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The Lexicon of Proto Oceanic the Culture and Environment of Ancestral Oceanic Society

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The lexicon of Proto Oceanic The culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society 2 The physical environment Pacific Linguistics 545 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDING EDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: John Bowden, Malcolm Ross and Darrell Tryon (Managing Editors), I Wayan Arka, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Lillian Huang, National Taiwan Normal Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne University Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma Studies Jaya Byron Bender, University of Hawai‘i Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Walter Bisang, Johannes Gutenberg- Harold Koch, The Australian National Universität Mainz University Robert Blust, University of Hawai‘i Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of David Bradley, La Trobe University Auckland Lyle Campbell, University of Utah John Lynch, University of the South Pacific James Collins, Universiti Kebangsaan Patrick McConvell, Australian Institute of Malaysia Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for Studies Evolutionary Anthropology William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet Soenjono Dardjowidjojo, Universitas Atma Ulrike Mosel, Christian-Albrechts- Jaya Universität zu Kiel Matthew Dryer, State University of New York Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la at Buffalo Recherche Scientifique Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe- at Arlington Universität Frankfurt am Main Nicholas Evans, University of Melbourne Ger Reesink, Universiteit Leiden Margaret Florey, Monash University Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai‘i William Foley, University of Sydney Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la Karl Franklin, Summer Institute of Recherche Scientifique Linguistics Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Charles Grimes, Universitas Kristen Artha Auckland Wacana Kupang Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Nikolaus Himmelmann, Ruhr-Universität John Wolff, Cornell University Bochum Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica The lexicon of Proto Oceanic The culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society 2 The physical environment Malcolm Ross, Andrew Pawley and Meredith Osmond Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Published by ANU E Press The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Email: [email protected] This title available online at: http://epress.anu.edu.au/lexicon_citation.html Previous published by Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: The Lexicon of Proto Oceanic: the culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society. Volume 2 The physical environment Bibliography Includes index ISBN 978-1-921313-18-9 (pbk) ISBN 978-1-921313-19-6 (online) 1. Proto Oceanic language. 2. Ethnology – Oceania. 3. Oceania – Social life and customs. I. Pawley, Andrew. II. Ross, Malcolm (Malcolm D,). III. Osmond, Meredith. IV. The Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Pacific Linguistics. II. Title. 499.4 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without prior permission of the publisher. Copyedited by Bethwyn Evans and Meredith Osmond Typeset by Jeanette Coombes Maps by Malcolm Ross Cover design by Emily Erissenden Printed by University Printing Services, ANU First edition © 2003 Pacific Linguistics This edition © 2007 ANU E Press Contents overview Chapter contents in detail vi List of maps, tables and figures xii List of abbreviations xiv Preface xviii Chapter 1 Introduction Malcolm Ross, Andrew Pawley and Meredith Osmond 1 Chapter 2 Locating Proto Oceanic Andrew Pawley 17 Chapter 3 The Landscape Meredith Osmond, Andrew Pawley and Malcolm Ross 35 Chapter 4 The Seascape Meredith Osmond, Andrew Pawley and Malcolm Ross 91 Chapter 5 Meteorological phenomena Malcolm Ross 119 Chapter 6 Navigation and the heavens Meredith Osmond 155 Chapter 7 Properties of inanimate objects Malcolm Ross 193 Chapter 8 Talking about space: terms of location and direction Malcolm Ross 229 Chapter 9 Time Malcolm Ross 295 Appendix 1: Data sources and collation 339 Appendix 2: Languages 343 References 367 Index 389 v Chapter contents in detail 1 Introduction 1 1 Aims 1 2 The relation of the current project to previous work 2 3 Reconstructing the lexicon 4 3.1 Terminological reconstruction 4 3.2 Subgrouping and reconstruction 6 3.3 Sound correspondences 12 3.4 Proto Oceanic phonology and orthography 12 4 Conventions 13 4.1 Chapter format 13 4.2 Data 14 4.3 Conventions used in representing reconstructions 15 2 Locating Proto Oceanic 17 1 Introduction 17 2 The major biogeographical regions of Oceania 17 3 Early human settlement of Near Oceania 20 4 The location and dispersal of the Proto Oceanic speech community 24 5 On the physical geography of the Bismarck Archipelago 31 3 The landscape 35 1 Introduction 35 2 Land mass 38 2.1 Land, mainland 38 2.2 Island 42 3 Coastal features 44 3.1 Beach, shore 44 3.2 Bay 46 3.3 River mouth 47 3.4 Cape, prominent land 47 4 Inland topographical features 49 vi vii 4.1 Hill, mountain 49 4.2 Valley 52 4.3 Cliff 52 4.4 Cave 53 4.5 Flat land 53 5 Land defined by vegetation 54 5.1 Uncultivated land 54 5.2 Swamp 56 6 Inland water features 58 6.1 Fresh water 58 6.2 Spring 60 6.3 Waterfall 62 7 Mineral substances 63 7.1 Stone 63 7.2 Flint, obsidian 64 7.3 Coral, limestone 65 7.4 Pumice 66 7.5 Sand 67 7.6 Earth, soil 68 7.7 Clay 69 7.8 Salt 70 8 Fire 71 8.1 Fire 72 8.2 Stages of reduction of wood by burning 72 8.3 Burning, being on fire 76 8.4 Emissions from burning materials: smoke, vapour, flames, light 78 9 Destructive natural events 81 9.1 Volcanic activity 81 9.2 Earthquake 83 9.3 Landslide 85 9.4 Tidal wave 85 9.5 Flood, submerging tide 86 9.6 Storm, hurricane 87 9.7 Whirlpools, waterspouts, whirlwinds 87 10 Conclusion 88 4 The seascape 91 1 Introduction 91 2 The sea and its features 91 2.1 Sea, salt water 91 2.2 Sheltered or open sea 95 viii 2.3 Current 96 2.4 Waves 98 2.5 Foam 100 2.6 Tides 102 3 The reef environment 107 3.1 Coral 107 3.2 Reefs 109 3.3 Submerged reefs, rocks and sandbars 113 3.4 Lagoon, sheltered water 114 3.5 Channel in fringing reef 116 4 Conclusion 118 5 Meteorological phenomena 119 1 Introduction 119 2 Pacific wind systems 119 3 The Austronesian weather experience 124 4 Winds 126 4.1 Wind and wind strengths 126 4.2 Seasonal winds 131 5 The weather 140 5.1 Calm 140 5.2 The sky and clouds 142 5.3 Rain 146 5.4 Thunder and lightning 149 6 Concluding remarks 152 6 Navigation and the heavens 155 1 Introduction 155 2 The sky and the horizon 156 2.1 Sky, heavens 157 2.2 Horizon 157 3 Sun 159 4 Moon 164 5 Stars 165 5.1 Star (generic) 166 5.2 Individual stars and star groups 166 5.2.1 Venus (Morning Star, Evening Star) 166 5.2.2 Big Bird (Constellation incl. Sirius, Canopus, Procyon, Betelgeuse, Rigel) 168 5.2.3 Orion’s Belt 170 5.2.4 Pleiades 171 ix 5.2.5 Southern Cross 172 5.2.6 The Pointers 173 5.2.7 Taurus (Triangle, Tongs) including Aldebaran 174 5.2.8 Polaris 175 5.2.9 Altair (constellation Aquila) 175 5.2.10 Antares (constellation Scorpio) 176 5.2.11 Pegasus 176 5.2.12 Dolphin constellation (including Cassiopeia) 177 5.2.13 Delphinus 177 5.2.14 Arcturus 177 5.2.15 Corvus, Leo, Vega, Corona Borealis, Ursa Major, Equeleus 178 5.2.16 Magellanic Clouds 179 5.2.17 Milky Way 179 5.3 Star Path 180 5.4 Star rise and star set 181 5.4.1 Rising 181 5.4.2 Setting 182 5.5 Zenith star 182 5.6 Star compass 183 6 Other navigational clues 184 6.1 Winds 184 6.2 Wind compass 184 6.3 The seascape 185 6.3.1 Swell 185 6.3.2 Deep phosphorescence 185 6.3.3 Reference islands 186 6.3.4 Sea marks 186 6.3.5 Expansion of target 187 7 Navigation in Western Oceania and the Admiralties 187 7.1 Navigation in Western Oceania 187 7.2 Navigation in the Admiralties and St Matthias 188 8 Conclusions 188 7 Properties of inanimate objects 193 1 Introduction 193 2 Dimension and distance 197 2.1 big/small 197 2.2 Other dimensions 202 2.2.1 tall/long 203 2.2.2 short 204 2.2.3 far/near 205 x 2.2.4 wide/spread out 207 2.2.5 thick/thin 208 3 Age 209 4 Colour 212 5 Physical property 218 5.1 Shape and surface texture 218 5.2 Weight 220 5.3 Strength, toughness and speed 221 5.4 Content 223 5.5 Temperature 224 5.6 Wet and dry 226 8 Talking about space: terms of location and direction 229 1 Introduction 229 2 Local nouns 232 2.1 The preposition *i and the prefix *qa- 235 2.2 Familiar-place and geographic local nouns 237 2.2.1 Inland, bush 238 2.2.2 Seaward, towards the beach, at sea 239 2.2.3 Directions along the coastline 240 2.2.4 At home 241 2.2.5 Down below 241 2.2.6 Up above 242
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  • A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Amio-Gelimi Language Area

    A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Amio-Gelimi Language Area

    DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2013-017 ® A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Amio-Gelimi Language Area Juliann Spencer, Sara Van Cott, and Bonnie MacKenzie A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Amio-Gelimi Language Area Juliann Spencer, Sara Van Cott and Bonnie MacKenzie SIL International® 2013 SIL Electronic Survey Report 2013-017, September 2013 © 2013 Juliann Spencer, Sara Van Cott, Bonnie MacKenzie, and SIL International® All rights reserved 1 Abstract In October of 2009 SIL conducted a survey of the Amio-Gelimi language, located in West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea. Amio-Gelimi is listed as Lesing-Gelimi [let] in the sixteenth edition of the Ethnologue and belongs to the East Arawe subgroup of Austronesian languages. The goals of the survey were to determine language and dialect boundaries and evaluate language vitality. Research was conducted through group interviews in each village in the language area, interviews with leaders of institutions in the area, collection of wordlists and observation. The findings of the survey indicate that Amio-Gelimi has two dialects and is spoken in four villages to the east of Gasmata: Amio, Kaskas, Atui and Poronga. Amio and Kaskas belong to the Amio dialect, while Atui and Poronga belong to the Gelimi dialect. The vitality of the Amio-Gelimi language is currently high. 2 Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Language location 1.2 Language name and classification 1.3 Population 1.4 Goals 2 Methodology 2.1 Tools 2.2 Sampling 2.3 Critique 3 Language and dialect boundaries 3.1 Previous research 3.2
  • A History of Metatypy in the Bel Languages

    A History of Metatypy in the Bel Languages

    A HISTORY OF METATYPY IN THE BEL LANGUAGES Malcolm Ross The Australian National University 1. Introduction The title of this paper invites two definitions: of ‘metatypy’ and of ‘Bel languages’. Metatypy, as its etymology suggests, denotes a change in (morphosyntactic) type which occurs when speakers are bilingual and restructure the morphosyntactic constructions of one of their languages on the model of constructions from their other language (Ross 2006, 2007a). The Bel languages are a small eight-member group of Oceanic Austronesian languages. Figure 1 shows a Bel genealogy, based on shared phonological and morphological innovations which are very unlikely to have been transmitted by contact (Ross 2007b). One of the Bel languages is Takia, which I have described in various publications, principally Ross (1994) and Ross (2002). The Bel family is part of a larger Oceanic group, the Ngero-Vitiaz network, and the map in Figure 2 shows the locations both of the Bel languages and of other Ngero-Vitiaz languages referred to in this paper (Ross 1988:160-183). The case study of contact-induced change which is briefly described here has arisen out of one of the central concerns of my work, reconstructing the history of Austronesian and Papuan languages. In previous work I have compared Takia with its Karkar Island neighbour, Waskia, a member of the Madang subfamily of the Trans New Guinea family of Papuan languages,1 to show that much of the grammar of Takia can be explained as the outcome of metatypy on the model of a Madang language (Ross 1987, 1996, 2003, 2007a).