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A School of Their Own: Educating Okie Children in 1930S California

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A School of Their Own: Educating Okie Children in 1930S California California Odyssey: Dust Bowl Migration Archives Special Topics A School of Their Own Educating Okie Children in 1930s California Christy Gavin Librarian, CSUB Dust Bowl Migration Archives February, 2011 Introduction During the Great Depression, nearly 400,000 Oklahomans, Arkansans, Texans, Kansans, and Missourians migrated to California (Gregory 9-10). As a result their children flooded California schools, especially in the farming communities of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, where the newly arrived migrants doubled the population in the 1930s (Stein 47).The population spike was highest in the cotton growing areas, such as Kern County, which added 52,000 residents by 1940 (Gregory 83). As one Kern County educator observed, migrant ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ ͞Ϯ͋ι͋ ͋ϭ͋ιϴϮ·͋ι͋΂ ̯Σ͇ χ·͋ χ̯͋̽·͋ιν ΊΣ χ·͋ ν΢̯ΜΜ͋ι ν̽·ΪΪΜν ̽ΪϢΜ͇ ·̯Σ͇Μ͋ ΪΣ͋ Ϊι χϮΪ probably, a few like that, but it was getting [to be a quite a problem] in the larger schools͟ (Stanley and McColgan 1). Kern County school principal Jewell Potter reported that for the Edison school district, the average daily attendance jumped from 55 pupils in 1935-36 to more than 140 in 1937-38. During 1937-38, busiest academic year, 1937-38, the enrollment rose from 130 to 325 (J. Potter 26). Depression-era educators probably ϮΪϢΜ͇ ·̯ϭ͋ ̯ͽι͇͋͋ ϮΊχ· ͫ͋νχ͋ι ͩΊιΙ͋Σ͇̯ΜΜ͛ν 1940 assessment that the tremendous influx of Okie children had ͞ι̯Ίν͇͋ ̯ ι͋ͽϢΜ̯ι Ϯ͋Μχ͋ι Ϊ͕ educational problems—most of which are ϢΣνΪΜϭ͇͋͟ (ͩΊιΙ͋Σ͇̯ΜΜ 490)΅ ͸Σ͋ ΢̯ΖΪι ζιΪ̼lem was that schools were fiscally unable to accommodate the multiple needs of migrant students. As Bessie M. Knapp, Chair, Migratory Committee, California Congress of Parents and Teachers testified at a 1940 Congressional hearing: The [California] compulsory school law forces these children into our schools but it does not provide the means to keep them housed, clothed, and fed so that they might with safety to themselves and the more fortunate children, attend our schools͟ (United States 2433). 1 Knapp is quite right in her assertion that the state expected the school districts to deal with the rising tide of migrant pupils without additional support from state coffers. However, the school ͇ΊνχιΊ̽χν͛ ν̽ι̯΢̼Μ͇͋ ̯χχ͋΢ζχν χΪ ̽Ϊζ͋ ϮΊχ· χ·͋ ζιΪ̼Μ͋΢ ϢνϢ̯ΜΜϴ ι͋νϢΜχed in failing both the new arrivals and the local children. As Emmett Berry, superintendent of schools in Porterville, California, testified in 1940΂ ͞H̯͋ϭϴ ͋ΣιΪΜΜ΢͋Σχν ·̯ϭ͋ ΜΪϮ͋ι͇͋ νχ̯Σ͇̯ι͇ ̯̽·Ί͋ϭ͋΢͋Σχν Ϊ͕ ̯ΜΜ students in fundamental subjects͟ (United States 2436). Compounding the problem of overcrowded, underfunded schools were the overwhelmed educators. While most were well intentioned they were ill-prepared to understand either the nature or the nurture of migrant children. Thus, poor budgets and lack of teacher preparedness were obstacles to providing a safe academic environment for distressed migrant children. As Leo B. Hart,1 superintendent of Kern County schools, observed in later years, teachers "often solved the migrant problem by shuffling the children into the corners of classrooms only to ignore them (Stanley and McColgan 2). “One of Those People” On school grounds, migrant children Ϯ͋ι͋ ζ͋ι̽͋Ίϭ͇͋ ̯ν ͞χ·Ϊν͋ ζ͋ΪζΜ͋͟ a synonym for white trash because of their poverty, ties to farm labor, and social awkwardness (Gregory 78). In the classroom, newcomers stood out because they were often older and bigger physically than their local classmates. Because migrant children were unable to provide their school records, they were often placed in grades that did not correspond with their chronological age. This meant their apparent achievement level often did not match their age and physical size. Contemporary studies and reports confirmed what many educators at the time recognized: that as a result of constantly relocating and working out of school, there was ̯͞ ͽ͋Σ͋ι̯Μ ι͋χ̯ι͇̯χΊΪΣ Ϊ͕ ζϢζΊΜν͟ among migrant children. According to one study, 23 schools reported that children were two-to-three years behind the average grade level for their age One teacher reported χ·̯χ ͞ΪϢχ Ϊ͕ ΢ϴ 32 *ζϢζΊΜν+ χ·Ίν Μ̯νχ ΢ΪΣχ· ΪΣΜϴ νΊϳ ζϢζΊΜν Ϯ͋ι͋ Ϣζ to their normal grade͟ 2 (͞Α̯͋̽·ΊΣͽ χ·͋ ͱΊͽι̯χΪιϴ΂͟ 35, Heffernan 188). As a child migrant Lilllie May ι̯͋̽ΜΜν΄ ͜͞χ Ϯ̯ν χ·͋ shock that so many children were held back a year because [they] were new out here. .They 3 lost a whole year . ͟ (May 24)΅ ΕΣ͕ΪιχϢΣ̯χ͋Μϴ΂ χ·͋ νΪ ̯̽ΜΜ͇͋ ͞ι͋χ̯ι͇̯χΊΪΣ͟ among migrant children was seen as stupidity among native school children. Consequently, as Gregory points ΪϢχ΂ ͞*χ+·̯χ ζιΪϭΊ͇͇͋ Ϣν͕͋ϢΜ ̯΢΢ϢΣΊχΊΪΣ ͕Ϊι χ·͋Ίι Σ̯χΊϭ͋ ̽Μ̯νν΢̯χ͋ν΄ ·Oh΂ ·͋͛ν ͕ιΪ΢ ͸ΙΜ̯·Ϊ΢̯— ·͋͛ν ͇Ϣ΢̼͛ was heard frequently on the school grounds͟ (Gregory 129). Luckily, enlightened 1 Leo B. Hart served two terms (1930-1946) as the Kern County School Superintendent of Schools. 2 The interviews cited in the California Odyssey: Dust Bowl Migration Digital Archives are part of the California State University, ̯Ι͋ιν͕Ί͋Μ͇͛ν ̯ΜΊ͕ΪιΣΊ̯ ͸͇ϴνν͋ϴ Project's Oral History Program funded in 1980 by the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). The interviews focus on residents who migrated to the San Joaquin Valley from Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, and Texas between 1924 and 1939. 3 ͩ͋ιΣ ΪϢΣχϴ ν̽·ΪΪΜ ζιΊΣ̽Ίζ̯Μ ͧ͋Ϯ͋ΜΜ ΄Ϊχχ͋ι ̯νν͋ιχ͇͋ χ·̯χ ϮΊχ· ͕͋͞Ϯ ͋ϳ̽͋ζχΊΪΣν χ·͋ν͋ *΢Ίͽι̯Σχν+ ̯ι͋ ι͋χ̯ι͇͇͋͟ (ͧ΅ Potter 26). During the 1930s, edϢ̯̽χΪιν Ϣν͇͋ ͞ι͋χ̯ι͇̯χΊΪΣ͟ χΪ ͇͋ν̽ιΊ̼͋ ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ Ϯ·Ϊ Ϯ͋ι͋ ·͋Μ͇ ̼̯̽Ι ΪΣ͋ Ϊι ΢Ϊι͋ grades because they failed to expected attainment levels (Oxford English Dictionary). 2 educators realized the real reason so many migrant children were held back a grade was due to environmental issues and not a lack of mental aptitude (United States 2435). Two major environmental factors were poverty and ill health. Surveys of rural white children of migratory agricultural workers living in California, conducted during 1936 and 1937, revealed that over 27 percent had nutritional problems: 10 ½ ζ͋ι̽͋Σχ Ϊ͕ ν̽·ΪΪΜ ̯ͽ͋ ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ ͞Ϯ͋ι͋ ͽ͋χχΊΣͽ 1 ½ χΪ 2 ζΊΣχν of milk daily, the amount considered optimum for growth and development, while 15.8 percent were getting no milk.. [such nutritional deficits cause the] mental dulling which occurs with constant inadequacy of ͕ΪΪ͇ ̯Σ͇ ͕ι͋θϢ͋Σχ Μ̯̽Ι Ϊ͕ Ίχ͟ (United States 2433) Along with hunger and poor health, skipping school adversely affected academic performance among migrant children. They were forced to miss school so that they could follow their parents while they bounced from one job or crop to the next, or they spent school days working alongside their parents in fields. Bobby Glen Russell recalls attending three Kern County schools in one year (Russell 10). Frank Manies remembers that he attended 22 schools in Oklahoma and California (Manies 2). Changing schools constantly put an extra hardship on these children. H̯χχϴ͋ ΋·Ί͋Μ͇ν ι͋̽ΪΜΜ͋̽χ͇͋΂ ͜͞ ͇Ί͇Σ͛χ ΜΊΙ͋ χ·̯χ΅ Α·̯χ Ϯ̯ν ϭ͋ιϴ ·̯ι͇͟ (΋·Ί͋Μ͇ν 16). School disruptions were a way of life even before they arrived in California. In their home states they were often pulled out of school to move with their families to the next farm or job—͞ΖϢνχ trying to survive΂͟ recalls one migrant (Russell 1). Moreover, school days were cut short because of the practice among country schools to truncate the academic year to accommodate the rhythms of the farming cycle. It was common for classes to be in session only during the months when children were not needed to do chores or care for their siblings. Thus, by the time migrant children enrolled in California schools they were far behind in their schooling as compared to their native counterparts. Unsurpisingly, when compared to native pupils, migrant children ranked much lower academically (͞Α̯͋̽·ΊΣͽ χ·͋ ͱΊͽι̯χΪιϴ΂͟ 35). Moreover, once they got back into school they often, according to one Kern County principal: Seem[ed] oblivious to work, responsibility, play, health and a sense of what makes good citizens. The social adjustment of [these] overage pupils. .seem[ed] an insurmountable task (Potter 26). Yet some migrant children were able to adapt despite missing so much school. Frank Manies, ͕Ϊι ͋ϳ̯΢ζΜ͋΂ ̽Μ̯Ί΢ν ͞χ·̯χ *·͋+ Μ̯͋ιΣ͇͋ χΪ ̯͇ΖϢνχ θϢΊχ͋ ι̯ζΊ͇Μϴ͟ (Manies 2.) And Goldie Farris, originally from Texas, remembers: being a good student, speaking up, reading and doing my homework. When we left there [Waukena, Tulare County, California] and went to Brawley we went through the same thing [subject matter] again. The teacher started me in arithmetic clear back: at the beginning of the book. Every child was working at his own speed in arithmetic. She started me way back at the beginning but by the time we left in March I was not only ̯̽Ϣͽ·χ Ϣζ ̼Ϣχ ͜ Ϯ̯ν ̯Μ΢Ϊνχ χ·ιΪϢͽ· ϮΊχ· ΢ϴ ̼ΪΪΙ͟ (F̯ιιΊν 15)΅ 3 Success in school was possible for those fortunate children whose parents encouraged their education. Lillie May and her siblings, for example, did not have to repeat a grade because their ͕̯χ·͋ι ̽·̯ΜΜ͋Σͽ͇͋ χ·͋ ν̽·ΪΪΜ͛ν ͇͋̽ΊνΊΪΣ΅ !̽̽Ϊι͇ΊΣͽ χΪ ͱ̯ϴ΂ ·͋ι ͕̯χ·͋ι χΪΜ͇ ν̽·ΪΪΜ Ϊ͕͕Ί̽Ί̯Μν χ·̯χ΂ ͜͞ ͇ΪΣ'χ Ϯ̯Σχ ϴΪϢ χΪ ζϢχ χ·͋΢ ̼̯̽Ι ϢΣχΊΜ ϴΪϢ ͽΊϭ͋ χ·͋΢ ̯ chance." Her father requested that his children take a competency test, which they did and they passed. Moreover, May claimed she and her siblings had had certain subject the year before when they still lived in Oklahoma. When her cousins visited them from Oklahoma ͞χ·͋ϴ Ϯ͋ι͋ ̯·̯͇͋ Ϊ͕ Ϣs ͟ but Californians seemed χΪ ̼͋ΜΊ͋ϭ͋ χ·̯χ ͞ΊΣ ͸ΙΜ̯·Ϊ΢̯΂ !ιΙ̯Σν̯ν ̯Σ͇ ͱΊννΪϢιΊ ̯Σ͇ ΊΣ ̯ΜΜ χ·Ϊν͋ νχ̯χ͋ν χ·̯χ χ·͋Ίι schooling was behind here but it wasn't͟ (May 24). Migrant mother Loye HΪΜ΢͋ν͛ ι̯͋̽ΜΜ͇͋ ·͋ΜζΊΣͽ ·͋ι children with their homework and involvement with school activities: [making] it a point to get acquainted with the teachers.
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