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Yapese Reference Grammar PALI LANGUAGE TEXTS: MICRONESIA Yapese Reference Grammar PALI LANGUAGE TEXTS: MICRONESIA Social Sciences and Linguistics Institute University of Hawaii Donald M. Topping Editor Yapese Reference Grammar JOHN THAYER JENSEN with the assistance of LEO DAVID PUGRAM JOHN BAPTIST IOU RAPHAEL DEFEG The University Press of Hawaii HONOLULU Open Access edition funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities / Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Humanities Open Book Program. Licensed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 In- ternational (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits readers to freely download and share the work in print or electronic format for non-commercial purposes, so long as credit is given to the author. Derivative works and commercial uses require per- mission from the publisher. For details, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. The Cre- ative Commons license described above does not apply to any material that is separately copyrighted. Open Access ISBNs: 9780824881283 (PDF) 9780824881290 (EPUB) This version created: 20 May, 2019 Please visit www.hawaiiopen.org for more Open Access works from University of Hawai‘i Press. The research reported herein and the publication of this book were supported by the Government of the Trust Territory of the Pacific. The assistance of Leo David Pugram, John Baptist Iou, and Raphael Defeg was made possible through support received from the Trust Territory Government and the East-West Culture Learning Institute. Copyright © 1977 by The University Press of Hawaii All rights reserved. For the Yapese people, with the hope that it might be a means of practical help, and further appreciation of the “riches of the glory of God” in His creation. Contents Dedication viii Foreword xvi Preface xviii 1 Introduction 1 2 Phonology 4 2.1 Introduction 4 2.1.1 Phonology 4 2.2 Phonetics 6 2.2.1 The Vocal Tract 6 2.2.2 The Glottis 7 2.2.3 The Epiglottis 8 2.2.4 The Uvula and Nasal Cavity 8 2.2.5 The Oral Cavity 9 2.2.6 Velar Sounds 9 2.2.7 Dental Sounds 9 2.2.8 Retroflexed Sounds 9 2.2.9 Labial Sounds 10 2.2.10 Vowels and Consonants 10 2.2.11 Vowels 10 2.3 Phonemics 12 2.3.1 Yapese Vowels: the Long Vowels 13 2.3.1.1 Classification of the Long Vowels 14 2.3.1.2 Spelling the Long Vowels 15 2.3.2 Yapese Vowels: the Short Vowels 17 2.3.2.1 Uncertainty in the Pronunciation of Short Vowels 19 2.3.2.2 Spelling the Short Vowels 19 2.3.3 Correspondences between Long and Short Vowels 20 2.3.4 Vowel Summary 22 2.3.5 Yapese Consonants: Plain Voiceless Stops at the Beginnings of Words 24 2.3.5.1 The Spelling of the Glottal Stop at the Beginning of Words 26 2.3.6 Yapese Consonants: Plain Voiceless Stops at the Ends of words 27 ix Contents 2.3.7 Yapese Consonants: Glottalized Stops 28 2.3.8 Yapese Consonants: Plain Voiceless Fricatives 30 2.3.9 Yapese Consonants: Glottalized Voiceless Fricatives 31 2.3.10 Yapese Consonants: Voiced Obstruents 33 2.3.11 Yapese Consonants: Nasals 35 2.3.12 Yapese Consonants: Glottalized Nasals 36 2.3.13 Yapese Consonants: Liquids 37 2.3.14 Yapese Consonants: Glottalized l' 38 2.3.15 Yapese Consonants: Semivowels 38 2.3.16 Yapese Consonants: Glottalized Semivowels 39 2.3.17 Yapese Consonants: Summary 40 2.3.18 Palatalization 41 2.4 Morphemes 43 2.4.1 One Syllable Morphemes 46 2.4.2 Two Syllable Morphemes 48 2.4.3 Summary of Syllable Types 49 2.4.4 Exceptions: Consonant Clusters, Words Ending in a Long Vowel 50 2.4.5 Grammatical Morphemes 53 2.4.6 Parts of Speech 55 2.5 Morphophonemics 58 2.5.1 Underlying Forms and Final Short Vowels 60 2.5.2 Underlying Forms and Light Vowels 65 2.5.3 Naturalness of Underlying Forms 66 2.5.4 Introduction to the Morphophonemic Rules of Yapese 67 2.5.4.1 Morphophonemic Rules of Yapese: Vowel-Vowel Rules 72 2.5.4.2 Ka to ku—Rule B 75 2.5.4.3 a-Lightening Rules 76 2.5.4.4 e-Lowering Rules 80 2.5.4.5 Loss of Final Short Vowels 82 2.5.4.6 Vowel Reduction 84 2.5.4.7 Final Consonant Clusters 86 2.5.4.8 Vowel Agreement Rules 91 2.5.4.9 Semivowels at Ends of Words 93 2.5.4.10 Semivowel Rules 95 2.5.4.11 Vowel Insertion Rules 96 2.5.4.12 Vowel Loss between Homorganic Consonants 96 2.5.4.13 Consonant Agreement in Rapid Speech 98 2.5.4.14 o-Lightening Rules 98 x Contents 2.5.4.15 Stress 99 2.5.5 Summary of Morphophonemic Rules 101 2.5.6 Sound Changes in Yapese 104 2.5.7 Dialects of Yapese 105 3 Morphology 107 3.1 Introduction 107 3.1.1 Prefixation 107 3.1.2 Suffixation 107 3.1.3 Reduplication 107 3.1.4 Ablaut 108 3.1.5 Reduction 108 3.1.6 Compounding 108 3.1.7 Roots and Stems 108 3.1.8 Productive and Non-productive Processes 109 3.1.9 Inflection and Derivation 110 3.2 Derivational Processes in Yapese 110 3.2.1 Derivational Prefixes 111 3.2.2 Reduplication 117 3.2.2.1 Forms of Reduplication: R1 118 3.2.2.2 Forms of Reduplication: R2 118 3.2.2.3 Forms of Reduplication: R3 118 3.2.2.4 Morphophonemics of Reduplication 118 3.2.2.5 Meaning of Reduplication 120 3.2.3 Vocatives 122 3.2.4 Demonstratives 124 3.2.5 Demonstrative Pronouns 126 3.2.6 Locatives 128 3.2.7 Compounds and Miscellaneous Topics 130 3.3 Inflectional Processes in Yapese 133 3.3.1 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 133 3.3.1.1 The Transitive Suffix -y 137 3.3.1.2 The Transitive Suffix -g 138 3.3.1.3 The Transitive Suffix -eeg 138 3.3.1.4 Miscellaneous Transitive Verb Forming Processes 139 3.3.1.5 The Intransitive Prefix ma- 141 3.3.1.6 The Intransitive Suffix -w 142 3.3.2 Independent Pronouns 142 3.3.3 Subject Pronoun Number Markers 145 3.3.4 Object Pronoun Suffixes 150 3.3.5 Possessive Pronoun Suffixes: Directly Suffixed Pronouns 153 xi Contents 3.3.6 Possessive Pronoun Suffixes: Stem-forming Suffixes 158 3.3.7 Possessive Pronoun Suffixes with Prepositions and Relational Nouns 160 4 Noun Phrases 163 4.1 Introduction 163 4.2 Simple Noun Phrases 163 4.2.1 The Definite Article fa 166 4.2.2 Number Morphemes 167 4.2.3 Numerals 168 4.2.4 Quantifiers 169 4.2.5 The Noun Phrase Connector ea 170 4.2.6 The Definite Article fa with Number Morphemes, Numerals and Quantifiers 171 4.2.7 The Diminutive Morpheme chi 171 4.2.8 The Indefinite Article ba 173 4.2.9 Classifiers 175 4.2.10 The Noun Phrase Connector ii 177 4.2.11 The Head of the Noun Phrase 179 4.2.12 The Attribute Element of Noun Phrases 180 4.2.13 Prepositional Phrases as Attribute 181 4.2.14 Demonstratives as Attribute Elements 182 4.2.15 Relative Clauses as Attribute Elements 182 4.3 Proper Nouns 184 4.4 Possessed Nouns in Noun Phrases 186 4.5 Pronoun Phrases 187 4.5.1 Independent Personal Pronouns as Pronoun Phrases 187 4.5.2 Demonstrative Pronouns as Pronoun Phrases 189 4.5.3 Demonstrative Pronoun Phrases 192 4.5.4 Pronoun Phrases from Determiners 194 4.5.5 The Diminutive Morpheme chi in Pronoun Phrases 195 4.5.6 Vocatives as Pronoun Phrases 196 4.5.7 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns 196 4.6 Noun Extraposition 199 4.7 Pronouns in Apposition 202 4.8 The Construct Construction 204 4.8.1 Relational Nouns in Construct Constructions 206 4.8.2 Roo- Prepositional Phrases in the Construct Construction 207 xii Contents 4.8.3 Determiners and Quantifiers in Construct Construction 207 5 Verb Phrases 209 5.1 Introduction 209 5.2 Independent Pronoun Verb Phrases 211 5.2.1 Subject Pronouns in Independent Pronoun Verb Phrases 211 5.2.2 Tense Morphemes in Independent Pronoun Verb Phrases 213 5.3 Suffixed Pronoun Verb Phrases 216 5.3.1 Subject Pronouns in Suffixed Pronoun Verb Phrases 216 5.3.2 Subject Number Markers in Suffixed Pronoun Verb Phrases 219 5.3.3 Object Suffixes with Suffixed Pronoun Verb Phrases 221 5.3.4 Tense Markers in Suffixed Pronoun Verb Phrases 222 5.3.4.1 Ka ‘Perfect’ 223 5.3.4.2 Nga ‘Inceptive’ 224 5.3.4.3 Baey ‘Definite Future’ 225 5.3.4.4 Raa ‘Simple Future’ 225 5.3.4.5 Daab ‘Future Negative’ 226 5.3.4.6 Daa ‘Past Negative’ 226 5.3.4.7 Daa ‘Present Negative’ 227 5.3.4.8 Simple Past 231 5.3.4.9 Imperative 231 5.3.4.10 Qa ‘Priorative’ and qu ‘Non-present Progressive/Habitual’ 233 5.3.4.11 Other Elements in Verb Phrases 235 5.4 Predicate Types 236 5.4.1 Intransitive Verbs as Predicates in Verb Phrases 236 5.4.2 Transitive Verbs as Predicates in Verb Phrases 237 5.4.3 Adjectives as Predicates in Verb Phrases 238 5.4.4 Nouns as Predicates in Verb Phrases 239 5.4.5 Adverbs as Predicates in Verb Phrases 240 5.4.6 Incorporated Object Constructions as Predicates in Verb Phrases 241 5.4.7 The Transitivizing Particle naag in Verb Phrases 242 xiii Contents 5.4.8 Miscellaneous other Predicate Types in Verb Phrases 243 5.4.8.1 The Existential Verb baey 243 5.4.8.2 Impersonal Verbs 245 5.4.8.3 Woed ‘to resemble’ 246 5.4.8.4 Qadaag ‘to like’ 246 5.4.8.5 Naang ‘to know’ 247 5.4.8.6 Dabuug ‘to not like’ 247 5.4.8.7 Compound Verbs with Possessive Suffixes 248 5.5 Irregular and Contracted Verbs.
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