A School of Their Own: Educating Okie Children in 1930S California

California Odyssey: Dust Bowl Migration Archives

Special Topics

A School of Their Own

Educating Okie Children in 1930s California

Christy Gavin Librarian, CSUB Dust Bowl Migration Archives February, 2011

Introduction

During the Great Depression, nearly 400,000 Oklahomans, Arkansans, Texans, Kansans, and Missourians migrated to California (Gregory 9-10). As a result their children flooded California schools, especially in the farming communities of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, where the newly arrived migrants doubled the population in the 1930s (Stein 47).The population spike was highest in the cotton growing areas, such as Kern County, which added 52,000 residents by 1940 (Gregory 83). As one Kern County educator observed, migrant ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ ͞Ϯ͋ι͋ ͋ϭ͋ιϴϮ·͋ι͋΂ ̯Σ͇ χ·͋ χ̯͋̽·͋ιν ΊΣ χ·͋ ν΢̯ΜΜ͋ι ν̽·ΪΪΜν ̽ΪϢΜ͇ ·̯Σ͇Μ͋ ΪΣ͋ Ϊι χϮΪ probably, a few like that, but it was getting [to be a quite a problem] in the larger schools͟ (Stanley and McColgan 1). Kern County school principal Jewell Potter reported that for the Edison school district, the average daily attendance jumped from 55 pupils in 1935-36 to more than 140 in 1937-38. During 1937-38, busiest academic year, 1937-38, the enrollment rose from 130 to 325 (J. Potter 26).

Depression-era educators probably ϮΪϢΜ͇ ·̯ϭ͋ ̯ͽι͇͋͋ ϮΊχ· ͫ͋νχ͋ι ͩΊιΙ͋Σ͇̯ΜΜ͛ν 1940 assessment that the tremendous influx of Okie children had ͞ι̯Ίν͇͋ ̯ ι͋ͽϢΜ̯ι Ϯ͋Μχ͋ι Ϊ͕ educational problems—most of which are ϢΣνΪΜϭ͇͋͟ (ͩΊιΙ͋Σ͇̯ΜΜ 490)΅ ͸Σ͋ ΢̯ΖΪι ζιΪ̼lem was that schools were fiscally unable to accommodate the multiple needs of migrant students. As Bessie M. Knapp, Chair, Migratory Committee, California Congress of Parents and Teachers testified at a 1940 Congressional hearing:

The [California] compulsory school law forces these children into our schools but it does not provide the means to keep them housed, clothed, and fed so that they might with safety to themselves and the more fortunate children, attend our schools͟ (United States 2433).

Knapp is quite right in her assertion that the state expected the school districts to deal with the rising tide of migrant pupils without additional support from state coffers. However, the school ͇ΊνχιΊ̽χν͛ ν̽ι̯΢̼Μ͇͋ ̯χχ͋΢ζχν χΪ ̽Ϊζ͋ ϮΊχ· χ·͋ ζιΪ̼Μ͋΢ ϢνϢ̯ΜΜϴ ι͋νϢΜχed in failing both the new arrivals and the local children. As Emmett Berry, superintendent of schools in Porterville, California, testified in 1940΂ ͞H̯͋ϭϴ ͋ΣιΪΜΜ΢͋Σχν ·̯ϭ͋ ΜΪϮ͋ι͇͋ νχ̯Σ͇̯ι͇ ̯̽·Ί͋ϭ͋΢͋Σχν Ϊ͕ ̯ΜΜ students in fundamental subjects͟ (United States 2436).

Compounding the problem of overcrowded, underfunded schools were the overwhelmed educators. While most were well intentioned they were ill-prepared to understand either the nature or the nurture of migrant children. Thus, poor budgets and lack of teacher preparedness were obstacles to providing a safe academic environment for distressed migrant children. As Leo B. Hart,1 superintendent of Kern County schools, observed in later years, teachers "often solved the migrant problem by shuffling the children into the corners of classrooms only to ignore them (Stanley and McColgan 2).

“One of Those People”

On school grounds, migrant children Ϯ͋ι͋ ζ͋ι̽͋Ίϭ͇͋ ̯ν ͞χ·Ϊν͋ ζ͋ΪζΜ͋͟ a synonym for white trash because of their poverty, ties to farm labor, and social awkwardness (Gregory 78). In the classroom, newcomers stood out because they were often older and bigger physically than their local classmates. Because migrant children were unable to provide their school records, they were often placed in grades that did not correspond with their chronological age. This meant their apparent achievement level often did not match their age and physical size. Contemporary studies and reports confirmed what many educators at the time recognized: that as a result of constantly relocating and working out of school, there was ̯͞ ͽ͋Σ͋ι̯Μ ι͋χ̯ι͇̯χΊΪΣ Ϊ͕ ζϢζΊΜν͟ among migrant children. According to one study, 23 schools reported that children were two-to-three years behind the average grade level for their age One teacher reported χ·̯χ ͞ΪϢχ Ϊ͕ ΢ϴ 32 *ζϢζΊΜν+ χ·Ίν Μ̯νχ ΢ΪΣχ· ΪΣΜϴ νΊϳ ζϢζΊΜν Ϯ͋ι͋ Ϣζ to their normal grade͟ (͞Α̯͋̽·ΊΣͽ χ·͋ ͱΊͽι̯χΪιϴ΂͟ 35, Heffernan 188). As a child migrant Lilllie May2 ι̯͋̽ΜΜν΄ ͜͞χ Ϯ̯ν χ·͋ shock that so many children were held back a year because [they] were new out here. . . .They lost a whole year . . . ͟ (May 24)΅ ΕΣ͕ΪιχϢΣ̯χ͋Μϴ΂ χ·͋ νΪ ̯̽ΜΜ͇͋ ͞ι͋χ̯ι͇̯χΊΪΣ͟3 among migrant children was seen as stupidity among native school children. Consequently, as Gregory points ΪϢχ΂ ͞*χ+·̯χ ζιΪϭΊ͇͇͋ Ϣν͕͋ϢΜ ̯΢΢ϢΣΊχΊΪΣ ͕Ϊι χ·͋Ίι Σ̯χΊϭ͋ ̽Μ̯νν΢̯χ͋ν΄ ·Oh΂ ·͋͛ν ͕ιΪ΢ ͸ΙΜ̯·Ϊ΢̯— ·͋͛ν ͇Ϣ΢̼͛ was heard frequently on the school grounds͟ (Gregory 129). Luckily, enlightened

1 Leo B. Hart served two terms (1930-1946) as the Kern County School Superintendent of Schools. 2 The interviews cited in the California Odyssey: Dust Bowl Migration Digital Archives are part of the California State University, ̯Ι͋ιν͕Ί͋Μ͇͛ν ̯ΜΊ͕ΪιΣΊ̯ ͸͇ϴνν͋ϴ Project's Oral History Program funded in 1980 by the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). The interviews focus on residents who migrated to the San Joaquin Valley from Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, and Texas between 1924 and 1939.

3 ͩ͋ιΣ ΪϢΣχϴ ν̽·ΪΪΜ ζιΊΣ̽Ίζ̯Μ ͧ͋Ϯ͋ΜΜ ΄Ϊχχ͋ι ̯νν͋ιχ͇͋ χ·̯χ ϮΊχ· ͕͋͞Ϯ ͋ϳ̽͋ζχΊΪΣν χ·͋ν͋ *΢Ίͽι̯Σχν+ ̯ι͋ ι͋χ̯ι͇͇͋͟ (ͧ΅ Potter 26). During the 1930s, edϢ̯̽χΪιν Ϣν͇͋ ͞ι͋χ̯ι͇̯χΊΪΣ͟ χΪ ͇͋ν̽ιΊ̼͋ ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ Ϯ·Ϊ Ϯ͋ι͋ ·͋Μ͇ ̼̯̽Ι ΪΣ͋ Ϊι ΢Ϊι͋ grades because they failed to expected attainment levels (Oxford English Dictionary).

2 educators realized the real reason so many migrant children were held back a grade was due to environmental issues and not a lack of mental aptitude (United States 2435).

Two major environmental factors were poverty and ill health. Surveys of rural white children of migratory agricultural workers living in California, conducted during 1936 and 1937, revealed that over 27 percent had nutritional problems:

10 ½ ζ͋ι̽͋Σχ Ϊ͕ ν̽·ΪΪΜ ̯ͽ͋ ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ ͞Ϯ͋ι͋ ͽ͋χχΊΣͽ 1 ½ χΪ 2 ζΊΣχν of milk daily, the amount considered optimum for growth and development, while 15.8 percent were getting no milk.. . . [such nutritional deficits cause the] mental dulling which occurs with constant inadequacy of ͕ΪΪ͇ ̯Σ͇ ͕ι͋θϢ͋Σχ Μ̯̽Ι Ϊ͕ Ίχ͟ (United States 2433)

Along with hunger and poor health, skipping school adversely affected academic performance among migrant children. They were forced to miss school so that they could follow their parents while they bounced from one job or crop to the next, or they spent school days working alongside their parents in fields. Bobby Glen Russell recalls attending three Kern County schools in one year (Russell 10). Frank Manies remembers that he attended 22 schools in Oklahoma and California (Manies 2). Changing schools constantly put an extra hardship on these children. H̯χχϴ͋ ΋·Ί͋Μ͇ν ι͋̽ΪΜΜ͋̽χ͇͋΂ ͜͞ ͇Ί͇Σ͛χ ΜΊΙ͋ χ·̯χ΅ Α·̯χ Ϯ̯ν ϭ͋ιϴ ·̯ι͇͟ (΋·Ί͋Μ͇ν 16).

School disruptions were a way of life even before they arrived in California. In their home states they were often pulled out of school to move with their families to the next farm or job—͞ΖϢνχ trying to survive΂͟ recalls one migrant (Russell 1). Moreover, school days were cut short because of the practice among country schools to truncate the academic year to accommodate the rhythms of the farming cycle. It was common for classes to be in session only during the months when children were not needed to do chores or care for their siblings. Thus, by the time migrant children enrolled in California schools they were far behind in their schooling as compared to their native counterparts. Unsurpisingly, when compared to native pupils, migrant children ranked much lower academically (͞Α̯͋̽·ΊΣͽ χ·͋ ͱΊͽι̯χΪιϴ΂͟ 35). Moreover, once they got back into school they often, according to one Kern County principal:

Seem[ed] oblivious to work, responsibility, play, health and a sense of what makes good citizens. The social adjustment of [these] overage pupils. . . .seem[ed] an insurmountable task (Potter 26).

Yet some migrant children were able to adapt despite missing so much school. Frank Manies, ͕Ϊι ͋ϳ̯΢ζΜ͋΂ ̽Μ̯Ί΢ν ͞χ·̯χ *·͋+ Μ̯͋ιΣ͇͋ χΪ ̯͇ΖϢνχ θϢΊχ͋ ι̯ζΊ͇Μϴ͟ (Manies 2.) And Goldie Farris, originally from Texas, remembers:

being a good student, speaking up, reading and doing my homework. When we left there [Waukena, Tulare County, California] and went to Brawley we went through the same thing [subject matter] again. The teacher started me in arithmetic clear back: at the beginning of the book. Every child was working at his own speed in arithmetic. She started me way back at the beginning but by the time we left in March I was not only ̯̽Ϣͽ·χ Ϣζ ̼Ϣχ ͜ Ϯ̯ν ̯Μ΢Ϊνχ χ·ιΪϢͽ· ϮΊχ· ΢ϴ ̼ΪΪΙ͟ (F̯ιιΊν 15)΅

Success in school was possible for those fortunate children whose parents encouraged their education. Lillie May and her siblings, for example, did not have to repeat a grade because their ͕̯χ·͋ι ̽·̯ΜΜ͋Σͽ͇͋ χ·͋ ν̽·ΪΪΜ͛ν ͇͋̽ΊνΊΪΣ΅ !̽̽Ϊι͇ΊΣͽ χΪ ͱ̯ϴ΂ ·͋ι ͕̯χ·͋ι χΪΜ͇ ν̽·ΪΪΜ Ϊ͕͕Ί̽Ί̯Μν χ·̯χ΂ ͜͞ ͇ΪΣ'χ Ϯ̯Σχ ϴΪϢ χΪ ζϢχ χ·͋΢ ̼̯̽Ι ϢΣχΊΜ ϴΪϢ ͽΊϭ͋ χ·͋΢ ̯ chance." Her father requested that his children take a competency test, which they did and they passed. Moreover, May claimed she and her siblings had had certain subject the year before when they still lived in Oklahoma. When her cousins visited them from Oklahoma ͞χ·͋ϴ Ϯ͋ι͋ ̯·̯͇͋ Ϊ͕ Ϣs ͟ but Californians seemed χΪ ̼͋ΜΊ͋ϭ͋ χ·̯χ ͞ΊΣ ͸ΙΜ̯·Ϊ΢̯΂ !ιΙ̯Σν̯ν ̯Σ͇ ͱΊννΪϢιΊ ̯Σ͇ ΊΣ ̯ΜΜ χ·Ϊν͋ νχ̯χ͋ν χ·̯χ χ·͋Ίι schooling was behind here but it wasn't͟ (May 24).

Migrant mother Loye HΪΜ΢͋ν͛ ι̯͋̽ΜΜ͇͋ ·͋ΜζΊΣͽ ·͋ι children with their homework and involvement with school activities:

[making] it a point to get acquainted with the teachers. I tried to take part in the functions and things. I think that really helped and I joined the PTA. I could hardly afford it but I always managed. I didn't join at first and my first child said the teacher would always say something about it so then I was aware that it was very important to my daughter so then I joined the PTA͟ (Holmes 23).

Thus, as contemporary studies and personal narratives affirm, migrant children, when well- nourished and in good health, were just as mentally capable as their native counterparts (United States 2435). And Bessie M. Knapp, Chair, Migratory Committee, California Congress of Parents and Teachers, reported that if the migratory children are given proper advantages and respected as regular children, they will grow up into useful citizens͟ (United States 2436).

“One of Those People”

To the Okie newcomer, school was an alien place where they were treated as outsiders. Being perceived as an outsider challenged their sense of self, causing them to become very self- conscious of their family and cultural heritage. Billie Pate, originally from Texas, described what many migrant children must have felt about being suddenly dropped into a new geographical and cultural landscape:

It's kind of interesting when you only know one way of life and for the first ten years you grow up in an environment and that's the only thing you know and that's the only thing you've ever experienced. Then, that's a good way of life because you don't know anything differently. And then, one day at the age of ten [you move to California and] you're called trash͟ (Pate 13).

On school grounds, these newcomers were ridiculed for what they ate, what they wore, and how they spoke. Lunch was often humiliating because they either had no lunch money, or they ̼ιΪϢͽ·χ ͕͞Ϊι͋ΊͽΣ͟ ͕ΪΪ͇ χ·̯χ ̽ΪΣνΊνχ͇͋ Ϊ͕ ͕ιΊ͇͋ ζΪχ̯χΪ͋ν΂ ̼Ίν̽ϢΊχν΂ ̯Σ͇ ̼̯͋Σν ΊΣνχ̯͇͋ Ϊ͕ χ·͋ typical sandwich. Migrant Joyce Seabolt remarked: [P]erhaps even the fact that a child wouldn't have enough money for lunch and therefore didn't participate in luncheon activities make him a target of ridicule (Seabolt 34). And William Rintoul, as a young child growing up in Taft, recalls, ͞΅ ΅ ΅ a lot of kids I know, came to school without any money to buy a candy bar or anything else.

I know one family . . . who existed pretty much on oatmeal mush. It was all they could afford. Times were genuinely hard͟ (·ΊΣχΪϢΜ 5).

Another target for derision was coming to school looking shabby and disheveled, wearing no shoes and dressing unfashionably. Many of the Dust Bowl interviewees mentioned being made of fun because of their appearance. Ethel Belessuoli felt out of place wearing cotton dresses when all the girls wore wool skirts ̯Σ͇ νϮ̯͋χ͋ιν ̯Σ͇ ͇͞ι͋νν͇͋ ΣΊ̽͋͟ (͋Μ͋ννϢΪΜΊ 18). And Martha ̯ͧ̽ΙνΪΣ ι̯͋̽ΜΜν΂ ͞In study hall once two girls sat there and talked about what I was wearing— about how long my dress was and if I was ever going to cut it off and things like that. We curled our hair a little different too͟ (Jackson 16).

DΪιΪχ·ϴ ·Ϊν͋ ι͋΢͋΢̼͋ιν χ·̯χ ν·͋ ̯ΜϮ̯ϴν ̯̽ΜΜ͇͋ χ·͋ ν·Ϊ͋ν ν·͋ ϮΪι͋ ΪΣ ΋ϢΣ͇̯ϴν ̯ν ͞νΜΊζζ͋ιν΅͟ But a local girl admonished her:

You don't call shoes slippers. You're suppose to call your shoes shoes." She was trying to make me understand that slíppers were bedroom slippers that you wore at home. We called what we wore at home house shoes. If we wore dress shoes like patent leather or Sunday shoes those were our slippers. It was a fancy shoe. Theard lots of things like that (Rose 24).

Earl Butler talks about friends teasing and picking fights over migrants wearing bib Ϊϭ͋ι̯ΜΜν΂ ͞In Missouri it was fashionable to wear lace boots up to your knees and I think overalls, probably the blue overalls. Even though some kids out here wore them it wasn't that fashionable΅ ΅ ΅͟ Butler also observes that the pressure to look fashionable was much harder on girls than boys:

I remember I was in the third grade and it was much easier for me than it was for my sisters because a boy can wear patched jeans or whatever and get by with it, whereas, at that time all the girls wore dresses and it was more noticeable. I always felt that they were more at a disadvantage than I was. . . . There was no question of changing because you couldn't afford to buy anything else. I'm sure it hurt the girls more͟ (Butler 10).

ͱΊͽι̯Σχν͛ νζ͋͋̽·΂ ΜΊΙ͋ χ·͋Ίι ζ͋ι̽͋Ίϭ͇͋ Ϊ͇͇ ΜϢΣ̽·͋ν ̯Σ͇ ̯ζζ̯ι͋Μ΂ ̽ι̯͋χ͇͋ ̯ νΊͽΣΊ͕Ί̯̽Σχ ̼̯ιιΊ͋ι χΪ acceptance. Elizabeth Day, a Nebraskan who migrated to Calilfornia during the 1930s and did ΣΪχ ̽ΪΣνΊ͇͋ι ·͋ιν͋Μ͕ ̯ν ζ̯ιχ Ϊ͕ χ·͋ ͞͸ΙΊ͋͟ ͽιΪϢζ΂ ̽Μ̯Ί΢͇͋ χ·̯χ ͞ϴΪϢ ι͋̽ΪͽΣΊϹ͇͋ ̯Σ ͸ΙΊ͋ ̼ϴ χ·͋ way he looked . . . .by a certain look about the eyes, defeatism, perhaps, and, of course, their Okie grammar when they spoke͟ (Day 21) To the townspeople, migrants did not νζ̯͋Ι̯͞ΜΊ͕ΪιΣΊ̯Σ΅͟ GΪΜ͇Ί͋ F̯ιιΊν΂ ΪιΊͽΊΣ̯ΜΜϴ ͕ιΪ΢ Α͋ϳ̯ν΂ ι͕͋Μ͋̽χ͇͋΄

Every time I uttered a word that first year we were here somebody would say, "Oh, I can tell where you're from." The California voices sounded very harsh to me. My first day of school in California the girls' voices sounded so harsh. The first year I was here, my sister and I really worked at getting rid of our accent and by the end of a year nobody could tell. If I get very tired and my voice kind of drags a little bit I can hear it (Farris 14).

!ν ͱ̯ιχ·̯ ̯ͧ̽ΙνΪΣ Ϊ̼ν͋ιϭ͇͋΂ ͞Ρ͋ ν̯Ί͇ ̯ ΜΪχ Ϊ͕ ϮΪι͇ν ͇Ί͕͕͋ι͋ΣχΜϴ΅ They teased us a lot about that͟ (Jackson 16). Jackson and other migrants, for example, contracted certain words—͞ϴΪϢ͟ ̯Σ͇ ̯͞ΜΜ͟ χΪ ΢̯Ι͋ ͞ϴ̯͛ΜΜ͟΅ As Byrd Morgan ι̯͋̽ΜΜν΂ ͞Ρ͋ ν̯Ί͇΂ ·Ya'll΅͛ Of course we learned to drop that pretty qui̽Ι΅ ͜ χ·ΪϢͽ·χ ̯χ χ·͋ χΊ΢͋ χ·̯χ ·ϴΪϢ ͽϢϴν͛ was the favorite expression [of Calilfornia kids] then. . . .theϴ ϮΪϢΜ͇ χ̯͋ν͋ Ϣν ̯̼ΪϢχ ν̯ϴΊΣͽ΂ ·Χ̯'ΜΜ͛, and I'd say, ·Well, it's better than naming everybody 'guy'. I had a brother name Guy͟ (Morgan 23).

ͱΊͽι̯Σχν νζΪΙ͋ ΊΣ ͇ΪϢ̼Μ͋ Σ͋ͽ̯χΊϭ͋ν΂ νϢ̽· ̯ν ̯͞ΊΣ͛χ͟ ̯Σ͇ ͞΢Ίͽ·χ ̽ΪϢΜ͇΂͟ ̯Σ͇ ͇ιΪζζ͇͋ χ·͋ ͞ͽ͟ ̯χ χ·͋ ͋Σ͇ Ϊ͕ ͞ΊΣͽ͟ ϮΪι͇ν΅ ͱΪι͋Ϊϭ͋ι΂ χ·͋Ίι ͞χϮ̯Σͽ͟ ͋ΜΊ̽Ίχ͇͋ ͽϢ͕͕̯Ϯν ̯Σ͇ Μaughter. They tended to stretch the vowels in some words. For example dog sounded like ͇͞Ϊ̯Ϯͽ΂͟ and ͞ν̯χ͟ ̼̯͋̽΢͋ ͞ν̯-̯̯χ͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ Children 36). Many of the migrant interviewees mentioned they were made to be very conscious of their twangy accent—͞Ίχ would certainly give you away, no question about it͟ (ͱΪιͽ̯Σ 23). And Lillie May recalls:

The most embarrassing thing that happened to me was a teacher when I was reading in geography in front of the class and I was in the seventh grade. When it came to R-O-U-T E we always called that route. The teacher corrected me and said, "Route [root]". I said, "I'm sorry but you're in the wrong place. I'm reading this sentence." I read it again and he corrected me again and made a remark about "now we really know you're from Oklahoma," Then he pronounced it R-0-0-T. I went home and told my dad. I said, "Do you know we rooted our way all the way to California on Highway 66?" He said, "What are you talking about--that's route not root." That's the only time the teacher ever did anything͟ (May 22).

!ν ̯ ι͋νϢΜχ Ϊ͕ ̼͋ΊΣͽ ΢̯͇͋ ͕ϢΣ Ϊ͕ ΢̯Σϴ ΢Ίͽι̯Σχν ͞Μ̯͋ιΣ͇͋ ϭ͋ιϴ θϢΊ̽ΙΜϴ χΪ χιy and drop the ̼ιΪͽϢ͋͟ ̯Σ͇ ͞ϮΪιΙ͇͋ ·̯ι͇ χιϴΊΣͽ χΪ νΪϢΣ͇ ΜΊΙ͋ ̯ΜΊ͕ΪιΣΊ̯Σν͞ (Rose 22, Jackson 16) Jewell Egbert remembers sh͋ ΜΪνχ ·͋ι ̯̽̽͋Σχ ͞ζι͋χχϴ θϢΊ̽k͟ (Egbert 25). Joyce Seabolt Ϯ̯ν ͞ζΜ̯͋ν͇͋ when [her accent] did go away and the teasing and ridicule stopped͟ (Seabolt 34). Migrants θϢΊ̽ΙΜϴ ι̯͋ΜΊϹ͇͋ χ·̯χ χ·͋Ίι ͞νχι̯Σͽ͋ νζ͋͋̽·͟ ͋θϢ̯χ͇͋ χ·͋΢ χΪ χ·͋ ζΪΪι͋ι΂ ͕̯ι΢ ϮΪιΙ͋ι ̽Μ̯νν͋ν΅ Dorothy Rose felt that the locals considered her and other migrants to be beneath them socially:

Not that we had to go to the back of the bus or anything but I certainly felt people considered us lower class. I know some of my friends felt that too so we really worked hard so that they wouldn't know by our speech that we were from Oklahoma.͟(Rose 16)

The inability to pay for extracurricular activities also isolated migrant children. Joyce Seabolt recalls that as a third grader she was not able to participate in May Day dances:

I can remember dancing up a storm learning that dance around the Maypole. I couldn't participate in that May Day dance because I didn't have any shoes--that was one rule they made. It hurt and I didn't forget it. Even today, I'm not a wealthy woman but I'm comfortable and I feel very badly when I see a child with tattered clothes and worn shoes because it brings back memories of those earlier years. It brings tears to my eyes (Seabolt 24).

Butler remembers another incident that was an embarrassment as well as a disappointment:

I wanted to go out for basketball but there was just no way to buy shorts. I don't know whether you had to buy your jerseys and shoes too but there just wasn't the money for it so, consequently, I think you lost sometimes on things like that. If you're active in sports at an early age your chances are better to get along with other people͟ (ϢχΜ͋ι 10).

And Dorothy Rose refused to attend her junior and senior proms because she could not afford to buy appropriate dresses. (Rose 25)

School taught migrant children that they did not measure up to local standards. Their poverty and speech left them vulnerable to being stereotyped as lazy, dirty, and stupid and somehow to blame for their predicament. Thus, these negative labels often left migrant children feeling defeated, seeing themselves as flawed, undesirable, or morally defective (Philips). Moreover, the defeatism they felt at school mirrored what their parents felt as they grappled with economic uncertainty, mobility, and familial unrest (Heffernan 188 ). As Theobald and Donato Ϊ̼ν͋ιϭ͋ ͞*ͱ]any Okie migrant children dropped out rather than suffer the humiliation of ν̽·ΪΪΜ΂ ̯̽ϢνΊΣͽ ΪΣ͋ ͕̯χ·͋ι χΪ Μ̯΢͋Σχ χ·̯χ ·Ίν νΪΣ Ϯ̯ν ·ͽΪΊΣͽ χΪ ͽιΪϮ Ϣζ ͇Ϣ΢̼΂ ΖϢνχ ΜΊΙ͋ ΢͋͛͟ (Theobald 35).

How did other Okie children respond to the taunts and bullying? Some overcame their shame by hiding certain aspects of their lives. Goldie Farris recalls:

making friends with one girl and I was very careful never to let her know where I lived. Finally not too long before we left there I told her where we lived and I can remember her looking at ΢͋ ̯Σ͇ ν·͋ Ϯ̯ν νΪ νϢιζιΊν͇͋΅ ·You don't look like one of those people͛ ͞(Farris 15).

Lula Martin recalls a painful experience where she felt pressure to violate her ethical principles to save face:

I had a teacher who liked to make you feel bad. In a sewing class she asked what our room was like and would we like to change our room and she was going to help us redecorate our room. I didn't have a room. There wasn't even any paint. I slept in the living room on a little cot. I don't think it was even painted, but it was made into rooms then. I'm sure she knew that I lived like that. . . . So she went right down the [row] and I was so embarrassed and I thought, what will I say? I didn't want to lie because I was really, taught never to lie and I knew if I lied I'd feel bad about it for a long time. And yet I wasn't going to say I don't have a room. I could have done that. So I told her my room was pink and green. Then she said that color combination was not good so we'll change it to so-and-so. I felt really guilty that I had told that lie because I didn't even have a room. It was no big deal. Most people wouldn't have been bothered, I think I was just overly sensitive͟ (Martin 19).

Other migrant children reacted to being an outsider through avoidance. Dorothy Rose, for ͋ϳ̯΢ζΜ͋΂ ͋ϳζι͋νν͇͋ ·͋ι ν͋Σν͋ Ϊ͕ ΊνΪΜ̯χΊΪΣ ̯Σ͇ ΜΪΣ͋ΜΊΣ͋νν ΊΣ ·͋ι ζΪ͋΢ ͞!Μͽ̼͋ι̯ Α̯͋̽·͋ι͟΄

I keep to myself Stay away from the town-people's kids Take my poke of lunch To the Main Street Park Plaza I eat alone on a bench behind the shrubbery (Rose 22)

Rose also recalls that she avoided being ostracized by interacting with people Ϯ·Ϊ ͇Ί͇Σ͛χ ̯χχ͋Σ͇ schools other than hers:

I felt that people from another school wouldn't know where I was from for some reason. I hardly ever dated anyone when 1 was in high school that went to that high school. I dated them from surrounding towns. At that time we went to ah l the surrounding towns quite a bit. We went dancing on Saturday night at a certain ballroom and it seems that all my friends that I felt comfortable with were from other schools. They weren't going to know I was an Okie or call me an Okie͟ (Rose 24).

Migrants often retaliated to taunts with their fists. Martha Jackson recalls the ridicule she experienced:

They made fun of us a lot. I remember once we had a debate in assembly about the Okies coming to California. We almost had a fight and the teachers had to dismiss assembly right away because there would have been a fight. It just seemed like half of the kids there were from Oklahoma and it was just about to erupt into a brawl͟(Jackson 17).

ͱ̯Σϴ ̼ι̯ϮΜν ͋ιϢζχ͇͋ Ϯ·͋Σ ΢Ίͽι̯Σχν Ϯ͋ι͋ ̯̽ΜΜ͇͋ ͞͸ΙΊ͋.͟ In those days it was a derogatory term that classified individuals, originally from the south central states of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Texas, and Missouri, as:

ignorant and uneducated, dirty of habit if not of mind, slothful, unambitious, and dependent. [They] may be viewed now as emotional, again as phlegmatic; sometimes as sullen and unfriendly; again as arrogant and over-bearing. Not rarely [are they] accused of being dishonest. These characteristics are sometimes considered innate [and] sometimes lack of education is held responsible͟(Goldschmidt 61).

Byrd Morgan remembers putting his fist in the mouth of someone who called him an Okie, ͞Α·͋ϴ'͇ ͽ̯Σͽ Ϣζ ΪΣ ̯ ΙΊ͇ Ί͕ χ·͋ϴ ·̯͇ ̯ ̽·̯Σ̽͋ ΜΊΙ͋ ̯Σϴ ΙΊ͇ν ϮΊΜΜ ͇Ϊ΅ Χ͋ν΂ ͜ ·̯͇ θϢΊχ͋ ̯ ͕͋Ϯ ͕Ίͽ·χν for the first two or three years͟(Morgan 23). And Charles Newsome recalls trying to convince the local children that he was an Oklahoman not an Okie ΅ ΅ ΅ ΅ ͞*͜ Ϯ̯ν+ νΪmebody back where [I] came from͟ (Newsome 37).

ͫΊΙ͋ Ͳ͋ϮνΪ΢͋΂ ΢Ίͽι̯Σχν͛ ζιΊ͇͋ ΊΣ χ·͋Ίι ̽ϢΜχϢι̯Μ ·͋ιΊχ̯ͽ͋ ζιΪχ͋̽χ͇͋ χ·͋΢ ͕ιΪ΢ χ·͋ ν̽ΪιΣ Ϊ͕ others. Viola Mitchell echoes what many migrants from the middle central states believed:

I always taught my kids not to pick a fight, but if anybody jumped on them, let them have it. That's just what they did. We always held ourselves up and demanded respect and I taught the kids to do that cause back there in Hollis, if you didn't have money and own land, you wasn't nothing. I learned real young to hold my head up high and if they said something to me I didn't like, I let them have it. And I got respect and that's what I kept͟ (Mitchell 9)

Α·Ϣν΂ ΜΊΙ͋ ͱΊχ̽·͋ΜΜ΂ ̼ϴ ͇͋΢̯Σ͇ΊΣͽ ι͋νζ͋̽χ χ·͋ϴ νϢ̼ϭ͋ιχ͇͋ χ·͋ χ͋ι΢ ͞͸ΙΊ͋΅͟ ͫΊΜΜΊ͋ May ι͋΢͋΢̼͋ιν ̯͇ϭΊνΊΣͽ ̯ΣΪχ·͋ι ΢Ίͽι̯Σχ χΪ ͞ΖϢνχ νχΊ̽Ι ϴΪϢι ΣΪν͋ Ϣζ ΊΣ χ·͋ ̯Ίι and [be] proud you're an Okie"(May 22). And James Lambert recalls:

Well, to a lot of people "Okie" means a dirty word. Back years and years ago, back in the 1920s and 1930s "Okie" was trash. But "Okie" meaning to me is that you are one hell of a man or a woman or a child whichever one you might have been at that time. You worked hard, you lived hard and you played hard. There was nobody else to do the work same as your "Arkies", your "Texan" people, they were the same (Lambert 17).

Pride plus a sense of humor enabled many to adapt to their new surroundings. Morgan recalls:

After a little while, you joke back. One favorite one was they'd asked if you knew why they didn't have aΣϴ ΊΣν̯Σ͋ ̯νϴΜϢ΢ν ΊΣ ͸ΙΜ̯·Ϊ΢̯΅ ·ͲΪ΂ Ϯ·ϴͺ Well, they sent all the crazy people to California to teach school.͛ So you learned to cope with it͟ (Morgan 23).

Okies vs. Townspeople

The tensions on school grounds between the newcomers and the local children mirrored the conflict between their parents and townspeople. One migrant observed:

I don't know, but looking back I think a lot of what the kids picked up on they heard at home. There must have been some talk at home or they wouldn't have disliked the fact that the kids were from Oklahoma or anywhere else. A lot of them didn't know where Oklahoma was. It was really foreign to them. It could have been an island in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean for all they knew͟ (Morgan 23).

Gladys Potter describes it this way:

Probably the greatest single factor in the lives of [migrants] is the feeling that they are never received into a community or into the life of the community. . . .They are never allowed to feel at home in the communities which demand their services͟ (G. Potter 138).

Once the crops were planted and harvested, the locals expected the migrants to move on. Yet, many stayed put. Unlike their Mexican counterparts, many migrants did not move on. As a result many who chose to stay ended up jobless, living in squalor. Migrants set up camp wherever they could,

pitch[ing] their camps . . . beneath the railroad trestles and the river bridges, along the ditch banks and among the trees in groves an orchards, their shelters, shacks and sheds, their tents and trucks were crowded, forming little colonies of miserable, frustrated refugees. . . hum̯Σ ̽·̯χχ͋Μ Ϊ͕ χ·͋ ͕Ί͋Μ͇ν΅͟ (H̯ιχ΂ Report 27)

The images of these people living in filth generated a perception among some educators and χΪϮΣνζ͋ΪζΜ͋ χ·̯χ χ·Ίν ͞΢Ίͽι̯χΪιϴ ·Ϊι͇͋͟ (·͋Ί̽·̯ι͇ 9) were an ignorant, primitive, shiftless lot who came to California for a hand-ΪϢχ΅ ͸Σ͋ χ̯͋̽·͋ι ̼͋ΜΊ͋ϭ͇͋ χ·̯χ χ·͋ν͋ ̯͇͞ϢΜχ ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ͟ ̯Σ͇ χ·͋Ίι ͞ΜΊχχΜ͋ χΪϮ ·̯͇͋ν͟ Ϯ͋ι͋ ΖϢνχ ̯ν ·̯ζζϴ χΪ ι͋Μϴ on the dole. (Reichard 9) This belief echoes migrant Bobby Glen Russell͛ν observation that the locals felt that "Okies and Arkies just weren't that smart—all they knew how to find as the Welfare Office." (Russell 6) The community wanted the migrants to disappear because they viewed them as a tax burden, social threat, and competition for scarce jobs.

Separate But Not Equal: Migratory Schools

During the mid-to-late 1930s, educators became aware that mainstreaming migrant children into regular classrooms was not conducive to academic success—such children needed to be νΊχϢ̯χ͇͋ ΊΣ ̯ ν̯͕͋ ̯Σ͇ ·̯͋Μχ·ϴ Μ̯͋ιΣΊΣͽ ͋ΣϭΊιΪΣ΢͋Σχ΅ ΪΣν̽Ί͋ΣχΊΪϢν ͇͋Ϣ̯̽χΪιν ̯νΙ͇͋΂ ͞HΪϮ ̯̽Σ [we] best meet their many needs as they wander in and out of the overcrowded schools in the νχ̯χ͋΅͟(G. Potter 139) Clearly, educators realized their responsibility went beyond academic needs to addressing social, health, and familial needs. School districts appealed to the state of California for assistance in delivering effective education to migrant children. Eventually, the state offered two options: Districts could either integrate specially-trained emergency teachers into regular schools or establish a separate school for migrants (Heffernan 184). Unfortunately, school districts had difficulty with both options because the state did not provide supplemental funds. Consequently, school superintendents had to bow and scrape before their local communities for the needed funds. Unsurprisingly, local response was usually unenthusiastic at best and hostile at worst. (Heffernan, 184) As a result, lack of funding and little community support forced school districts to build temporary migratory schools, many of which were substandard, lacking basic facilities, such as flush toilets and treeless playgrounds, dusty in summer and muddy in winter, and devoid of swings and jungle gyms (͞Α̯͋̽·ΊΣͽ χ·͋ ͱΊͽι̯χΪιϴ͟ 34)

The Okie School

One such school proved to be an exception and became a shining example of what a migrant school could accomplish. Known as the Weedpatch school, it was the brain child of the aforementioned Kern County Schools Superintendent Leo B. Hart. He envisioned a school that the Okie students could be proud of and claim as their own. The school would engender an ͋ΣϭΊιΪΣ΢͋Σχ Ϯ·͋ι͋ χ·͋ϴ ΣΪ ΜΪΣͽ͋ι ·̯͇ χΪ ͞χΪ ͋Σ͇Ϣι͋ χ·͋ ͋΢̼̯ιι̯νν΢͋Σχ΂ ·Ϣ΢ΊΜΊ̯χΊΪΣ ̯Σ͇ disapproval they had so often experienced in theΊι ν̯͋ι̽· ͕Ϊι ̯ ̼͋χχ͋ι ΜΊ͕͋΅͟ (Hart, Report, 29). During his years as a teacher and counselor, Hart observed firsthand the plight of Okie children—their poverty, educational disadvantages and their victimization in the classroom and on the playground. He recognized that Okie children came to school ill and hungry. Thus, the

10 new school ensured that every child had rest periods and health examinations. They also were given cod liver oil and orange juice ̼͋χϮ͋͋Σ ΢̯͋Μν (H̯ιχ΂ ͞ΠΊΣ͋Μ̯Σ͇͟ 2). No longer were Okie children stuck in classes where they were physically bigger than the other students. Hart and the teachers ̯ͽι͇͋͋ χ·̯χ΂ ͞the best instruction would come through grouping students in classrooms according to age. The discrepancies in previous background and training were taken care of through individual attention or small groupings.͟ (H̯ιχ΂ ͞ΠΊΣ͋Μ̯Σ͇͟ 2) Hart was so confident of the success of the school that he enrolled his own children (Stanley, Children 56).

Financing the school was a challenge. Because Hart received scant government funds for his school, he became a self-described ζ̯Σ·̯Σ͇Μ͋ι΅ ΅ ΅ ΅ ͞νχϢ΢ζ*ΊΣͽ] Kern County for donations of supplies ̯Σ͇ ΢̯χ͋ιΊ̯Μν͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ 47)΅ In September, 1940 the school opened with two temporary buildings but not much else . . . ͞ΣΪ ͽι̯νν΂ ΣΪ νΊ͇͋Ϯ̯ΜΙν΂ ΣΪ ζΜ̯ϴͽιΪϢΣ͇ ͋θϢΊζ΢͋Σχ΂ nΪ χΪΊΜ͋χν΂ ̯Σ͇ ΣΪ Ϯ̯χ͋ι͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ ͞Educating͟ 8) To provide water for the school, Hart, the teaching staff, the ζιΊΣ̽Ίζ̯Μ΂ ̯Σ͇ νχϢ͇͋Σχν ͟ΖΪΊΣ͇͋ ·̯Σ͇ν ΊΣ ΅ ΅ ΅ laying a ¾ inch pipeline across 1,000 feet of ground to a neighboring family water main͟ (Hart΂ ͞ΠΊΣ͋Μ̯Σ͇͟ 2). During the ν̽·ΪΪΜ͛ν ͕Ίινχ ϴ̯͋ι teachers and children continued to build the school that included a kitchen, food storage units and desks that were made out of orange crates. Later they bought used desks for one dollar apiece from schools that had purchased new desks (Stanley, ͞E͇Ϣ̯̽χΊΣͽ͟)΅

In the second year they built an auditorium, and a home economics building. Thus, while learning how to read and write the students also were learning how to plumb, wire, plaster, and work with wood (Stanley, ͞Educating͟ 7).

H̯ιχ͛ν ͇͋̽ΊνΊΪΣ χΪ ζϢΜl the migrant children out of the regular schools satisfied everyone--local educators, parents, and the community at large. The emergency school would eliminate Ϊϭ͋ι̽ιΪϮ͇͇͋ ̽Μ̯ννιΪΪ΢ν΂ ι͋ΜΊ͋ϭ͋ χ·͋ χ̯͋̽·͋ιν͛ νχι͋νν in trying to cope with the needs of Okie children, and would reduce the daily brawls between migrant children and local school students. !Σ͇ ̼͋νχ Ϊ͕ ̯ΜΜ΂ ̯χ Μ̯͋νχ ͕ιΪ΢ χ·͋ χΪϮΣνζ͋ΪζΜ͋͛ν ϭΊ͋ϮζΪΊΣχ΂ χ·͋ ͸ΙΊ͋ν ϮΪϢΜ͇ ̼͋ ͞ϮΪϢΜ͇ Ϊ͕ νΊͽ·χ͟ ̯Σ͇ χ̯ϳζ̯ϴ͋ιν ϮΪϢΜ͇Σ͛χ ·̯ϭe to foot the bill for buses, lunches, playground equipment, and so on͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ, Children 47).

Compassionate Teachers Only, Please

While many school teachers were professional and compassionate toward migrants, others were less so4. Several of the Dust Bowl interviewees mentioned unkind teachers. Billie Pate recalls that even though he and his brother were good students in Texas, that was not the case in ̯ΜΊ͕ΪιΣΊ̯΅ H͋ ι͋΢͋΢̼͋ιν χ·̯χ χ·͋ϴ ͞νχ̯ιχ͇͋ Ϊ͕͕ ΪΣ χ·͋ ϮιΪΣͽ ͕ΪΪχ͟ ΊΣ ̯ ̽Μ̯νν where all the students were natives except for himself, his brother and two other boys, all of whom were ͕ιΪ΢ ͸ΙΜ̯·Ϊ΢̯ ̯Σ͇ Α͋ϳ̯ν΄ ͞Well, for some reason our teacher resented and made it known that she didn't like the Okies and the Arkies and the Texans. So, it was a very bad relationship͟(Pate 13).

4 A 1936 Kern County schools study stated that the reason migrant children were held back in school may or may ΣΪχ ̼͋ ͇Ϣ͋ χΪ ͞their inferior Σ̯χΊϭ͋ ̯̼ΊΜΊχϴ͟(Dawe 38).

Ethel Belezzuoli recalls something a teacher at Porterville High School said to her. Why, the χ̯͋̽·͋ι ̯νΙ͇͋΂ ͇Ί͇ ͞all us Okies came out here.͟ Her response: "Probably for the same reason you did." Bertezzuoli Ϯ͋Σχ ΪΣ χΪ ν̯ϴ΂ ͞νhe was the only teacher that had ever made any remark along that line. There were a few people that said things but I always consider the source and with most people it's ignorance. (Belezzuoli 15)

Ruth Criswell remembers that during the time when her family was living in tents, the teacher of her brother and sister sent them home with a letter in which the teacher claimed that the school was going to transfer her siblings to another school because΂ ν̯Ί͇ χ·͋ Μ͋χχ͋ι΂ ͞Αhey were obviously of low I.Q. [Intelligence Quotient]. They're Okies and Texans.͟ ιΊνϮ͋ΜΜ ι̯͋̽ΜΜν ·͋ι reaction: ͞I don't know just how to describe it. I thought it was the most obnoxious thing I'd ever heard of a teacher doing. She didn't send any grades. We thought she'd send grades along. She couldn't support what she said with grades. . . My mother threw it [the letter[ in the stove͟ (Criswell 35).

͸Σ͋ ΢Ίͽι̯Σχ ̯χχιΊ̼Ϣχ͋ν νΪ΢͋ Ϊ͕ ·Ίν ͞ΪΣ͋ιΊΣ͋νν͟ χΪ χ·͋ biased attitude of one teacher:

I think we had one teacher who was actually prejudiced. I'm sure she was. . . .That made it kind of hard.Well, I think we got the blame in some cases when we didn't have it coming. I know we did. Because of that this stepbrother of mine and I got pretty ornery sometimes. We were pretty hard scrappers anyway. After we moved from there though I really never had any more problems at school͟ (Morgan 24).

͋Σχι̯Μ χΪ H̯ιχ͛ν ϭΊνΊΪΣ ͕Ϊι χ·͋ Σ͋Ϯ ν̽·ΪΪΜ Ϯ͋ι͋ ̽Ϊ΢΢Ίχχ͇͋ χ̯͋̽·͋ιν Ϯ·Ϊ ̽ΪϢΜ͇ ν͋͋ ̼͋ϴΪΣ͇ χ·͋ ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ͛ν ζΪϭ͋ιχϴ ̯Σ͇ ̼̯̽ΙϮ̯ι͇Σ͋νν χΪ χ·͋Ίι ζΪtential as educated and productive citizens. H̯ιχ ̯̽ΙΣΪϮΜ͇͋ͽ͇͋ χ·̯χ ·͋ Ϯ̯ν ΊΣχ͋ι͋νχ͇͋ ΪΣΜϴ ΊΣ χ·͋ ͞χ·͋ ̼͋νχ χ̯͋̽·͋ιν΅ ΅ ΅ χ̯͋̽·͋ιν Ϯ·Ϊν͋ attitude indicated that they were really interested in this type of student and wanted to help in χ·͋ ζιΪͽι̯΢΅͟ (΋χanley, Children 46) Hart traveled to several colleges throughout California to recruit the best qualified teachers. Hart was able to pay these elementary teachers very well- $36΂000 ̯Σ͇ 45΂000 ̯ ϴ̯͋ι ̽Ϊ΢ζ̯ι͇͋ χΪ χ·͋ ͞χϮ͋Σχϴ νΪ΢͋χ·ΊΣͽ͟ ·Ίͽ· ν̽·ΪΪΜ χ̯͋̽·͋ιν Ϯ͋ιe earning (Stanley and McColgan 11). But, these teachers earned every cent, not only were they expected to teach in the classroom but also work with the children outside of class(Stanley, ͞E͇Ϣ̯̽χΊΣͽ͟ 8). In addition to assisting the school children in digging ditches and sewer lines, they counseled them through their personal troubles, supplied them with juice and soup until the cafeteria was built, and often bought them shoes and clothing (Stanley ͞E͇Ϣ̯̽χΊΣͽ͟ 8).

Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and . . .

Μ͋Σ͇ΊΣͽ χ·͋ ̯̯͇̽͋΢Ί̽ ϮΊχ· χ·͋ ζι̯̽χΊ̯̽Μ Ϯ̯ν ̽͋Σχι̯Μ χΪ H̯ιχ͛ν ν̽·ΪΪΜ ̽ϢιιΊ̽ϢΜϢ΢΅ H͋ ̼͋ΜΊ͋ϭ͇͋ that while these children Ϯ͋ι͋ ͋̽ΪΣΪ΢Ί̯̽ΜΜϴ ̯Σ͇ νΪ̽Ί̯ΜΜϴ ͇Ίν̯͇ϭ̯Σχ̯ͽ͇͋΂ ͞χ·͋ϴ Ϯ͋ι͋ ̯Σ ̯ϭ͋ι̯ͽ͋ group of kids with all the feelings, aspirations, and dreams of other ϴΪϢΣͽνχ͋ιν͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ ͞E͇Ϣ̯̽χΊΣͽ͟ 8)΅ ΡΊχ· χ·Ίν ΊΣ ΢ΊΣ͇΂ H̯ιχ ͇͋ϭ͋ΜΪζ͇͋ ̯ ̽ϢιιΊ̽ϢΜϢ΢ χ·̯χ ι͕͋Μ͋̽χ͇͋ ͞Ϯ·̯χ χ·͋ ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ wanted to become, not what χ·͋ϴ Ϯ͋ι͋͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ ͞E͇Ϣ̯̽χΊΣͽ͟ 8). They, Hart realized, required more than just reading, writing, and arithmetic—they also needed to know how to survive in the real world. So they learned how to build furniture, type a letter, cobble shoes, and make a

12 dress. Moreover, to help them become socially confident and be better stewards of their health, he integrated instruction in manners, morals, and health education into their daily lessons. (Hart, Report 28)

As can be seen, students learned by doing. They applied their new skills to practical situations they wouΜ͇ ͋Σ̽ΪϢΣχ͋ι ΊΣ χ·͋ ·Ϊ΢͋ ̯Σ͇ ϮΪιΙζΜ̯̽͋΅ ͜Σ χ·͋ ͞Μ̯̼Ϊι̯χΪιϴ Ϊ͕ ̼̯͋Ϣχϴ΂͟ for example, teacher Barbara Sabovitch taught girlν χ·͋ ͞Σ͇͋͋ν Ϊ͕ χ·͋ ͧϢΣΊΪι ͱΊνν͟ (Stanley, Children 56). They learned to style hair and care for nails and skin and to whip up their own cosmetics. As H̯ιχ Ϊ̼ν͋ιϭ͇͋΂ ͞ι̯͋΢΂ ζΪϮ͇͋ιν΂ ζ̯νχ͋ν ̯Σ͇ ιΪϢͽ͋ ·ΪΜ͇ ΣΪ ΢ϴνχ͋ιΊ͋ν ͕Ϊι χ·͋΢͟ (H̯ιχ΂ Report 38). Boys, on the other hand, learned about aviation from studying an old C-46 that Principal Pete Bancroft procured for the school (Stanley, Children 56). ͟͜ χ̯Ϣͽ·χ χ·͋΢ ̯Ίι̽ι̯͕χ mechanics΂͟ ̯Σ̽ιΪ͕χ ν̯Ί͇΂ ͞and if they maintained a grade of 90 percent or better in arithmetic, I let them drive the plane down the makeshift runway.

Students raised sheep, pigs, chickens and cows on school property. They planted and harvested potato and vegetable crops which ζιΪϭΊ͇͇͋ ͕ΪΪ͇ ͕Ϊι χ·͋ ν̽·ΪΪΜ΄ ͞FιΪ΢ ζ̯νχϢι͋ ̯Σ͇ χ·͋ ζ͋Σν via the cold storage room comes the meat for the cafeteria to provide nourishing meals for the νχϢ͇͋Σχν͟ (H̯ιχ΂ Report 32). Girls and boys learned institutional cooking by preparing and cooking lunches for nearly four hundred students daily. Lunch cost two cents or was free if a child was unable to pay. Breakfast was also served with the help of PWA (Public Works Adminstration) cooks. Supplies were augmented with surplus commodities and private donations. ͞ͱ̯Σϴ ̯Σ ϢΣ͇͋ιΣΪϢιΊν·͇͋ ̽·ΊΜ͇΂͟ H̯ιχ Ϊ̼ν͋ιϭ͇͋΂ ͞Ϯ̯s restored to normal health͟ (Hart, Report 34).

Soon, a close bond based on mutual trust and respect developed between the teachers and the students. This made the Weedpatch school unique. Teachers, said H̯ιχ΂ ͞Ϯ͋Σχ ΪϢχ Ϊ͕ χ·͋Ίι Ϯ̯ϴ to help these children and teach them things about themselves and the world that they ̽ΪϢΜ͇Σ͛χ Μ̯͋ιΣ ̯ΣϴϮ·͋ι͋ ͋Μν͋͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ Children 56). The children became self-confident ͋ΣΪϢͽ· χΪ ΙΣΪϮ ͞χ·ey were as good as anybody else͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ Children, 70). The close ties between child and school meant there were very few disciplinary problems. After visiting the school representatives of the California Youth Authority compli΢͋Σχ͇͋ H̯ιχ ΪΣ ͞χ·͋ ͕ΊΣ͋νχ crime prevention program in the State of California͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ Children 71).

!͕χ͋ι ̯ ͕͋Ϯ ϴ̯͋ιν΂ χ·͋ ΜΪ̯̽Μ ̽Ϊ΢΢ϢΣΊχϴ ̼̯͋̽΢͋ ̯Ϯ̯ι͋ Ϊ͕ χ·͋ Ρ͇͋͋ζ̯χ̽· ν̽·ΪΪΜ͛ν νϢ̽̽͋νν΅ Consequently, local businesses and organizations donated materials, livestock, and plants to the school. For example, the DiGiorgio Ranch donated potatoes and the labor to help the children plant and harvest the crop. The Weedpatch students reciprocated by sharing the swimming pool they constructed themselves with the townspeople. Eventually, the reciprocal ν·̯ιΊΣͽ ̽ι̯͋χ͇͋ ̯ ̽͋͞΢͋ΣχΊΣͽ ͕͋͋ΜΊΣͽ ̼͋χϮ͋͋Σ χ·͋ ̽Ϊ΢΢ϢΣΊχϴ ̯Σd χ·͋ ν̽·ΪΪΜ΅͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ ͞E͇Ϣ̯̽χΊΣͽ͟ 8). Ironically, the very people who viewed Okies with such disdain, came to respect the Weedpatch school. So much so, that many parents clamored to enroll their children. !̽̽Ϊι͇ΊΣͽ χΪ ΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ΂ ζ̯ι͋Σχν ̼͋͞ͽ̯Σ χΪ ζ·ΪΣ͋ *H̯ιχ+ ̯Σ͇ ϮιΊχ͋ Μ͋χχ͋ιν ν͋͋ΙΊΣͽ χΪ χι̯Σν͕͋ι χ·͋Ίι ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ χΪ ͞χ·͋ ͸ΙΊ͋ ν̽·ΪΪΜ΅͟ Α·͋ ΜΪ̯̽Μν ̯̽͞΢͋ χΪ ̯̽̽͋ζχ *χ·͋ ΢Ίͽι̯Σχ Σ͋Ϯ̽Ϊ΢͋ιν+ ̯ν ζ̯ιt of the community when they saw what had been accomplished͟ (΋χ̯ΣΜ͋ϴ, Children 71).

The “Okie” School Becomes the Sunset School

Since the so-̯̽ΜΜ͇͋ ͞͸ΙΊ͋ ΋̽·ΪΪΜ͟ Ϯ̯ν ̯Σ ͋΢͋ιͽ͋Σ̽ϴ ν̽·ΪΪΜ΂ Ίχ ̽ΪϢΜ͇ ΪΣΜϴ ͋ϳΊνχ ͕Ϊι ͕Ίϭ͋ ϴ̯͋ιν΂ according to state law (Stanley, Children 71). In 1944, after five years of operation, the school merged with the Vineland School District and became known as the Sunset School. After securing permission from Hart, the local school trustees enrolled their seventh and eighth grade students. Subsequently, the Okie children were soon outnumbered by the local children (Stanley, Children 72).

In the long run, the schΪΪΜ͛ν νϢ̽̽͋νν Ϯ̯ν χϮΪ͕ΪΜ͇΅ FΊινχ΂ ̼̯͋̽Ϣν͋ χ·͋ ͸ΙΊ͋ ̽·ΊΜ͇ι͋Σ ΜΊΙ͇͋ ͽΪΊΣͽ χΪ school, they did not want to leave and follow their parents to another job, so many of the parents stayed in town or in the federal camp during the school year. As a result the chil͇ι͋Σ͛ν family lives became more stabilized. And, second, the school prepared these students, who once were deemed dirty and uncouth, to graduate from high school and pursue successful careers in business, teaching, firefighting and other professions. As Bobby Glen Russell observes:

It's real interesting to note that a lot of the so-called slow learners in those days are successful businessmen around Bakersfield. They survived. They made it anyway—the drive that motivated them was survival (Russell 6).

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