair of Earrings 8. Pair of Earrings Roman, 2nd–3rd c. CE Roman, 2nd–3rd c. CE Turkey Turkey Gold, glass and stone (85.51a-b) Gold and glass (85.50a-b) Weinberg Fund Weinberg Fund 9. Hoop Earring with Antelope-Head Finial 10. Pair of Earrings nd rd Greek Roman, 2 –3 c. CE Gold (59.73) Turkey Gold and sapphire (85.49a–b) Weinberg Fund 16. Pair of Earrings, Finger Ring, and Anklet Roman, 150-200 CE Gold and garnet (66.300a–d) 14. Ovoid Bead Greek, Hellenistic, 3rd–1st c. BCE Jordan, Irbid Amethyst (77.385) 11. Gem with Bucolic Figure (Shepherd?) Greek, 3rd c. BCE Sardonyx (149.1922) Lent by the Saint Louis Art Museum 12. Gem with Empress Faustina Roman, 2nd c. CE Agate (151.1922) Lent by The Saint Louis Art Museum 13. Gem and mold with Personification of Abundance Roman, 1st c. CE Carnelian (150.1922) Lent by The Saint Louis Art Museum Mesomphalic Phiale (offering dish with depression or “navel” in the middle) Persian, late 6th–early 5th c. BCE Silver (43:2005) Lent by the St. Louis Art Museum Partial and promised gift of Wunsch Foundation, Inc. Assyrian reliefs show mesomphalic phialai being used as drinking vessels, though the size of this one may preclude that function. From Assyria, the shape passed to the Persians. It was copied again by the Greeks and thus shows a long, continuous history across three cultures. Such vessels were made of bronze, glass, or luxury metals like gold and silver. 15. Pair of Fibulae Etruscan, 7th–6th c. BCE Bronze, amber, gold (31:1954/1–2) Lent by The Saint Louis Art Museum Like gemstones, the fossilized tree resin known as amber was treasured in the ancient world. It was often fashioned into beads or inlaid into other types of jewelry. Though other sources were known, the historian Pliny cited the Baltic Sea area as a source for quantities that were imported into the Mediterranean. These elaborate cloak pins combine bronze, gold, and amber, and were undoubtedly worn by a very wealthy individual. Foot with Military Sandal Roman, ca. 50 BCE–150 CE Ivory (227:1923) Lent by the Saint Louis Art Museum Elephant ivory had been imported to the Mediterranean since the Bronze Age, and continued to symbolize wealth and luxury down through the Roman Empire and beyond. The sandal type indicates this foot probably belonged to a lavish memorial for a military hero, rather than a mythological figure or god.
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