/ ’S INTERPRETATION OF TRISTRAM

BY

MARY EDNA MOLSEED 'r

A THESIS

Submitted to the Faculty of The Creighton University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of E n g l i s h

OMAHA, 1937

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

F O R E W O R D ...... i

I. AN INTRODUCTION TO ROBINSON ...... 1

II. THE POSSIBLE ORIGIN OF THE TRISTRAM

L E G E N D ...... 13

III. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRISTAN

STORY BY THOMAS ...... 19

IV. LATER VERSIONS OF TRISTRAM ...... 24

V. ROBINSON'S INTERPRETATION OF TRISTRAM ...... 33

BIBLIOGRAPHY 44 i

FOREWORD

■ The third great epic, Tristram, which was to complete the Arthurian trilogy, so majestically and movingly in­ terpreted the world-famous medieval romance that the out­ standing excellences of Robinson's verse, thus far ignored by the large reading public, forced themselves into recognition, and he, after thirty years' patient waiting and unflagging trust in his own genius, at last was greeted with universal applause. Although America in the interval had witnessed an exceptional efflorescence of good poetry, he was hailed, not only as the dean, but as the prince of American bards.*

The writer, who considers this statement as valid, bases her thesis on the premise that Robinson did appeal to the modem reader. She aims, first, through a study of the poet in general, to show how he appealed to the public. Because Tristram is classed as a medieval character, she will consider the possible origin of the story. Since a number of authors of note have pre­ sented the character, Tristram, it will be necessary to consider how they interpreted this character. Then, it will be necessary to show whether Robinson contributed anything new to the interpre­ tation of Tristram. C H A P T E R I

AN INTRODUCTION TO ROBINSON

The task of writing the introduction to King Jasper, the volume containing the last efforts of Edwin Arlington Robinson, fell to his contemporary, . He states:

Robinson has gone to his place in American literature and left his human place among us vacant. We mourn, but with the qualifications, that, after all, his life was a revel in felicities of language and not just to no purpose. None has deplored:

"The inscrutable profusion of the Lord Who shaped as one of us a thing"

So sad and at the same time, so happy in achievement. It is not for me to search his sadness to its source. He knew how to forbid encroachment.^

Most biographers touch upon Robinson's aloofness. The world knew his poetry, but few except his intimate friends knew much concerning the man, Robinson. One of his oldest friends,

Laura E, Richards, the daughter of Harriet Beecher Stowe, and her­ self a writer, has since his death supplied some of this infor­ mation. She states that he came of good Puritan stock. The

Robinsons were "Kent folk" and some of them came to this country / in search of liberty. Two Robinson brothers settled in about 1760. His mother was a descendant of Thomas Dudley, some­ time Lieutenant Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. One of

E. Edwin Arlington Robinson, King Jasper, xv. 2

the Dudleys married a Bradstreet. Anne 3radstreet, the poetess, was an ancestor of the poet, 3

"E. A.” was the third son of the Robinson family. His parents could not decide upon the name, so a group of ladies at a

summer hotel supplied the name by each writing a choice and placing it in a hat. A drawing followed, and the name, Edwin, contributed by a woman from Arlington, Massachusetts, was drawn. He was not fond of the name, Edwin Arlington, and seldom used it in full.

His friends in childhood called him "Win". In later years, his friends simplified his title to "E. A.". He liked that best. 4

She mentions the bookish taste of the family. At five he was reading "The Raven", and at seven he was discovering the sound

of Shakespeare. He and his father were continually reading

Bryant’s Library of Poetry. At eleven he was writing verses ; a n d at sixteen, Laura Richards feels that he had decided that this was 5 his mission in life.

His grammar school teacher, now Mrs. Charles Seabury of

Boonton, Hew Jersey, says:

He was a highly sensitive child, looking at the world objectively, for the most part, and quick to observe the humor in everything. But I had no more idea that he was an embryo poet than he had.®

3. Laura E. Richards, IS. A. R., 4 4. I b i d ., 5.

5. Ibid., 7.

6. Ibid., 8 3

Across the street from Robinson lived Augustus Jordan, a boyhood friend, -whose father was an old sea captain with many stories to tell. Jordan and his vessel were lost. Captain Craig 7 is probably Captain Jordan. His poem, "Pasa Thalassa Thalassa"

(The sea is everywhere the sea) is an account of that passing:

Cone — faded out of the story, the seafaring friend, I remember, Gone for a decade, they say: never a word or sign. Gone with his hard red face that only his laughter could wrinkle, ^ Down where men go to be still, by the old way of the sea.

Blankenship, in speaking of Robinson's debt to older liter­ ature, says, "Hardy and Crabbe are his acknowledged masters, and he has a warm admiration for Zola."® Mrs. Richards states, how­ ever, that she has a letter written in 1929 in which the poet says:

You are entirely wrong about my being steeped in Zola and Hardy when I was young. When I was young I read mostly Dickens, dime novels (which cost five cents), Elijah Kellogg, Harry Castlemon, Oliver Optic, Horatio Alger, Bulwer Lytton, Thackeray, and Bryant's Library of Poetry and Song. When I wrote that rather pinfeat'he'rTsh Zola sonnet, I had read only L'Assommoir, and I have read only one of his books since then.-^

"Isaac and Archibald" undoubtedly were childhood ac­ quaintances. The biographer does not identify them, but the

7. Ibid., 10.

8. Edwin Arlington Robinson, Collected Poems, 335.

9. Russell Blankenship, American Literature, 584.

10 Laura £. Richards, op. oit., 14 4

poet s a y s :

Isaac and Archibald were two old men. I knew them, and I may have laughed at them A little; but I must have honored them ^ For they were old, and they were good to me.

Robinson completed his high school course in 1888. A classmate wrote of him:

If I were called upon to name the quality most clearly apparent in this lovable youth, I should not hesitate to say, patience! patience, and an unruffled good humor. The forbearance of strength and a high courage was his. I do not believe that such a nature could harbor unhappi­ n e s s ...... His reserve was fostered by no grudging re­ luctance to widen his circle of acquaintance, but rather by the need to preserve his freedom for the prodiguous task which, it seemed, he had already envisaged and ac­ cepted.

Fullerton Waldo, a classmate at Harvard, mentions his 13 passion for seclusion. Lucius Beebe, too, notes reserve and restraint as one of his personal characteristics. He calls him,

"The Dignified Faun" who devoted himself to art alone. He men-

tions that he refused to read his poetry in public and never spoke

concerning his works at clubs of literary meetings.^

His first book of poetry, The Children of the Night, ap­

peared in 1897. The poet was then living in New York, earning a

living from numerous small jobs and writing poetry in his spare

11. E. A. Robinson, Collected Poems, 169.

12. Laura E. Richards, op. oit., 28.

13. Fullerton Waldo, "Some Memories of a Poet in the Making", The Outlook, CXIX, 531-34 (Nov. 30, 1923).

14. Lucius Beebe, "The Dignified Faun", The Outlook, CLV, 647-49, (August 27, 1930). 5

time. He had at this time left Harvard after two years of school-

1 5 ing, because of financial difficulties. Captain Craig, which appeared in 1897, attracted the attention of President Roosevelt.

The President inquired about him and found that he was taking tickets in a subway. He secured a position for him in the Customs in New York. The position was one that provided a livelihood, but 16 did not tax the strength of the poet. President Roosevelt con­ tinued that interest in the poet. He called the attention of the reading public to his poetry in 1905. His success, however, did not come easily. Mrs. Richards mentions that the poet recalled once that he believed that his rejection slips must have been the 1 ft largest and most comprehensive in literary history.

The early years brought heavy sorrow to his life. In

1896, his mother died of black diptheria. Fear of the disease was so intense that all but her sons failed her. The boys nursed her, and after her death, had to place her in the coffin. Years later the poem, "To a Dead Lady", was written in memory of her.

15. Charles Cestre, op. oit., 1-2.

16. Lloyd Morris, The Poetry of Edwin Ariington Robinson, 115.

17. , "Roosevelt Reviews the Children of the Night", The Outlook, LXXX, 913-14, (August, 1906).

18. Laura E. Richards, op. oit., 38-39. 6

Ho more with overflowing light Shall fill the eyes that now are faded, Nor shall another’s fringe with night Their woman-hidden world as they did. No more shall quiver down the days The flowing wonder of her ways, Whereof no language may requite The shifting and the many-shaded.^

Mrs. Richards mentions many vicissitudes which made his early life difficult. He suffered from severe ear infection which resulted in a life long handicap of partial deafness. Death claimed his two brothers. One left a family which E. A. R. as- sisted materially throughout his life. 20 The poet himself stated „ 21 that he was Aunt Imogen revealed or concealed.

One friend who contributed materially to the publication of

The Children of the Eight was John Hays Gardiner. At his death, he bequeathed to the poet a substantial legacy.22

There were two places in which the poet resided during the greater part of his lifetime, B w York and Petersborough, New 23 Hampshire. The Petersborough residence was at the MacDowell

Colony. He found there ideal conditions for uninterrupted creative

19. Edwin Arlington Robinson, Collected Poems, 355.

20. Laura E. Richards, op. cit., 42-44.

21. Ibid., 55.

22. Ibid., 53. •

23. Lloyd Morris, op. cit., 116. 7

activity.24

His sonnets and shorter selections are generally considered his b e s t poetry.Robert Frost considered restraint and humor among his qualities. He states:

Nevertheless, I say his much admired restraint lies in his never having let grief go further than it could in play, so far shall grief go, so far shall philosophy go, and no further. Taste may set the limit. Humor is a surer dependence. His own was a happy skill. His theme was unhappiness itself, but his skill is as happy as it is playful.26

In 1902, Robinson wrote to Mrs. Richards:

The funny parts will not be apparent to those who have had too much of the sunny side of life, and they will wonder why it seems so queer when they try, as they will, to take it seriously. This is the difficulty (or possibly the vital advantage) of being born a co- median under the wrong (or again possibly the best) conditions.2^

In a discussion of American humor, Constance Rourke dis­ cusses Robinson:

* For companions in the legendary village of Tilbury Town, he has chosen types recurrent throughout early American comedy, ne’er-do-wells, liars, the quirky, the large-hearted, and lost spendthrifts of time and money and love. Robinson is master'of that unobtrusive irony that has belonged to the Yankee. .... A reticent humor runs through most of Robinson’s poetry, so quietly to

24. Edwin Arlington Robinson, "The Petersborough Idea", North American Review, cciv, 448-454, (September, 1916).

25. , "Again 0 Ye Laurels", New Republic, LXXVI, 312-13, (October 25, 1935).

26. Edwin Arlington Robinson, King Jasper, xii.

27. Laura E. Richards, op. cit., 55. 8

pass unnoticed by many readers, yet producing a constant lighting and relief and change, with a balancing of forces against impending tragedy.^8

Theodore Maynard calls this expression of humor, irony, when he states:

Irony — the profoundest expression of humor is to be found as the motif, rather than as a quality running throughout his work. If he does not preach because he is a humorist, so also his infinite charity springs out of his ironic philosophy.^9

Another quality of Robinson, lies in his ability to ana­ lyze character. Cestre oalls this quality a Jamesian manner of psychological analysis.^* Cavender* s House is a study of the troubled conscience of a man who has committed murder. The Glory of the Nightingales is another mental study of a man who has suf­ fered wrongs from a one-time friend, who now -wants revenge. King

Jasper, his last composition, is a study of a man -who has usurped a kingdom from his best friend, robbing a son of his birthright.

Conscience and fear drive him to insanity. Constance Rourke speaks of his ability to analyze character:

Character is, of course, Robinson's great subject, seen in legendary aspects, though the nationalistic bias, which often warped an earlier approach, is now gone. His main concern has been with these elements of the mind, which have made an almost continuous American preoccupation,.

28. Constance Rourke, American Humor, 271-72.

29. Theodore Maynard, Our Best Foets, 155.

30. Charles Cestre, "Talents of Mr. Robinson", The Nation, cxxxi, 382, (October 8, 1930). 9

She mentions that his poetry gives the reader only touches of land­ scape, few details of setting, and mere glimpses of the appearance of his people. He concerns himself with the conflict that takes place within the mind or among a group of minds. Many of his works are psychological narratives in poetry.

Cestre probably gives the fairest estimate of the poet when he s a y s :

As a cultured man and a well balanced thinker, he is neither a mystic nor a sceptic, neither a romantic dreamer nor a morose pessimist, but an observer of the facts of the spirit, as well as of physical realities, who knows man’s limitations and weaknesses and yet believes in man’s destiny and in life’s ideal completion .°

Mr. Redman takes the same view:

Neither in spirit, nor intention nor production, has he ever belonged to any definable movement, for his is not the temperament that blossoms in the forcing atmos­ phere of cliques and coteries. With those who would name him proluoutor of , I would argue: but in his aloof self-respect, his dignified independence, he is a Yankee. Provincial, Edwin A. Robinson never was. He aped the romantic ardor, no more than he affected the romantic c o l l a r ...... When he looked at nature it was not through Wordsworth’s eyes; and the waters on Dover’s Beach told him nothing of the "turbid ebb and flow of human misery", that he had not already learned from the rising and re­ ceding tides of Maine. The sources from which he drank deepest were so old as to be the property of none. Natu­ rally, and without self-consciousness, he accepted the heritage of a great tradition, that bid a poet stand squarely on his own feet and view the world of men with the candid vision of a Hesiod or a Chaucer.

31. Constance Rourke, op. cit., 272-273.

32. Charles Cestre, op. cit., 55.

33. Ben Ray Redman, Edwin Arlington Robinson, 10-11. 10

Cestre answers the question as to whether Robinson is a m odernists

Robinson, as a poet, deserves to be styled a modern classicist, because he combines in harmonious union, the old time qualities of intellectual acumen, broad humanity, universal appeal, decorum, sense of proportion and art of composition, with powers more recently developed as means of literary expressions Imaginative coloring, sensuous richness, suggestive foreshortenings and word melody. A survey of his work yields impression of wealth of vision and felicity of technique, together with a concern for what is most human in mans preference for the general sub­ ordination of sensation to sensibility and sensationalism to sense, propriety and reserve...all which remind us of ancient Greece and Rome, and of the Augustan age in France and in England. .... The personal, modern and American flavor of his observations inserts itself with the most natural suitableness into a reading of life and character that will last for ages.34

The poet is often criticized for his obscurity*

Untermeyer gives this explanation:

Usually Robinson is not only economic but actually closefisted with his clipped phrases; sometimes in his desire to get rid of excess verbiage, he throws away every­ thing but the meaning — gtnd keeps that to himself. He is often like a sculptor who takes an old statue and, in order to give it fresh vitality, cuts away the insipid ornaments...that spoil a simple outline. But having re­ moved the irritating fripperies, Robinson goes further. In an effort to get below the superficials, he occasionally cuts so far below the surface that he actually sacrifices the stark outline that he was most anxious to ke e p . 35

Another frequent criticism of the poet is that he deals with the failures of mankind. Untermeyer calls it "an affection

34. Charles Cestre, op. cit., 5-6.

35. Louis Untermeyer, American Poets Since 1900, 43-44.

4 11

for ’inferior Wraiths’." He recalls that while many writers of the age laud the successful man, he, at least, lifts the failure. SR

This aspect .of the poet is often used in arguing that he is a pessimist. However, life viewed only from the materialistic view­ point can scarcely present a much brighter picture. Richard Cory is one example of a character who possesses worldly goods but lacks 37 the inner spiritual light. Flammonde, though he lacks worldly wealth, is rich in things of the spirit:

What was he, when we came to sift His meaning, and to note the drift Of incommunicable ways That make us ponder while we praise? Why was it that his charm revealed Somehow the surface of a shield? What was it that we never caught? What was he, and what was he not?

How much it was of him we met We cannot ever know; nor yet Shall all he gave us quite atone For what was his, and his alone; Nor need we ribw, since he knew best, Nourish an ethical unrest: Rarely at once will nature give The power to be Flammonde and live. °

Cestre dwells upon this quality. He feels that the poet

realizes the splendor of our higher nature and is sadly sensitive

of our inability to reach the height of our aspirations. He,calls

36. Ibid., 49.

37. Ibid., 47.

38 Edwin Arlington Robinson, Collected Poems, 5-6 12

the poets

One who, while worshipping the eternal truths, re­ S states them in terms of the spirit of the age, in full sympathy.with its justifiable and fruitful novelties,

S'

39. Charles Cestre, op. cit., 33 C H A P T E R II

THE POSSIBLE ORIGIN OF THE TRISTRAM LEGEND

The Tristram story may, or may not be a part of the Ar­ thurian Legend, but nevertheless it is a Celtic story. The Celts were a warlike race, who originally lived near the source of the

Danube River. They spread their domination by conquest and by peaceful infiltration over Mid-Europe, Gaul, Spain, and the British

Isles. They imposed upon the inhabitants of these regions their language, arts, and traditions. Evidently they were the ruling class, but probably they did not have strength enough to hold the conquered lands, and they lost most of the territory, with the ex­ ception of Gaul and Brittany. Vihen the Romans conquered the

British Isles and Gaul, the Celts living in the lands now known as

England and France were conquered. The Romans did not visit

Ireland, so the Celts preserved their independence there until the

40 twelfth century.

Because the legend of Tristram was either a part of the

Arthur story, or developed in the same manner as the Arthurian

legend, the writer includes a study of the growth of this legend.

The earliest extant mention of Arthur is to be found in the works

of Nennius, who wrote about 800 A. D. He derives his authority

from ancient monuments and writings of Brittany and Ireland, and

40. T. W. Rolleston, Myths and Legends of the Celtic Race, 18-35. 14

from the -writings of the Saints. According to Nennius, Arthur was a talented military officer, chosen by his people to fight against _ „ 41 the Saxons. .

Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his history of Brittany, based on legendary material, commemorated the deeds of Arthur, who lived about 500 A. D. He ultimately conquered all Brittany, except

Ireland, Norway, Gaul, and Dacia. He tells that Modred usurped

Arthur’s throne and wedded his queen, and that Arthur in his last battle in Cornwall slew Modred. Arthur was carried off to the

"isle of Avalon to be cured, and the rest is silence.” Geoffrey's work had little value as a history, but it has proved to be a splendid source for poets and chroniclers.^

While the story of Arthur has become a part of the English tradition, it seems to have appeared first in France. The En­ cyclopedia Brittanica supplies the theory that the British who fled ” • before the Teutonic and Scandinavian invasions of the sixth to the eighth centuries carried with them to Brittany a remembrance of

Arthur and his deeds, which in time became interwoven with Breton tradition. It survived on the French side of the Channel and came to be known by the Northern French poets — notably Cretien de

Troyes (1150-1190). Professor Wendelin Forster, of Bonn, states

41. Ibid., 336-37.

42. Ibid., 337-38. 15

43 that there were no Arthurian romances previous to Cretien.

There is also a theory that this tradition was preserved in Wales and communicated by bards to the Homan conquerors.

These stories were worked into poems by the Anglo-Normans and car­ ried to the Continent. There is external evidence to support this theory — a manuscript in the British Museum by a Wauchier de

Denain, who quotes as authority a certain Bleheris, who, he states, was born and died in Wales. French scholars identify Bleheris with Breri, whom Thomas mentions as the authority of the Tristram 44 story.

A poetess known as Marie of France, made copious use of

British materials and addressed herself to a king, supposed to have been Henry VI. Her twelve lais, which celebrate the adven­ tures of the Knights of the Round Table, are among the finest rel­ ics of the middle ages. The order of her compositions is as f o l l o w s :

1. The Saint Graal 2. M e r l i n 3. Lancelot 4. The Quest of the Saint Graal 5. The Mort Artus 6. The Adventures of Tristram or Tristan.^®

43. Jessie L. Weston, "Arthurian Legends", Encyclopedia Brittanioa, II, 681-684.

44. Ibid., 684.

45. Anne C. Lynch Botta, Handbook of Universal Literature, 465 16

According to Macculloch, the outburst of Arthurian romance by the Anglo-Norman writers belongs to the end of the twelfth and the beginning .of the thirteenth century, opening with the writings 46 of Marie of France.

Mention has been made of the writings of Thomas, the Anglo-

Norman. There are still in existence five manuscripts, comprising fragments of his poem "Tristan" which have been translated by an

Oxford soholar, Dorothy Leigh Sayers. This translation was com­ pleted under the direction of George Saintsbury. He gives the essential chapters of the story:

1. The Combat with Morholt. 2. The Mission to Ireland for Medical Purpose. 3. The Love Philtre. 4. The Sacrifice of Brangwain. 5. The Sword Scene. 6. The Exile of Tristan and his Marriage to the Other Iseult. 7. The Result - the Death of the two Lovers.

The translator gives the opinion that the poem was written about the middle of the twelfth century. Mark is represented as King of all England. Miss Sayers mentions the singing quality of the verse and the writer's skill as a psychologist. Thomas, however, because of his coarseness and frankness, does not rank as highly / as Cretien de Troyes. A writer, Robert of Norway, translated this work into Norwegian, and Gottfried von Strassburg of Germany used

46. John Arnott Macculloch, Mythology of All Races, 13 Vol., (Celtic) III, 195. 17

47 it as the foundation of his poem. Wagner in turn used Gottfried 48 von Strassburg's work as the foundation of his musical drama.

The next phase of the legend developed in the latter half of the fifteenth century, when Caxton printed the Mort d ’Arthur of

Sir Thomas Malory. Malory was probably a native of Warwickshire, a gentleman and a soldier who fought in the War of the Roses. He acknowledged the use of French sources in his book. Caxton printed it in 1485. Robert Shafer states that Malory seems to have chosen the stories that he liked best. The early history of 50 the Graal is missing from his work.

Brother Leo recommends the writings of Sir Thomas Malory as splendid reading, when he says, "indeed there are many lovers of Arthurian Romance who prefer Malory's prose to Tennyson's verse."

We are deeply indebted to these early writers who have transmitted the spirit of their age in legend to later generations.

A great work of art is never old fashioned; because it expresses in final form some truth about human nature,

47. Dorothy Leigh Sayers, Tristan in Brittany, vii-xxvii. &

48. Jessie L. Weston, op. cit., 294.

49. Brother Leo, English Literature, 105-106.

50. Robert Shafer, From Beowulf to Hardy, I, 143.

51. Brother Leo, oj>. cit., 106 18

and human nature never changes — in comparison with its primal elements, the mountains are ephemeral. CHAPTER III

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRISTAN STORY BY THOMAS

Undoubtedly the works of Cretein de Troyes and of Thomas

Malory rank higher than the Thomas Story. The writer was unable to find a complete story of either of these authors, and from ne­ cessity has chosen the writings of Thomas, as translated by Miss

Sayers. A modern French writer, Joseph Bedier (1905), has re­ constructed in prose the parts of the story that were lost. Miss

Sayers acknowledges the use of his translation wherever the' Thomas version is missing.®^

Thomas does not claim the authorship of the story, for he s t a t e s :

Lords, here be many tales diverse Which I unite in this my verse I tell the tale, that seems the best, And simply put aside the rest, Nor, since the conflict here is such, Attempt to reconcile too much. For among those that sang of old And this fair tale of Tristan told Here there is great discrepancy. Many have told this tale to me. I know each story that they tell And everything they wrote as well, But, yet, to judge from all I*ve heard, Many depart from Breri’s word, Who knew the gestes and chroniclings Of all the courts of all the kings That lived of old in Brittany.54 5354

53. Dorothy Leigh Sayers, op. cit., xxxiv.

54. Ibid., 186-187. 20

The central theme is the struggle between love and fate.

Thomas presents this theme, and like every story teller, he mirrors his age in the minor details. It is the age of romance, but the characters found in the myths, fables, and fairy stories, have left their imprint. It pictures a Christian age, but a reader can rec­ ognize some pagan influences.

Tristan is the accomplished hero of knightly romance.

Bedier gives this account of his foster father's training:

He gave him a good master, who taught him seven arts and seven branches of music and to speak several languages. He learned also to ride and fence and fight as became a nobleman and to hunt and chase, so that never was youth more skilled in venery. Moreover he was versed in all games that are played in kings' courts, and in the laws and customs of government. Each day he waxed in beauty and virtue, for he was richly gifted by nature.55

Brother Leo states that the Middle Ages had their quota of splendid sinners and that the people of this age were imbued with the "Catholic principle which u*rged them to hate sin, while loving the sinner".56 Tristan is that type of a sinner. In striking contrast to Tristan is Mark, an honest and trusting figure. It is the gossip of his court that finally causes him to banish

Tristan.

The portion of the story that deals with Tristan's visit to Ireland "for medical purpose", introduces Iseult as one skilled

55. Ibid., 44.

56. Brother Leo, English Literature, 509. in the art of healing:

She knew every secret of herbs and medicines; she knew the antidotes to all poisonous draughts and poisoned weapons; there was no physioian on earth so cunning as she.57 5859

Judging from this version, however, Iseult is a very coarse, de­ ceitful person. A portion of her characterization must have been developed in pagan days when women were held in low esteem.

One motivating force is a dragon:

Every day it came down into town, spewing out flames and devouring all that came its way. King Gorman (Iseult's father) had made a proclamation, that whoever was brave enough to slay the dragon should have his daughter’s hand in marriage. Many had tried to do so, but all so far perished in the attempt.5^

Tristan, endowed with that superhuman strength common to knights, conquered the dragon. He could have been rewarded with the hand of Iseult, but he had come as Mark's messenger and he dared not accept the king's offer. In the manner of a loyal knight, he thanked the king and said:

"Hearken, sire. The great and puissant King Mark of England sends you this message. He prays you to give him the hand of your daughter, Iseult, in marriage. He will bestow all Cornwall upon her as her dowry, and she shall reign with him over all England; and there shall be peace and good-will between England and Ireland."^9

The love philtre, which was to assure lasting peace between

57. Ibid., 60-61.

58. Ibid., 65.

59. Ibid., 73. 22

Brittany and Ireland is another motif commonly found in stories of this age.

But the queen, her mother, brewed by her magic art a won­ drous philtre of many strange flowers and herbs. She made it such that no living man and woman might drink thereof together but they should love one another with an enduring love, until their lives should end. And she poured the philtre into a little flasket and gave it to a young maid called Brangwain, that was to accompany Iseult to Cornwall.

Now as they sailed the sun shone and the weather was hot and oppressive. Tristan, therefore, grew thirsty and called for wine. One of his pages ran to fetch it. .... Thus were they betrayed by that subtle potion; thus did the error of a little page doom them to a life of sorrows and griefs, of endless torments and joys unspeak­ able.60

The plot unfolds, revealing the secret meetings of the lovers, aided by Brangwain. Finally, their duplicity is discov­ ered, and Tristan leaves Mark's court. In Brittany he marries

Iseult of the White Hand, but he cannot forget the other Iseult.

When Tristan is wounded, a knight journeys to Cornwall to bring

Queen Iseult that she may heal his wounds. The messenger promises to indicate the success of his errand by flying a white sail. A black sail was to signify failure. Tristan's wife, who overheard these plans, reported that she saw a black sail. Tristan loses hope and dies.

Writers of this age did not strive to give their readers a realistic solution of their problems. They heightened tragedy by

60. Ibid., 75-76 23

causing a lover to die when the recipient of his affections passed away. Thomas follows this plan. Iseult of Ireland, hearing that Tristan is dead, expires:

Close at his side she dieth thus For lover's grief most piteous Sir Tristan died for longing great Iseult because she came too late. All for love's sake did Tristan die And fair Iseult for misery.^

In this chapter, the writer has attempted to give a fair appraisal of Thomas and his age. One can very well remark that heroes possessed of such strength as Tristan, magic healers, dwarfs, and love philtres have lost their force in motivating stories in our age of science and reason. However, romance always interests people of any age.

/ 61

61. Ibid., 218-219 C H A P T E R IV

LATER VERSIONS OF TRISTRAM

Three Victorian writers, Algernon Swinburne, Alfred Lord

Tennyson, and Matthew Arnold, wrote poetic versions of Tristram,

John Masefield, a modern writer, presented it in drama form.

There are other authors who have written versions of this material.

The writer, however, wishes to limit this study of "Tristram" to

these eminent authors,

Swinburne’s version, "Tristram of Lyonesse", follows the

Thomas version consistently. There is a marked similarity in

characterization. Tristram and Iseult deliberately deceive Mark,

an unsuspecting character. Iseult of Brittany is a jealous wife.

He treats problems of sex in the same manner as the medieval

writer. Love potions, healing with herbs, black sails, and other

external devices motivate the story. He divides it into eight

cantos s

1. The Sailing of the Swallow 2. The Queen's Pleasance 3. Tristram in Brittany 4. The Maiden Marriage 5. Iseult at Tintagal 6. J oyous G a r d 7. The Wife's Vigil 8. The Last Pilgrimage^2

The writer is of the opinion that "Tristram of Lyonesse" 62

62. Algernon Swinburne, The Works of Algernon Swinburne, 332-392 25

is merely the old poem expressed in finer language. Swinburne has caught the romantic spirit in the story, but he has not con­ tributed anything new to the interpretation of the theme or to the

delineation of the characters. Cestre supports the writer in this view. He states:

Swinburne on the whole remained too much a slave of the old tale. The characters are acted upon from out­ side, and we do not feel that Fate, which overpowers them, is made to represent the inner forces of the soul, or the inevitable logic of passion.®®

Cestre mentions that the poet gave promise of motivation

from within in the first canto when he caused love to awaken in

Tristram and Iseult before they drank the potion.®^ The charac­ ters are aboard the "Swallow”. The poet gives the reader Iseult*s musing:

She Thought if God had given her grace to be Man and make way on danger of earth and sea Even such a man she would be.®®

Tristram, too, evidences regard for Iseult. Then the poet intro­

duces the potion, and from that point he speaks of the lovers as

doomed by the potion to suffer from a love that was unending.

Cestre says that had the poet continued to express their internal

reactions, he would have made a happy change. He also criticises *6465

63* Charles Cestre, op. cit., 74-75.

64. Ibid., 74.

65. Algernon Swinburne, op. cit., 344. 26

the love of Tristram and Iseult, because it is the same through numerous adventures. It lacks dynamic power. Its lyric quality would have been suited to a shorter poem than he wrote. 66

Cestre’s criticisms of Swinburne are similar to Brother

Leo's general estimate of him. He says:

He was no thinker, no moralist, no seer. .... He had nothing deep or original to sing about, but he could sing with seductive charm and with a momentarily con­ vincing assumption of genuine passion.

Tennyson's study of Tristram appears in "The Last Tourna­ ment". It is a part of the "Idylls of the King", a series of

Arthurian legends which occupied the poet for nearly a half cen­ t u r y . 666768

The writer includes a short study of the period in which

Tennyson wrote "The Idylls of the King" because it has a bearing upon the poet's interpretation of this theme. The Victorian Age was a period of extensive material and scientific development.

Spirituality, however, was declining. Brother Leo states that this nation was realizing the effects of the Reformation. Men were attempting to develop new philosophies. At Oxford a group of

Anglicans were making an attempt to recapture the spirit of primi- / tive Christianity. No doubt, these philosophical discussions

66. Charles Cestre, op. cit., 74-75.

67. Brother Leo, op. cit., 496.

68. Alfred Lord Tennyson, Poetic and Dramatic Works, 302. 27

interested and affected the poet’s views. His son relates that

Tennyson m s accustomed to meeting Carlyle, Thackeray, Dickens, and Huxley. They talked about "politics, philosophy and es­ pecially on new speculations rife on every side." His reflections on these subjects furnished the matter of his poetry. The writer holds the opinion that Tennyson bemoaned the loss of spirit­ uality in Tristram. He says, "The Glory of the Round Table is no more."

The chronological setting of "The Last Tournament" is in the autumn, with its falling leaves. Pallen states that it is

symbolical of the moral decadence.^

Tennyson compresses the story by presenting Tristram in his

"Last Tournament." He is a contestant for a ruby necklace in a

"Tournament of Dead Innocence." Lancelot awards the trophy. One

gathers from their conversation that they are both equally guilty

in their unlawful loves. Tennyson gives us their conversation:

Hast thou won? Art thou the purest brother? See the hand Where thou takest this is red, to whom Tristram, half plagued by Lancelot's languorous mood, Made answer: Ay, but wherefore toss me this, Like a dry bone tossed to some hungry hound? , 697071

69. Alfred Lord Tennyson, The Coming of Arthur, xvi.

70. Alfred Lord Tennyson, Poetic and Dramatic Works, 425.

71. Conde Benoist Pallen, The Meaning of The Idylls of the King, 94. 28

Let be thy fair Queen’s fantasy. Strength And might of limb, but mainly use and skill Are winners in the pastime of our king.^

Tennyson makes use of symbols to drive home the moral issue.

Why a blood red trophy, as a prize donated by Guinivere in honor of an infant rescued from an eagle's nest? Tristram considers taking the trophy to Iseult of the White Hand, but gives way to his desire to see Queen Isolt. He meets death by Mark's hand 73 while he is presenting the trophy to Isolt of Ireland.

The writer holds the opinion that Tennyson's characteri­ zation of Tristram, Isolt and Mark is incomplete. The reader meets only the depraved Tristram and the sinful Isolt, who excuses her guilt because Mark is a "fiend." His lark is unreal. William.

Rose Benêt supports the writer in this opinion. He says:

Tennyson gives them scant place. He renders them cheap characters. He makes no attempt to treat them with fulness and beauty.^

Instead of developing character, the poet pictures English bowers and countryside. Brother Leo states that he is "too immersed in his own country and his own t i m e . " ^ The writer 72737475

72. Alfred Lord Tennyson, Poetic and Dramatic Works, 425.

73. Ibid., 432-33.

74. William Rose Benêt, "Escort to Leviathan", The Outlook, cxlvi, (June 1, 1927), 158.

75. Brother Leo, op. oit., 510. 29

interprets this remark to mean that Tennyson lacks a certain uni­ versal quality.

Cestre calls his treatment wa weak allegorical treatment

of episodes and characters.” He belittled a noble matter by mak- 76 ing himself a "self-ordained herald of Victorian virtue."

Matthew Arnold’s version of the story, Tristram and Iseult,

also presents Tristram on his death bed. He divides his poem

into three parts:

1. Tristram 2. Iseult of Ireland 3. Iseult of Brittany"^

Arnold condenses the story by presenting Tristram on his

death bed. The reader becomes acquainted with the previous epi­

sodes of his life through the medium of a dream. The poet uses

all of the traditional incidents. Tristram recalls the episodes

of the love draught and the secret trysting with great pleasure.

» He remembers his despair when he became "The love-desperate, ban­

ished knight." He remembers his life with Iseult of Brittany —

restless always. He awakens with the ever present desire to see

Iseult of Ireland.

The poet changes a few details. Iseult of Brittany is / "The sweetest Christian soul alive." Tristram and Iseult have two

children. Tristram reveals a kind attitude toward Iseult and 7677

76. Charles Cestre, op. cit., 68-69.

77. Matthew Arnold, Poetical Works of Matthew Arnold, 138-165 30

evidences interest in his children. Iseult of Ireland arrives in time to console Tristram. They resolve never to part. Both mention that Iseult of Brittany will understand their plight.

Iseult of Ireland dies with Tristram. The lovers die at the end of the second episode. These first two episodes are purely ro­ mantic. Frederick Pierce, in a review of Robinson's "Tristram", states that the versions of Arnold and Swinburne are "given over to romantic glamour."7®

The third episode is devoted to "Iseult of Brittany."

She is the traditional Bréton mother. She eases her sorrow by devoting her time to telling her children tales of Breton life that she heard when a child:

They are to her dear as to them} the tales Y/ith which this day the children she beguiled She gleaned from Breton grandames when a child In every hut along the sea coast wild.7^

This episode tells the reader how these traditional tales were passed down to later generations. Arnold was a devotee of the classics. He is indirectly recommending that his readers should recognize the wealth of pleasure in these traditional tales.^

John Masefield has treated the old theme in his play in

78. Frederick E. Pierce, "Four Poets", The Yale Review, xvii, (October, 1928), 177.

79. Matthew Arnold, op. oit., 161.

80. Brother Leo, op. cit., 545. 31

verse, Tristan and Isolt. It was produced in 1927, the same year that Robinson produced his poetic version of the story. The spirit of his play is portrayed in the prologue given by the char­ acter, Destiny:

I am She who began ere Man was begotten, I am deathless, unsleeping; my task is to make Beginnings prosper to glory and crumble to rotten By the deeds of women and men and the ways that they take, I am Apple and snake.

I show Tristan, the prince, in glory beginning, And Isolt, the maid, in her beauty: I show these two Passing from peace into bitter burning and sinning From a love that was lighted of old, I display them anew And the deaths that were due.^1

Brother Leo recalls that when Masefield was a lad, he worked in New York and after a working day he would read himself to sleep over the one book he possessed, Malory’s Morte d1Arthur.

Masefield’s play appears to the writer as a burlesque which shows the crudeness of the Middle Ages. It lacks the reserve of » the Robinson story. The play ends in an epilogue in which Destiny again speaks:

Not as men plan, nor as women pray, do things happen. Unthought of, unseen, from the past, comes the ill without cure; By the spirit of man and the judgment of God it is shapen; And its end is our pride in the dust: it is just: it is s u r e . 8^ 818283

81. John Masefield, Tristan and Isolt, 1. 82. Brother Leo, op. cit., 647.

83. John Masefield, op. cit., 142. 32

Phelps says of Masefield:

Here is a -writer of sustained narrative unscrupulous in the use of language, bursting -with vitality, sacri­ ficing anything and everything that stands in the way of effect.84 '

The writer presented a review of the work of each of the four poets under consideration. She followed it with a criticism supported by a critic’s judgment. In order that the reader may have these points in mind, she offers a summary of these criticisms:

1. Swinburne's version presents the central theme of ro­ mantic love faithfully, but his characters are acted upon by purely external forces. Human qualities are lacking. 2. Tennyson changes the central theme from romantic love to unlawful love. His characterisation presents only one phase of Tristram’s life. 3. Arnold adheres to romance in the central theme. His characters function mainly through a dream. Such characters lack reality. 4. Masefield's theme is romantic love, defeated through blind destiny. His characters belong to the medieval d a y s .

In conclusion, the writer states that none of these poets have presented a complete character actuated by human emotions.

84. William Lyon Phelps, The Advance of English Poetry, 90 C H A P T E R V

ROBINSON'S INTERPRETATION OF TRISTRAM

In Chapter I, the writer discussed some of the qualities of the works of Edwin Arlington Robinson. Because she wishes to apply these qualities to the poem under consideration, she again offers a summary:

1. He has ability to analyze character. 2. His works contain a "sad sagacious, tender note". 3. He has a faith in the destiny of man. 4. Because he analyzes the character of man, he is sensi­ tive to the frailties of mankind. 5. He tempers irony with humor.

It is generally recognized that an author who reproduces a classic faces the responsibility of adhering to certain tra­

ditional truths. He, also, faces the problem of appealing to his o w n age.

Robinson's age is generally considered a transitional period. Mr. Untermeyer states:

We are in the midst of one of those tremendous spirit­ ual upheavals when, as in every crisis, the mind of man, grown more powerful and introspective, flashes into poetry. And the quality of that poetry is human, racy and vigorous; it is not only closer to the soil, but nearer to the soul. Most of our poets have shaken themselves free, first of all from pontifical rhetoric, the tag-end moralizing of our literary doctrinaires. And, as they rid themselves of didacticism, they are growing clear of the tradition of prescribed romanticism.”5 85

85. Louis Untermeyer, op. cit., 6-7. 34

Brother Leo berates the literature of our age in comparison to the Victorian period. He states that ours is a period when

"excellence of style is frowned upon as something affected and artificial," and that "vulgarity and uncouthness are even saluted as evidence of power and originality,"®® Our language is less ornate than the Victorian language because the writers have turned to life for their patterns and they are using the direct speech of o u r day.

The advance of science has increased our knowledge in many fields. Information that was once considered correct is now re­ garded as false. There is a tendency to question the veracity of statements which has developed into a movement toward realism.

A writer gives us a fine example of this condition:

At Dorchester, near Oxford, you’ll find an eighteenth century inscription to a lady who died, a martyr to ex­ tensive sensibility. Ladies do not die of extensive sensibility any longer. The Bureau of Statistics con­ tains no single record of death due to sensibility.®^

There is an interest in the study of psychology. Readers are interested in the functioning of the minds of the characters in a story. Newton Arvin states that "the poet has the air of a psychiatrist."®® 868788

86. Brother Leo, op. oit., 509.

87. Arnold Whitridge, "Changing Fashions in Romance", The North American Review, ccxvi (1928) 195.

88. Newton Arvin, "Our Haughty Poets", Current History, xl, (June, 1934) 308-10. 35

In order to clarify these statements, the writer pauses to summarize some of the tenets of modern poetry:

1. The quality is human, racy and vigorous. 2. There is a tendency to dislike the "over-ornate" lan­ guage. 3. There is a love for the past, but a desire to face the problems of today and tomorrow squarely. 4. The poet "has the air of a psychiatrist". 5. There is a realistic tendency to picture things as t h e y are.

One notes that the characteristics of modern poetry a^nd the chief qualities of Robinson's works are similar. The chief concern of the writer, however, is the traditional tale "Tristram", reproduced by a modern American writer.

Mr. Blankenship states that:

The poet so infused the medieval stories with his own personality, and with the spirit of our modern world, that the age-old legends become finely interpretative of l i f e . 89

Robinson's Tristram evidently pleased the critics and the reading public. , acting in the capacity of editor of the Literary Guild, gives three reasons for choosing it as a

Guild selection for May, 1927, He liked the poem, he liked

Robinson and, as the editor of the Guild, he thought the choice of a writer of his merit would strengthen its position among the literary critics. Robinson had admirers among the discerning few at this time, but he was not widely appreciated. So, the editors

89. Russell Blankenship, op. cit., 584. 36 fearing that the public would not accept their judgment, presented the poem in a public reading. Mrs. August Belmont read it.

Robinson was too shy to attend. Mr. Van Boren says that he re­ minded him that evening of a "Maine pine harried by a tumultuous occasion." The critics were duly impressed, and newspapers all over the nation carried notices of the discovery of a great Ameri­

can poet. The trade edition sold fifty thousand copies in a

short time. Thousands of letters complimenting the author were 90 written by Guild members.

As to the arrangement of the poem, it is divided into ten parts. The writer offers the central idea of each part:

1. Isolt of Brittany hopes for Tristram's return to Brittany. 2. Mark marries Isolt of Ireland at Cornwall. 3. Tristram, too late, openly avows his love. Mark and Tristram quarrel. 4. Mark exiles Tristram. 5. Tristram attempts to forget in Brittany by marrying Isolt of the 'White Hand. 6. The ambition to become a Knight of the Round Table causes Tristram to go to Cornwall. He promises to return to Brittany. 7. Isolt of Ireland and Tristram are reunited at Joyous Guard. 8. Mark takes Isolt, and Tristram’s happiness vanishes. 9. Because Isolt is dying, Mark repents and allows Tristram to return, but the meeting results in death for the lovers. 10. Isolt of Brittany is informed of Tristram's death. She lives disillusioned, and seeking what consolation she can find in her world.

Cestre states that Robinson preserved the prominent 90

90. Carl Van Boren, Three Worlds, 202-7 37

characteristics of the tale, "especially the pathetic love-motive

impersonated in the legendary hero and heroine, and the poignant attitude of sadness, flecked with fleeting flashes of joy."91

The central theme, then, in Robinson's story is the pa­ thetic love of Isolt and Tristram. That is an old theme, but the treatment is new. The poet omits the myth of the love potion be­

cause it would be out of place in a poem based on psychological

truth. says that his poem is a study of love as

it exists in itself. He continues:

There is no magic in this "Tristram", beyond the magic in love itself; that is enough for Robinson, as it should QO be enough for anybody.“

The foundation of the tragedy lies in the fact that Tris­

tram owes a duty to Mark. Robinson says:

A king's son, he had given Himself in honor to another king For gratitude, not knowing what he had given Or seeing what he had done.9^

If he had not given his promise to Mark to escort Isolt to Corn­

wall, he might have been free to follow the dictates of his heart.

Mark Van Doren says:

The tragedy is the tragedy of pure passion pursuing its career in this life which was not organized for passion.

91. Charles Cestre, op. cit., 101.

92. Mark Van Doren, "Tristram", The Forum, LXXVIII, (August, 1927), 312-13.

93. Edwin Arlington Robinson, Tristram, 35. 38

.... Their death is a comment on the inadequacy of the world to contain such lovers.^

The poet changes the episode containing the death of the two lovers. The reader will recall that Thomas had Tristram die of illness and despair when Isolt of Brittany reported the sight of a black sail. Swinburne followed this solution. Arnold changed it slightly by allowing Isolt of Ireland to reach Tristram before he died. In all of these versions, Isolt died to prove her love for Tristram. This solution is inconsistent and im­ possible in the light of modern realism. Tennyson made Mark the agent of death. That is a melodramatic climax. Robinson cre­ ated Andred, a character of low mentality, for this purpose.

Andred champions Mark's cause. Lady Morgan, a jealous woman, who loves Tristram, directs Andred. Robinson shows Mark’s innocence by allowing him to say:

I do n o t k n o w How much there was of Morgan in this last Unhappy work of Andred.

Isolt*s death comes when Tristram dies, but the poet had prepared the reader for it. Mark allowed Tristram to come to his palace because he knew that Isolt could not live. Ihen Tristram

1 came, Isolt said;

"I am not afraid to die Tristram, if you are trying to think of that —

94. Mark Van Boren, loo, oit.

95. Edwin Arlington Robinson, Tristram, 199. 39

Or not to think of that, Why think of it? My oup was running over; and having had all That one life holds of joy, and in one summer, Why should I be a miser crying to God For. more.”96

Cestre states that Robinson’s original solution adds an element of relentless inevitability that provokes pity and terror.®7

Tristram is a fine example of Robinson’s ability to analyze the inner mental struggle. First, he appears disgruntled. He says of Mark:

God knows that I have done for him of late More than army, made of nephews only, Shall ever be fools enough to do again.®^

When he speaks to Isolt, he tries to summon his courage.

He tells her:

Praise God for time, And for such hope of what may come of it As time like this may grant. I could be strong, But to be over-strong now at this hour Would only be destruction. The King’s ways Are not those of one man against another, And you must live, and I must live — for you.®®

After his quarrel with Mark, he clings to his only de­ pendable friend, Gouvernail. He seems to lose his interest in life for a time, but because King Howel is troubled, he summons his old strength and defeats Griffon. He mistakes his interest

96. Ibid., 184-5.

97. Charles Cestre, op. oit., 101.

98. Edwin Arlington Robinson, Tristram, 25.

99 Ibid., 43-44 40

in IsoIt of Brittany for love; he marries her and makes a brave attempt to forget the past. Ambition calls him back to Cornwall.

He leaves, promising his wife to return, and the reader feels that he is sincere. Once away from Brittany, he forgets his responsi­ bility, because of the return of his passion for Isolt of Ireland.

Again he becomes despondent when Isolt is gone. A ray of happi­ ness comes when he enters the palace and sees Isolt, but death ends all earthly expectancy.

Isolt of Ireland is a consistent character throughout the

story. She lives to experience the emotion of love. She says:

Were it not for love Poor life would be a ship not worth launching.100

She cannot love Mark, but she is sorry for him. Because she has

known love, she fears not death. Because she loves Tristram, she

advises that he go back to Brittany after she is gone. She knows

that the other Isolt will forgive him because she loves him.1^1

Isolt of Brittany symbolizes youth with all its expectancy.

Her father, who symbolizes the wisdom of age, is always advising

her to choose another course. But experience is her teacher.

’Wh e n disappointment and grief come, she faces them with courage. / She s a y s :

100. Ibid., 181.

101. Ibid., 180-88 41

I am not one Who must have everything. Yet I must have My dreams if I must live, for they are mine.1-02

The writer is of the opinion that every character in the

story has distinct human qualities. Cestre supports the writer

in this view. He says, "They appeal to the mind as well as to the

h e a r t . " I Q S

The story inherits the theory that fate intended Tristram

to experience sorrow. Masefield calls this unavoidable destiny.

Robinson gives the reader a brighter view. Man has the power to

choose. His sorrow is the result of his inability to make the

right choice. Tristram, Isolt and Mark voice this thought.

Tristram says:

For lack of sight And sense of self, and imperturbably, He had achieved all this and might do more, Ho doubt, if given the time. Whereat he cursed Himself again, and his complacent years Of easy blindness.1-0^

Isolt blames blindness for her plight. She sayss

Where are those blindfold years that we lost Because a blind king bought of a blind father A child blinder than they?1-0^

Mark tells Isolt with regret that he should have recognized the

102. Ibid., 206.

103. Charles Cestre, op. cit., 102.

104. Edwin Arlington Robinson, Tristram, 23.

105. Ibid., 136. 42

truth. He says :

We were all mad — that night. I should have seen.

God knows what else I should have seenl Had I been made with eyes to read in the dark All that was written there, I might have seen. B y s t r a i n i n g them, some such e f f e c t as this.!®®

The poet does not entirely explain fate away. It was a part of the romantic story. The writer is of the opinion that

Robinson's view is that of the Christian — Man's destiny is con­ trolled by the will of God. Isolt says:

A voice within me says God, seeing all Was more compassionate than to let love see Too far — loving his world too well for that.^-0^

The writer has followed the evolution of this tale through the centuries. She has formed the opinion that Robinson has given us the finest version of the story. Cestre ranks it as

Robinson's masterpiece. Blankenship praised his modern interpre­ tation of the theme. Berten’Braley calls it one of the six sue- 1 OR cesses in verse in recent years. Mark Van Horen pays this composition the finest compliment. He says:

It is certainly one of the best narrative poems that we have, and I think it safe to say that the story that it tells has never been better told in English verse.

106. Ibid., 180.

107. Ibid., 143.

108. Berton Braley, "Do People Read Poetry?", The Literary Digest, cxvii (February 3, 1934) 41.

109. Mark Van Doren, loe, cit 43

The poet has preserved the romantic appeal of the tradi­ tional tale. It is his approach that is new. That approach is

the psychological study of character. his characters are not

legendary — they have human qualities. William Rose Benêt, in

speaking of his version says, "It is the most human."^

Masefield m s able to give us human characters in his

drama, but they belong to the medieval period. Robinson's char­

acters do not have that remoteness. They belong to any age be­

cause they possess the permanent qualities of human nature which

never changes.

110. William Rose Benêt, loc. cit BIBLIOGRAPHY f

45

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Elsdale, Henry, Studies in the Idylls. London: Henry S. King Company, 1878.

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Benet, William Rose, "Escort to Leviathan." The Outlook, CXLVI, 158, June, 1927.

Beebe, Lucius, "The Dignified Faun." The Outlook, CLV, 647-9, August, 1930.

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Cestre, Charles, "Talents of Mr. Robinson." The Nation, CXXXI, 382, October, 1930.

French, J. L., "Interregnum of Genius." Commonweal, XV, 412, February, 1932.

Macy, John, "New Age of American Poetry." Current Hisjtory, XXXV, 553-8, January, 1932.

Morris, Lloyd, "The Career of Passion." The Nation, CXXIV, 586, May, 1927.

Nicholson, Harold, "Swinburne." The Contemporary Review, CXXXI, 804, June, 1927. * Pierce, F. E., "Four Poets." The Yale Review, XVII, 177, October, 1927.

Robinson, E. A., "The Petersborough Idea." North American Review, CCIV, 448-54, September, 1916.

Roosevelt, Theodore, "Roosevelt Reviews the Children of the Night.” The Outlook, LXXX, 913-14, August 12, 1905. / Tate, Allen, "Again 0 Ye Laurels." New Republic, LXXXVI, 312-13, October, 1935.

Van Doren, Mark, "Tristram." The Forum, LXXVIII, 312-13, August, 1927.

Waldo, Fullerton, "Some Memories of a Poet in the Making." The Outlook, CXXIX, 531-534, November, 1921. 48

Whitridge, Arnold, "Changing Fashions in Romance." N o r t h American Review, Vol. CCXXVI, 1S5, August, 1922

/