ITPCM#International#Commentary Vol.$VIII$$no.$30,$July$2012
The#ITPCM International#Commentary
International Training Programme ISSN.#2239K7949 for Conflict Management
in$this$issue:$ UDAN SOUTH SUDAN BROADCASTING STATE POWER
Oil$&$corruption$curses$ Neglecting$the$CPA, Nubian$and$land$issues$ in$South$Sudan impacts$on$the$Sudan/South$ in$South$Kordofan by#Brian#Adeba,#p.#5 Sudan$relations by#Siham#Khalid,#p.#29 by#Dagu#David#Justin,#p.#17 South$Sudan$quest$for$ freedom$of$expression The$humanitarian$ about$the$ITPCM: by#Enrica#Valentini#,#p.#9 dimension$of$the$crisis Next#Events#&#Trainings,#p.#34 by#Laura#Nistri,#p.#21 Real$and$apparent$causes$ Prosecutor$of$the$ of$the$Sudan/South$Sudan$ Sudan:$power$ International$Criminal$Court$ demonstrations$of$a$failed$ Ms.$Fatou$BENSOUDA by#Marshal#Olal,#p.#13 state$ visiting#the#Scuola,#22nd#October#2012,#p.#34 by#Amgad#Fareid#Eltayeb,#p.#24 1 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
the$ITPCM$ International$Commentary
Chief&Director:& Francesco&Ceccarelli & Editor&in&Chief:& Michele&Gonnelli
Contributors&to&this&issue: Brian&Adeba,& Dagu&David&Justin,&Siham&Khalid,& Laura&Nistri,&Marshal&Olal,& Enrica&Valentini&&
Graphic&Design:& Michele&Gonnelli
2 ITPCM#International#Commentary December#2011July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
Submerged$landscapes$of$the$African$State
Sudan#was#until#one#year#ago#K#when# K by#the#Sudanese#example.#Those#entiK South# Sudan# eventually# proclaimed# ence,#all#those#pending#issues#would# ties#are#held#tightly#together#by#more# its#independence#(9th#July#2011)#K#the# reKemerge# with# all# the# brutality# and# traditional,# stringent# and# imminent# biggest#African# country.#Ruling# over# the# inadequacies# that# lay# before# the# linkages#than#the#supposed#supremaK its#huge#territory#–#more#than#2,5#milK lions# square# kilometres# K# and# scatK K as#being#corrupt#and#too#distant,#if#not# tered# population# –# about# 45# million# hostile. people#in#total#K#was#a#big#challenge# by# a# nationalist# party# or# liberation# and#ultimately#a#big#failure.#The#seeds# army# –# supposedly# representing# the# In# this# issue,# we# focus# on# those# dyK of#which#can#be#traced#back#decades. majority# of# the# people# K# legitimated,# namics,#their#grounds,#and#the#violent# The# Sudanese# experience# in# this# reK in# the# name# of# the# # unity,# the# outcomes#generated#by#unjust#power# newly# setKup# governments.# Yet# the# K caseKstudy# that# could# help# interpret# submerged#and#intricate#socioKpolitiK casting.# Perhaps# not# surprisingly,# and# understand# many# dynamics# in# cal#landscape#underneath#such#an#enK what# the# Sudanese# government# has# Africa#today.#As#peculiar#as#it#might# thusiastic# claim# remained# generally# been# witnessing# in# the# last# 50# years# be# in# the# given# context,# a# general# unchanged#and#out#of#reach.# seems#to#be#replicated,#in#some#ways,# by# the# brand# new# South# Sudanese# observed#and#extended#to#other#subK Later,# along# the# fragile# development# experience.# If# the# germs# of# such# deK Saharan#countries.# path,#when#it#came#to#resource#exploiK generation#can#already#be#seen#maybe# tation#and#sharing,#old#socioKeconomK the#disease#is#innate#in#the#institutional# If#population#movements,#migrations# ic,#ethnic#and#religious#partitions#and# tool# adopted.# One# could# conclude# and#chiefdoms#were#the#normality#in# that# the# investigation# and# the# deK the#preKcolonial#period,#the#advent#of# secessionist# movements# and# quests# velopment# of# other# forms# of# power# the#colonial#state,#with#its#rigid#boundK for# selfKdetermination.# Inevitably# in# management,# more# adaptable# to# the# aries#and#central#apparatus#had#de&facF many# African# countries,# and# within# African#environment#are#needed,#now# to K more#than#ever.## ries,# the# central# government# had# to# independence#–#whenever#it#occurred# come#to#terms#with#the#too#long#overK K#the#very#existence#of#the#new#African# K state# was# not# endangered# from# outK trol#of#the#hinterlands.#In#this#respect,# Michele$Gonnelli side,#but#rather#from#inside.# land#tenure#systems,#customary#land# Beyond# any# declaration# of# principle,# rights#and#local#habits,#with#their#set# constitutional# arrangement,# power# of# rules,# ethnicKreligious# traditions# sharing,# and# alleged# political# deK and# population# movements,# sudK velopment,# reality# was# far# from# beK denly# regained# importance# for# their# ing# entrenched# in# the# given# imported# ongoing#role. framework. Sudan/South#Sudan#civil#wars#repreK If#it#is#true#that,#in#Europe,#war&made& sent# unquestionable# evidence# of# all# the& state& and& the& state& made& war,# the# this.#Yet,#the#process#at#stake#is#not#just# African#continent#seemed#to#have#esK that.#The#Sudanese&issue#includes#also# caped#such#a#crude#training#and#selecK Darfur,#South#Kordofan#and#Blue#Nile# tion#process,#or#to#have#postponed#it,# though# just# temporarily# and# accordK Jonglei,#the#alleged#Dinka#domination# in#Juba#as#well#as#the#forced#IslamisaK few# exceptions,# power# in# most#AfriK tion#carried#out#by#the#government#in# can# countries# was# # handed# Khartoum.#For#many#countries#in#AfK over#by#the#colonial#rulers#to#the#new# rica,#what#was#supposed#to#be#easily# leaders# of# the# independence# moveK K ments.# Similarly,# at# the# time# of# the# K Berlin#Conference#in#1885,#the#African# K territory#was#divided#along#geometriK pliant# international# aid# system# that# cal# lines# without# resorting# to# armed# statehood# and# its# alleged# # are# of#vast#areas#was#far#from#being#exerK now#disintegrating#into#more#defendF cised.# able# and# compact# entities,# as# shown#
3 ITPCM#International#Commentary December#2011July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949 pp.#5#K#32 Contributions
4 4 ITPCM#International#Commentary December#2011 ISSN.#2239K7949
by Brian Adeba
Journalist$ OIL AND CORRUPTION CURSES IN SS IMPASSE.
The$new$baby$buckles$ ed#in#a#serious#fuel#and#hard#currency# nomic# state# of# the# newly# established# an# independent# state,# it# faces# an# unK shortage# and# skyrocketing# prices# for# nation# has# raised# the# concern# of# the# precedented#economic#crisis#manifestK basic# commodities.# # This# dire# ecoK
5 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
marcation#debacle.3 understanding# of# how# this# scenario# came# to# be# is# useful.# Prior# to# secesK The# second# problem# regards# both# sion,#Khartoum#ensured#–#whether#by# of# collapse.1# The# United# Nations# has# design#or#accident#–#that#all#labour#inK echoed# similar# sentiments,# warning# amount# of# transit# fees# for# shipping# puts#on#oil#production#were#connected# that#despite#the#enactment#of#austerity# to# the# northern# Sudanese# economy.# measures#to#address#the#impact#of#the# Consequently,# the# oil# infrastructure# –# crisis,#South#Sudan#will#require#more# South#Sudan#suggested#the#conciliatoK relief#aid#to#keep#its#population#alive#in# ry#aboveKmarket#rate#of#US$#1#per#barK airports,#roads,#and#ports#–#were#wellK the#coming#months.2 rel,#but#Khartoum#pegged#the#price#at# developed# in# the# north,# while# practiK the#exorbitant#rate#of#US$#36#per#barrel.# cally#nothing#exists#in#the#south#where# Subsequently,#as#a#stalemate#wore#on,# K economic#woes:#a#decision#to#stop#oil# exports#through#a#pipeline#controlled# 5 by#its#arch#foe,#the#Republic#of#Sudan;# the crux of South Sudan’s economic and# rampant# corruption# among# the# woes rests in the failure to diversify ruling#elite.# its economy, which relies solely on encumbered# by# the# proverbial# “reK This# commentary# reviews# these# reaK oil exports, which account for 98 source# curse,”# the# crux# of# South# SuK sons,#situating#them#within#the#context# percent of the national budget to#diversify#its#economy,#which#relies# political#factors#with#a#broader#outlook# K solely# on# oil# exports,# which# account# on# the# residual# political# hiccups# arisK ing# through# its# pipelines# to# compenK for#98#percent#of#the#national#budget.# ing#out#of#the#split#of#the#Republic#of# sate#for#what#it#called#“unpaid”#transit# The# agricultural# sector,# which# has# a# Sudan#into#two#countries#in#July#2011.# fees.# In# response,# South# Sudan# shut# high#potential#as#a#revenue#earner,#reK down#oil#production#and#transfers,#efK mains#underdeveloped#despite#the#fact# that#90#percent#of#the#land#is#arable#and# problems# stem# from# the# inability# to# revenue#source.4 50# percent# of# it# is# prime# agricultural# reach#a#fair#deal#to#ship#oil#through#SuK land.6#Funding#for#agriculture#has#conK The# stoppage# of# oil# production# and# sistently#been#less#compared#to#other# planning# for# alternatives# to# address# K sectors.#For#example,#in#the#2011K2012# potential# oil# revenue# shortfalls# has# lines,#however,#must#be#viewed#holistiK budget,#funding#for#infrastructure#deK cally#within#the#context#of#extant#latent# velopment#trumped#funding#for#agriK crisis.# Additionally,# this# commentary# political#tensions#with#Sudan#and#the# culture.7#In#the#2012K2013#budget,#over# emphasizes# that# the# emergence# of# a# aura# of# mutual# mistrust# this# created.# 60#percent#of#the#$1.3#billion#budget#is# powerful#kleptocracy#at#the#centre#that# The#lack#of#political#will#by#Khartoum# earmarked#for#security#and#rule#of#law# is#dependent#on#the#avails#of#oil,#has# to# implement# the# full# stipulations# of# sectors,#while#other#sectors,#including# managed# to# create# a# corrupt# system# the#CPA#(The#Abyei#Protocol,#Popular# agriculture#received#a#total#of#17#perK K Consultation# in# South# Kordofan# and# cent#of#the#budgetary#allocation.8 Similarly,#rampant#corruption#is#a#sigK forms#the#sublime#context#of#this#misK K trust.#This#spirit#of#mutual#mistrust#is# responsible# for# the# failure# to# reach# a# has#roots#in#the#centrifugal#dynamics# oil$and$kleptocracy deal#on#oil#transit#fees.#FootKdragging# surrounding#the#reorganisation#of#the# by#Sudan#on#border#demarcation#and# K 2011#was#plagued#by#several#problems,# the# decision# to# withhold# a# portion# of# primarily# the# failure# to# implement# The agricultural sector, which has a in# full,# stipulations# of# the# CompreK fees,#only#served#to#reinforce#previous# high potential as a revenue earner, hensive# Peace# Agreement# (CPA)# that# convictions#of#“unfair#dealing”#by#the# remains underdeveloped despite ended# the# war# in# 2005.# Two# of# these# northern# neighbour# and# formed# the# the fact that 90 percent of the land is problems# are# critical# to# understandK subtext#of#the#emotions#that#motivated# arable the#oil#shutdown#in#January#2012.# sion# and# the# question# of# resource# alK the#failure#to#demarcate#the#3,000Kmile# But# it# is# only# fair# to# note# that# South# location#among#political#elites.#Key#in# common#border#between#South#Sudan# this#dynamic#is#the#installation#of#the# and#the#Republic#of#Sudan.#Extant#hurK dles#in#addressing#the#status#of#Abyei,# (SPLM)#as#the#dominant#political#force# a#contested#enclave,#and#failure#to#adK capacity#would#have#ensured#enough# dress# outstanding# political# issues# in# new# power# blocks# and# allegiances# South# Kordofan# and# Southern# Blue# a# move# that# would# have# mitigated# were# forged,# ostracizing# some# memK Nile# States,# are# other# supplementary# the# current# fuel# shortage# the# country# bers#and#elevating#others#to#positions# concerns#compounding#the#border#deK is# facing.# Nevertheless,# a# contextual#
6 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
the# power# brokers# ensures# who# gets# the#rate#is#5#pounds.#Subsequently,#the# antee#of#accessing#them#at#reasonable# political#power#and#access#to#resourcK country# has# been# gripped# by# a# fuel# interest#rates. scarcity;#a#litre#of#petrol#now#sells#for# kleptocracy#has#emerged#at#the#centre,# 6# pounds# compared# to# 5# pounds# in# In#essence,#the#persistence#of#the#ecoK monopolizing#power#and#resources.#In# January.#Long#queues#for#fuel#are#now# nomic# crisis# may# potentially# lead# to# the#absence#of#a#viable#democratic#pluK a#common#phenomenon#in#South#SuK inability# to# pay# salaries# to# the# civil# ralism# and# its# accompanying# modaliK K service#and#the#armed#forces.#This#is#a# ties#for#checks#and#balances,#this#klepK ly,#to#almost#80#percent#in#June,#comK K tocracy#has#had#free#reign#to#plunder# pared#to#29.6#percent#in#April.#This#rise# public#monies. is#fueled#by#price#hikes#in#the#cost#of# still#faces#challenges#as#it#transforms#itK President#Salva#Kiir#confessed#in#June# food#and#nonKalcoholic#beverages.#The# self#from#a#guerilla#unit#into#a#convenK that# the# country# had# lost# US$# 4# bilK tional#army.#Discipline#and#respect#for# northern#regions#where#supply#routes# the#chain#of#command#is#still#an#issue# were#shut#down#by#Khartoum#followK because#of#the#absorption#of#thousands# government# ministers# and# former# ing#a#brief#border#skirmish#with#South# of#former#militia#soldiers#who#were#a# ministers,# urging# them# to# return# the# law# unto# themselves.# Four# years# ago# looted#money.9#Opposition#leader#Lam# when#South#Sudan#experienced#salary# Akol# however# contends# that# this# is# a# K delays,#sections#of#the#army#mutinied# acerbates# an# already# fragile# situation# in# a# number# of# towns.# Armed# rebelK where# more# than# half# of# the# populaK lions,# insecurity# and# a# breakdown# of# tion#lives#below#the#poverty#line.# the#law#at#the#hands#of#unruly#soldiers# brokers ensures who gets political are#real#concerns#if#there#are#delays#in# power and access to resources At#the#moment,#there#is#no#end#in#sight# dispensing#remuneration#for#the#army. against# US$# 20# billion# earned# in# oil# The# 2012K2013# budget# presented# in# In essence, the persistence of the revenues#since#2005.10 June# is# a# painful# recognition# of# this# economic crisis may potentially lead K to inability to pay salaries to the civil ernment#relied#on#oil#revenue#reserves# service and the armed forces and$implications As#the#South#Sudan#economy#buckles# Minister#Kosti#Manibe#cautioned#that# under#the#strain#of#the#oil#shutdown,# these#reserves#will#be#depleted#before# The$way$forward:$thinking$outside$ the#local#currency#has#declined#considK the# end# of# the# year.# Domestic# and# the$box erably#against#the#dollar,#losing#40#perK foreign# loans# are# alternative# means# K my,# a# rentier# state# dependent# solely# rate# is# 2.95# South# Sudanese# pounds# warned# that# there# is# no# guarantee# of# on# oil# export# revenues# that# are# govK to#the#dollar,#but#on#the#black#market# K erned#by#the#antics#of#belligerence#and#
7 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
mutual# hostility# with# a# neighbouring# the#British#colonial#administration#and# country,#is#a#recipe#for#disaster#as#the# its#successor#Sudanese#state#to#ensure# hits#South#Sudan.# ,#No.919,# oil#shutdown#has#shown.# K pp.30 Although#the#quest#for#an#alternative# portant. K pipeline#through#Kenya#remains#a#top# tics#and#the#South#Sudan#referendum:#An# priority# for# the# South# Sudan# governK anatomy# of# a# resource# curse.# Middle# East& ment,# the# prospects# for# this# export# channel# dimmed# considerably# when# to#the#South#Sudan#economy.#Because# South#Sudan#is#a#landlocked#country,# shutdown#weighs#as#pound#falls,#tax#hikes# the# enterprise,# declined# to# do# so.11# access# to# external# markets# through# loom.# Available# on:# www.reuters.com/arK Furthermore,# the# 2012K2013# budget# ports#in#neighbouring#countries#is#cruK ticle/2012/03/26/southsudanKinvestmentK acknowledges#that#even#if#this#option# cial.#In#light#of#the#fact#that#a#pipeline# idUSL6E8EP1EN20120326# was#implemented,#it#will#not#generate# to#the#Kenyan#ports#of#Mombasa#and# cash#for#this#year#nor#for#several#years# Lamu# is# unfeasible,# the# most# viable# Sudan# referendum:# An# anatomy# of# a# reK to#come. source#curse,#pp.#124. South# Sudan# needs# to# wean# itself# of# ports.# Fostering# friendly# neighbourly# Available# on:# www.agfairsouthsudan.org/ dependence#on#oil#as#its#sole#revenue# ties#with#Sudan#by#building#trust#is#an# agricultureKinKsouthKsudan# earner.# The# country# should# invest# in# South#Sudan#should#utilize#all#the#tools# 2011# budget# speech,# January# 2011.# The# Although the quest for an alternative at#its#disposal,#including#diplomacy,#to# budget# for# agriculture# was# 65.5# million# pipeline through Kenya remains ensure#good#ties#with#Sudan. Sudanese#pounds#compared#to#628#million# a top priority for the South Sudan for#infrastructure#development. government, the prospects for As# corruption# is# a# major# contributor# this export channel dimmed South# Sudan:# 2012K2013# budget# speech.# considerably when China, which was is#need#to#steer#away#from#the#current# June#2012. parochial# system# of# government# to# a# declined to do so more# egalitarian# system# that# is# tolerK 2012# in# which# he# laments# that# “most# of# ant# of# democratic# pluralism.# DemoK these# funds# have# been# taken# out# of# the# its#own#oil#infrastructure#and#develop# cratic#pluralism#will#create#institutions# country# and# deposited# in# foreign# acK capacities# to# produce# fuel# for# local# for#checks#and#balances#that#may#curb# counts.” consumption#to#lessen#dependence#on# corruption# by# ensuring# government# imported#processed#fuel.#Furthermore,# K accelerating#the#development#of#alterK held#accountable#for#their#actions. native# revenue# sources,# especially# in# 2012. the#agricultural#sector,#is#of#crucial#imK K portance#to#future#economic#viability.# Endnotes ing#South#Sudan#pipeline#as#Kiir#cuts#short# Boosting# domestic# production# to# enK his# visit.# 26# April# 2012.# sure#a#food#surplus#for#export#is#a#posK Available# on:# www.sudantribune.com/ sible#way#to#earn#cash#for#South#Sudan.# Available# on:# www.sudantribune.com/ Similarly,#reviving#largeKscale#industriK 42512#
8 ITPCM#International#Commentary December#2011 ISSN.#2239K7949
by Enrica Valentini
SS QUEST Wau,&South&Sudan FOR FREEDOM [OF EXPRESSION] MASS
9 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
South#Sudan#is#a#oneKyearKold#nation.# remain#a#dominant#model.#The#TransiK K tional#Constitution#also#mentions#that# ism#in#the#country#has#a#negative#conK the# northern# oppressor,1# the# country# has#now#to#learn#how#to#live#in#peace# K may#still#inhibit#freedoms. sonnel#are#no#professionals#at#all,#and# hatred,# corruption# and# paternalism,# the#media#sector#in#South#Sudan#sufK Sudanese#media#are#still#operating#in# which#hardly#matches#with#the#counK fers# from# an# endemic# lack# of# proper# the# absence# of# a# legal# framework,# as# training. no#media#law#has#been#approved#yet.# Freedom# of# expression# represents# no# As# the# country# keeps# growing# and# exception#to#this#situation. while the constitution is under review, taking#shape,#it#is#not#yet#clear#which# most of the population has still no direction#it#is#taking.#All#the#previous# clear understanding of the role of a acknowledge#the#need#for#disseminatK constitution is#hard#to#unravel#this#situation#in#such# ing#and#accessing#information,#but#the# a#complex#environment. practice#reveals#many#contradictions. Media# are# also# acknowledged# as# a# The# Transitional# Constitution# of# the# privileged# channel# to# disseminate# paper,#it#does#not#take#long#to#realize# Republic#of#South#Sudan#grants#to#evK awareness# about# the# constitution# and# that#the#situation#on#the#ground#does# shall#be#constantly#informed#about#its# expression,# reception# and# disseminaK revision#(Art#4,4;#201,3,c). Several# episodes# of# harassments# and# tion# of# information,# publication,# and# summary# detentions# of# journalists# access# to# the# press# without# prejudice# But#while#the#constitution#is#under#reK K to# public# order,# safety# or# morals# as# view,#most#of#the#population#has#still# dependence,#and#censorship#and#bruK no#clear#understanding#of#the#role#of#a# tality#are#still#common#practice#in#the# there#be#freedom#when#one#is#not#even# constitution#and#even#less#understandK aware#of#having#rights? ing#about#this#reviewing#process,#from# tribalism in the country has a which#the#civil#society#struggles#not#to# negative connotation, and people’s Freedom#of#the#press#and#media#shall# be#excluded. tribal belonging may still inhibit K The# transitional# constitution# also# freedoms counts# media# among# the# channels# to# 24,2).# But# which# democratic# societies# K government#relations#with#media#perK is#South#Sudan#looking#at?#The#teachK versity# and# encourage# such# diverse# K ings#of#the#Khartoum#regime#seem#to# cess#to#information#for#the#sake#of#naK
10 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
tional#security;#they#are#still#perceived# only#channel#that#allows#them#to#know# ibility.# Communities# and# institutions# what#is#happening#in#the#world,#in#the# could#rely#on#the#Church,#and#the#popK country#and#in#the#neighbourhoods.# ulation#felt#its#voice#represented. hands#of#untrained#security#personnel. In#spite#of#the#low#literacy#rate,#people# Churches#have#been#a#privileged#chanK Journalists#selfKcensor#their#own#work,# know# how# to# recognise# reliable,# relK nel#to#convey#information,#both#inside# and#citizens#hesitate#to#report#and#colK evant# and# consistent# news.# Listeners# and# outside# the# country,# and# Sunday# laborate#with#the#media,#because#they# know# exactly# what# time# news# proK celebrations# or# catechetical# meetings# fear# retaliation# from# government# and# grammes#are#broadcast#on#each#radio# armed#forces. station# and# are# ready# to# switch# from# teachings,#as#promotion#of#human#deK one#station#to#another#to#follow#the#best# K Journalists selfXcensor their own bulletin. nerable# groups# and# standing# for# the# People# also# look# for# all# other# kind# of# truth#are#their#core#values. work, and citizens hesitate to report information#that#can#improve#their#life# During# all# relevant# social# and# politiK and collaborate with the media conditions:#peace#building#and#reconK cal#occasions#in#the#recent#life#of#South# ciliation#in#the#country,#health,#human# Sudan# (signing# of# the# CPA,# election,# A$thirst$for$information rights,# education,# agriculture,# busiK referendum,# independence,# constituK In# a# country# where# about# 80%# of# the# ness.6 tion# review# process),# the# Church# was# population# is# illiterate,2# where# there# is#almost#no#electricity#to#keep#televiK raising#awareness. sion#and#mobile#phones#running,#and# The#Church#has#an#amazing#capability# country carried out in September where# a# poor# road# system# and# high# to# reach# remote# areas# through# a# netK 2011 revealed that 61% of the South costs# for# printing# prevent# newspaper# work#of#chapels#and#prayer#centres,#to# Sudanese interviewed considers distribution,#radio#is#the#most#common# know# people# needs# and# to# speak# the# radio its primary information and K news source K country#carried#out#in#September#2011# ally#refrain#from#partnering#with#faithK revealed# that# 61%# of# the# South# SudaK Media$overview based#organisations#to#guarantee#their# nese# interviewed# considers# radio# its# Since# the# signing# of# the# ComprehenK independence,# are# now# collaborating# primary#information#and#news#source.# sive# Peace# Agreement# in# 2005,# media# with#the#Church#to#carry#out#their#proK In# the# list# of# primary# sources,# word# have# been# growing# in# South# Sudan# grams.# of# mouth# follows# with# 16%,# commuK and# are# contributing# to# the# developK During# the# election# and# referendum# nity# meetings# get# 7%,# television# 4%,# ment#of#the#country. periods,# civic# education# programs# while#newspapers,#internet#and#mobile# K were#produced#and#broadcast#by#cathK phones#were#only#mentioned#by#2%#of# tions# were# already# present# in# almost# olic#radio#stations,#church#leaders#were# the#sample#population.3 each#of#the#ten#states#of#South#Sudan,# trained#on#how#to#carry#out#voter#eduK though# not# always# functional.# Some# cation# in# the# rural# areas,# and# priests# more#regularly#than#all#other#sources.# of#them#are#owned#and#funded#by#the# kept# encouraging# the# faithful# to# asK 73%#of#the#interviewed#never#got#inforK national#government,#other#by#the#loK sume#their#duty#as#citizens. mation# from# newspapers,# 82%# never# cal# government;# other# have# mixed# got# information# from# internet,# 69%# structure# and# fall# partially# under# the# Ways$forward never#got#information#from#television# state#and#partially#under#the#national# Improving# media# professionalism# and# 62%# never# got# information# from# responsibility. and# approving# the# media# law# would# mobile#phones.4 Most#of#them#are#facing#challenges#in# improve# South# Sudan# freedom# of# exK Though# other# sources# than# radio# are# pression.#But#while#the#media#sector#is# used,# the# perception# of# their# imporK already#engaged#in#several#initiatives,# tance#and#reliability#is#that#they#are#alK ofKdate#equipment.7 K most#irrelevant.#According#to#a#survey# The#past#six#years#also#witnessed#the# ent#priorities. carried#out#in#December#2008,#radio#is# proliferation# of# independent# media;# considered#the#most#important#source# several#private#radios#have#been#fundK and# international# organisations# has# of# information# by# 71%# of# the# responK ed# all# over# the# country.# Commercial# already# been# working# at# strategies# to# dents# and# the# most# reliable# source# of# radios#are#mainly#distributed#in#Juba,# K information#by#66%.#As#far#as#imporK while# community# radio# stations# are# pacities.# Training# sessions# have# been# tance#is#concerned,#newspapers,#televiK present# all# across# the# country.# Some# carried#out#in#several#locations#in#the# sion,#internet,#mobile#phones#and#word# of#them#are#faithKbased,#both#Catholic# country.# A# code# of# conduct# and# ethK of# mouth# scored# 3%,# # 7%,# 1%,# 5%# 7%# and#Anglican,#others#are#supported#by# ics#was#developed#for#journalists#to#be# respectively,# while# regarding# reliabilK aware#of#their#duties#and#responsibiliK ity#they#got#5%,#6%,#0%,#6%,#and#10%# ties.#Debates#and#seminars#have#been# respectively.5 Speaking$out$the$truth organized#in#order#to#allow#media#and# People# are# mainly# looking# for# news.# Being#the#only#organization#remaining# institutions#to#discuss#their#respective# Many# years# of# war,# a# vast# territory,# in#the#country#and#close#to#the#people,# roles#as#far#as#information#is#concerned# the#lack#of#proper#communication#inK providing# aid,# education,# moral# and# and#to#try#to#pave#the#way#for#a#positive# frastructures#led#people#to#live#in#isoK physical# support# throughout# the# war# collaboration. lation,# therefore# radio# represents# the# period,#the#Church#gained#a#high#credK
11 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
K Paola# Moggi,# director# of# the# Catholic# K Radio# Network# and# member# of# AMK on&road&to&civil&liberties,#July#2012.#Available# ernment# of# South# Sudan# positively# DISS#Executive#Board#until#April#2012,# contributed#to#its#revision#process.#AfK K tions:# while# the# Media# Authority# Bill# duKsudKreportKworldKsKyoungestKcounK presented#to#the#Ministry#of#Legal#AfK advocates#for#independent#media,#the# tryK03K07K2012,42933.html,# accessed# 8# July# fairs#and#Constitutional#Development# Media#Authority#falls#under#the#MinK 2012. in#2008,#and#it#was#passed#by#the#CounK istry# of# Information# and# BroadcastK 3#International#Republican#InKInternational# Republican# InK cil#of#Ministers#to#be#presented#to#the# stitute,# 2011.# Assembly#only#at#the#end#of#2009. Opinion,#p.75.# Media# representatives# kept# appealing# Right# of# Access# to# Information# Bill# 4#International#Republican#InKInternational# Republican# InK for#more#inclusive#revision#procedures# stitute,# 2011.# and#for#a#quick#approval,#and#the#PresiK Opinion,#p.76. dent#of#the#Republic,#while#opening#the# the Media Authority falls under 5# Consumer#Options#Ltd,#South&SuF second#session#of#the#National#LegislaK the Ministry of Information and ,# 2008,# p.12.# Available# at# ture#last#May,#called#on#the#members#of# Broadcasting’s direct control and the#parliament#to#pass#the#media#laws,# is exclusively accountable to the pdf,#accessed#6#July#2012. but#the#discussion#shall#only#take#place# Government K in#August#2012. The#three#bills#approved#by#the#Cabinet# 7# Article# 19,# Mapping& the& Void:& a& K timeframe#to#access#requested#data#up# tive#Assembly#include:#the#Right#of#AcK to#20#working#days. South& Sudan& and& Selected& Northern& States,# cess#to#Information#Bill,#regulating#the# As#long#as#freedom#of#expression#are# K K just#words#to#impress#the#international# hcr.org/refworld/docid/4ae957152.html,# acK mation;#the#Broadcasting#Corporation# community,# no# real# freedom# will# be# cessed#8#July#2012. Bill,#transforming#South#Sudan#Radio# there. 8# South& and# Television# into# a# public# service# broadcaster;#and#the#Media#Authority# Endnotes on&road&to&civil&liberties,#July#2012.#Available# Bill,#creating#a#media#regulatory#body.8 K ways#been#considered#oppressive#and#disK AMDISS,# the# Association# for# MeK criminating#towards#the#Southerners,#who# duKsudKreportKworldKsKyoungestKcounK dia# Development# in# South# Sudan,# is# focused# the# campaign# for# independence# tryK03K07K2012,42933.html,# accessed# 8# July# among#the#main#promoters#of#the#meK 2012. dia#bills#and#raised#concerns#about#the# forms#of#oppression. 2# South&
Anderson,&Norwegian&People’s&Aid,,&
12 ITPCM#International#Commentary December#2011 ISSN.#2239K7949
by Marshal Olal Johnson Limong
Centre&for&Peace&and&Development&Studies REAL AND APPARENT CAUSES OF THE S/SS CONFLICT
POLITICAL#IN#NATURE#AND#SUSTAINED#BY#RESOURCE#DIMENSION.
13 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
The$role$of$religion$in$the$ kept#speaking#of#a#war#against#the#inF sudanese$civil$wars Turko–Egyptian# rule,# power# passed# The# Sudanese# civil# wars# have# been# K them# the# most# popular# targets# were# they were socioXeconomic tween# north# Sudan,# predominantly# the#Christian#Catechists.##The#war,#acK grievances derived from an imposed Muslims,#and#South#Sudan,#predomiK marginalisation that led to the nantly# Christians# and# Animists.# The# out#every#form#and#prove#of#ChristiK anity#from#the#land.#Indeed,#whenever# because# of# divisions# between# the# directly# in# the# hand# of# the# Arabs# in# Christian#South#and#Arab#North.##The# the#North.#The#imposition#of#Arabism# the# religious# people,# especially# those# and# Islam# became# the# pillars# of# the# regions#were#encouraged#by#the#BritK wearing#crosses#as#sign#of#their#faith.6 national# identity.# Those# who# did# not# ish# Condominium# rule.# Indeed,# the# identify# themselves# with# such# pillars# British#allowed#the#entire#Arab#North# were# marginalised# and# economically# to#remain#Muslim#while#they#encourK meant# to# deliver# food# reliefs,# costK excluded.# As# British# colonial# adminK aged#Missionaries#to#go#into#the#South# ing# some# 450,000# lives,# most# of# them# istrators# prepared# Sudan# for# indeK to# convert# the# Southern# natives# that# Christians# and# Animists,# David# KaK pendence,# the# northerners# leveraged# followed#traditional#African#religions.# the#ArabKMuslims#identity#as#the#sole# As#a#result,#many#southerners#became# United# Nations# Operation# Lifeline# legitimate#background#of#national#inK Christians# while# others# maintained# Sudan#insisted#that#these#people#were# dependence.# Nonetheless# the# northK their#traditional#beliefs.#It#is#this#which# being#starved#just#because#of#their#reliK gion#belonging.7 about# their# request# of# annexation# of# two#regions.# the# separately# administered# south# to# The# successive# Islamic# governments# The$role$of$ethnicity$and$political$ the# newly# Independent# Sudan.9# As# a# in# Khartoum# have# always# dreamt# dimension of# making# the# whole# of# Sudan# an# IsK Many#people#also#considered#the#civil# southerners# were# increasingly# conK lamic#nation.#They#received#over#$180# war#between#North#and#South#Sudan# cerned#about#the#transfer#of#power#to# million#in#aid#and#weapons#from#the# K the#Northern#Arab#Muslims. fundamentalist#government#in#Iran#in# During# the# transition# to# independK movement#in#the#South.#This#made#reK Africans is more than ethnic but ence,# the# Sudanisation# process,# both# ligion#become#an#important#reason#for# rather racial in a strict sense. Its at# national# and# local# level,# appeared# waging#war.1 roots date back to the TurkoXEgyptian very#clear,#and#resulted#in#the#politiK rule, in preXcolonial times, when the cal# marginalization# of# the# southernK In# 1983,# the# regime# based# in# KharK South was massively subjected to ers.# The# northern# elites# inherited# exK toum# instituted# strict# Islamic# law# in# slave raiding clusively#the#political#power#from#the# the# entire# country.# This# change# also# British#authorities.#They#also#managed# applied#to#black#Christians#and#other# cial# and# political# nature.# The# popuK to#acquire#administrative#positions#in# nonKMuslim#in#the#South.##The#Islamic# lation# inhabiting# the# South# cannot# the#south.##In#1954,#out#of#800#adminK government#constitutionalised#its#reliK be# considered# as# a# monolithic# ethic# istrative# sudanised#posts,#only##6#maK gious#beliefs#and#imposed#them#on#the# group,# but# composed# of# many# difK jor# level# positions# were# occupied# by# ferent# ethnicities.# These# ethnicities# southerners.# Arab# was# also# imposed# all#sections#of#southern#Sudanese#soK are#supposed#to#be#part#of#an#alleged# ciety,# but# also# triggered# the# reaction# African# race,# while# the# Northern# ArK from#the#Christians#and#the#Animists# abs#would#represent#an#Arab#race.##In# In 1954, out of 800 administrative in#South#Sudan.#The#people#were#not# sudanised posts, only 6 major willing# to# adhere# to# strict# marginalK and#Africans#is#more#than#ethnic#but# level positions were occupied by ising# Islamic# law# that# had# created# a# rather#racial#in#a#strict#sense.##Its#roots# southerners sharp#division#in#society.#The#renewed# date#back#to#the#TurkoKEgyptian#rule,# wave#of#Islamisation#sparked#tensions# in#preKcolonial#times,#when#the#South# of# the# South,# preventing# locals# from# between#the#North#and#the#South,#that# was#massively#subjected#to#slave#raidK being#appointed#in#administrative#poK ing.# A# practise# that# was# carried# out# sitions.#This#did#not#only#angered#the# because#the# #were#considered#as# Southerners,#leading#to#a#loss#of#hope# 1983.2 K for# regional# economic# development,# In# 1992,# a# fatwa3# was# declared,# that# tion#of#slavery.8 but# also# alimented# fears# of# renewed# exploitation,# economic# exclusion# and# extermination#of#nonKMuslims.##It#was# Although# religious# and# racial# issues# dispossession.# Such# deep# grievances# K might# have# exacerbated# tensions# and# were#the#makings#of#further#regional# ment#in#Khartoum.4 reasons# for# confrontations,# the# real# instability#and#emergence#of#violence.10 5#quesK They#were#socioKeconomic#grievances# Trying#to#refer#to#a#punctual#event,#it# tioned#the#denial#of#the# #of# derived# from# an# imposed# marginK the#Sudanese#war,#while#the#Muslims# alisation# that# led# to# the# outbreak# of#
14 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
war,# while# giving# complete# political# abrogated# the# Addis# Ababa# Peace# control#to#the#northern#elite.##By#the#end# Agreement# (1972)# that# had# given# the# Agreement.# At# the# same# time# the# of#1954#almost#all#exKcolonial#adminisK regime# launched# big# infrastructural# trators#had#been#replaced#by#northern# and#the#right#to#collect#all#central#taxes# plans#that##resulted#in#the#building#of# Sudanese.#This#sharp#increase#in#their# from#industrial,#commercial#and#agriK pipelines# running# all# the# way# from# presence# as# administrators,# senior# cultural#ventures#located#on#its#terriK Unity#State#to#Port#Sudan.# tory.#Such#a#plan#was#carried#out#with# schools#and#merchants#spurred#southK In# order# to# further# secure# oil# extracK ern# fear# of# northern# domination# and# and#resources.12 colonisation.#All#this#made#the#southK political# means,# in# June# 1983,# Nimeri# erners#to#perceive#themselves#as#politiK Nimeri#also#undertook#to#deepen#the# partitioned# the# South# along# new#ethK cally#excluded.11 political#marginalization#of#the#south# nic# boundaries# in# order# to# diminish# in#three#ways.#Firstly,#in#the#late#1970s,# its# political# power# and# impact.# By# by# disrupting# the# southern# political# claiming# that# the# partition# was# carK The# discovery# and# exploitation# of# oil# order#through#direct#interventions#and# ried# out# towards# meeting# the# needs# by#suspending#the#regional#assembly# of# other# southern# ethnic# groups,# de& facto#dominated#by#Dinka,#the#largest# Moving from apparent religiousX northern#faction#that#had#opposed#the# ethnic# group14,# the# South# was# actuK Addis#Ababa#Agreement.#Secondly,#by# ally#divided#into#the#three#original#reK then driven by mere economic replacing# southern# troops# with# their# gions# established# during# the# colonial# considerations, the struggle for the proximate#northern#army#units#in#orK rule# period.# As# planned# oil# revenues# the#Nimeri#government#proceeded#to# resources# and# revenues# has# played# a# redrew#provincial#boundaries#curving# thus# alimenting# it# in# a# vicious# circle.# major#role#in#shaping#the#dynamic#of# the#oil#region#out#of#the#southern#terK Khartoum#could#count#now#on#strong# Sudanese#civil#wars.#Moving#from#apK ritory#by#establishing#the#Unity#State,# incentives#not#to#give#in#to#the#requests# parent# religiousKethnic# grounds# the# design# to# include# many# of# those# oil# of#the#southerners#for#sharing#political# K K power# and# accompanying# economic# nomic#considerations,#the#struggle#for# yond#the#border.13 regime# played# instrumentally# with# Once# the# oil# licensing# contracts# were# southern# political# rights# in# order# to# signed,# the# resulting# revenues# were# the# civil# wars# between# North# and# gain#authority#over#natural#resources# not# handed# over# to# the# southern# reK South#Sudan#were#not#only#the#longK gional# government,# that# was# actuK oil# in# South# Sudan,# president# Nimeri# ally#supposed#to#administer#them#acK Africa#but#they#also#had#deep#impacts#
15 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
on#the#Sudanese#society.#They#caused# Endnotes plus# $30# billion# in# peacekeeping# and# 1 material# destruction.# According# to# humanitarian# costs# for# the# internaK tional# community.21# Aggressive# oil# or#Religion?#November#1997.#p.#1 two# million# people# died# as# a# result# 2 K the#coming#generations,#being#oil#not# K renewable# and# thus# posing# serious# sustainability#issues.# countries# and# roughly# four# millions# people# have# been# violently# displaced# and#driven#from#their#habitual#places# population# without# the# necessary# of#resident.15#The#biggest#direct#impact# knowledge#that#is#needed#to#rebuild#a# heads#the#(geographically)#largest#diocese# of#the#war#on#the#economy#resulted#in# nation.#More#than#1.3#million#children# in# Sudan,# almost# three# times# the# size# of# a#sharp#reduction#in#the#labour#force# in#South#Sudan,#in#primary#school#age,# Italy,#and#he#lives#partly#in#exile,#for#in#fact# available,#injuries#and#the#depletion#of# he#divides#his#time#between#Nairobi#in#KeK UNESCO#published#a#report#expressK nya#and#the#Nubian#mountains. the outbreak of a renewed civil war ing#that#the#country#was#second#to#the# between the two nations, would last# one# in# the# world# ranking# for# net# result in a cumulative loss for them enrolment# in# primary# education# and# both, the neighbouring countries K Roots#of#Insurgence:#Southern#Sudan#and# and the International Community ble#for#enrolment#in#secondary#educaK Darfur,”# 22 amounting to over $100 billion US tion. ,#July#2005,#p.# Dollars 106. K only# militarized# Sudan,# they# have# physical#capital.16 also# shaped# a# mentality# of# violence# Publication,# 1998,# p.111.# Douglas# JohnK Between#1990#and#1996,#during#a#conK among#the#people.#Legislative,#judiciK K ary#and#law#enforcement#institutions# Bloomington,#2003,#pp.#24K25. tional# investments# fell# by# twoKthird# Roots# of# Insurgence:# South# Sudan# and# rate# of# 8%.17# Strikingly# enough# it# has# K Darfur”#p.#108,#110. been# estimated# that# the# central# govK tem.##Small#arms#continue#to#circulate# 11# Ibid.#p.#112. ernment#spent#instead#up#to#$#1#million# massively# within# the# country,# along# per#day#in#2001#in#war#expenditures.18# root#of#Insurgence:#South#Sudan#and#DarK A# lot# of# government# resources# were# and#criminality#in#some#parts#of#South# fur.” diverted#away#from#productive#investK Sudan.# 23# Increasing# levels# of# militia# ment#to#destructive#purposes.#An#adK violence# continue# to# break# out# in# the# K country,# instrumentally# exploited# as# tary#K#the#typical#increase#in#war#times# proxies# by# the# Sudanese# government# K#led#to#a#permanent#loss#of#around#2%# to#destabilise#the#situation#and#weakK Brussels,#2002,#pp.#3K7 en#the#political#stability#as#well#as#to# 19 retain#rents#earned#on#oil#revenue.24 The# religious# dimension# of# the# conK K Sudan# Produces# about# 0.6%# of# world# oil.# This# places# Sudan# 31st# among# oil# communities# from# South# Sudan.# In# ?#p.2 producing#nations.#It#represent#around# the#past#years#nonKMuslims#faced#reliK gious#persecution:#Catholic#priests#and# the#Roots#of#Insurgences:#Southern#Sudan# South#Sudan#government#revenue.#An# religious# leaders# had# been# arrested# and#Darfur”#p.#123. interruption#in#the#oil#supply#as#it#took# and#mistreated,#churches#were#closed# place#in#early#2012#would#pose#serious# or#burnt#down.#NonKMuslims#were#exK .#2010,#p.#13 problems#to#South#Sudan#and#have#an# cluded#from#schools#or#jobs,#or#obliged# immediate# impact# on# the# Sudanese# to#conform#to#Muslim#codes#of#behavK 21# Ibid,#p.#6. 20# iour#such#as#the#wearing#of#the#chador# K The# Frontier& Economics# warned# that# for# women.# From# many# people# conK the# outbreak# of# a# renewed# civil# war# version# was# extorted.# A# lay# religious# South#Sudanese#Education#System,”#Alert& between#the#two#nations,#would#result# Net,#8Feb.#2012,#p.1. in# a# cumulative# loss# for# them# both,# for# 24# hours# on# the# Nuba# Mountain.# the# neighbouring# countries# and# the# International# Community# amounting# form#of#a#cross,#hands#and#arms#outK .#2010,#p.#11. to# over# $100# billion# US# Dollars.# This# would#include#$50#billion#for#Sudan#itK 25 Sudan&War.#27#October,#1998.#p.#1. self#and#$25#billion#for#the#neighbourK to#tell#his#stories.
16 ITPCM#International#Commentary December#2011 ISSN.#2239K7949
by Dagu David Justin
South&Sudanese&MA&candidate NEGLECTING Scuola&Superiore&Sant’Anna THE CPA, IMPACTS ON S/SS RELATIONS
17 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
CPA$–$background$and$origin cemented# and# structured# unequal# 23#years#until#the#signing#of#the#CPA# K dispensation#and#exacerbated#the#alK in#2005#in#Nairobi#Kenya.#During#the# dan#and#without#revisiting#its#history,# ready#precarious#conditions#in#SouthK war,# more# than# two# million# South# it#would#be#impossible#to#explain#and# ern#Sudan.#It#is#however#important#to# Sudanese# lost# their# lives# directly# as# understand# how# the# CPA# came# into# emphasize#that#the#history#of#contemK a#result#of#the#war#or#indirectly#as#a# being.#In#one#of#the#most#authoritative# consequence#of#the#war.#Four#million# the#centre#and#the#marginalized#peoK others# were# uprooted# and# around# causes&of&Sudan 1,#Douglas# ples#of#the#periphery#predates#coloniK al# interventions.# The# decision# by# the# borders4.#The#CPA#was#signed#thanks# colonial# powers,# the#AngloKEgyptian# to# the# political# and# diplomatic# presK wars,#the#presence#of#a#durable#politiK condominium,# to# grant# independK sure# exerted# by# the# Troika:# United# cal# economy# monopolized# by# a# cenK ence# to# a# united# Sudan# on# January# States,#United#Kingdom#and#Norway# tral# power# whose# elites# harboured# 1,# 1956,# before# inequalities# between# K expansionist# tendencies# against# peK North#and#South#could#be#remedied,# ernmental#Authority#on#Development# ripheral# regions.# This# expansionist# was#ill#founded,#and#today#this#can#be# ambition#has#been#ongoing#since#the# viewed#as#a#major#contributor#to#the# main#protocols:#the#Machakos#ProtoK 18th#century#through#feudal#processes# wars#and#the#now#seeming#perpetual# col,#The#Protocol#on#Security#ArrangeK manifestation# of# the# exploitative# naK Sudan.# the# Protocol# on# Power# Sharing;# the# ture#of#relations#between#the#elites#of# Sudan# has# a# history# and# precedence# in# Southern# Kordofan# and# Blue# Nile# The manifestation of the exploitative of# peaceKmaking# although# it# has# alK States;#and#the#Protocol#on#the#ResoK nature of relations between the ways#hardly#respected#the#terms#and# 5. elites of the centre and the Sudanic provisions.#A#case#in#point#is#the#AdK peoples of the periphery resulted in The$provisions$of$the$2005$CPA massive inequality in the country the#north#and#south,#which#lasted#for# The#table#below#summarizes#the#conK the#centre#and#the#Sudanic2#peoples#of# 17#years#from#1955#to#1972.#The#Addis# tent# of# the# CPA# provisions# adapted# the#periphery#resulted#in#massive#inK Ababa#Agreement#unravelled#in#1983# from#the#agreement#document.#It#conK equality#in#the#country.#Colonial#interK leading#to#the#start#of#the#second#civil# tains#all#the#main#elements#of#the#proK vention#by#Turkey,#Britain,#and#Egypt# war# in# Sudan,# again# mainly# fought# visions#in#the#agreement.#The#table#is# introduced# a# governance# system# for# between#the#north#and#south.#The#SuK also#expected#to#provide#an#easy#and# the#Southern#part#of#the#country#that# K was#known#as#the#“Southern#Policy”3.# Army# (SPLM/A),# the# main# protagoK ements#contained#in#the#bulky#docuK The# creation# of# the# Southern# policy# nist#in#the#second#civil#war,#fought#for# ment#K#the#CPA.#
Sudan$Comprehensive$Peace$Agreement$(CPA),$9$January$2005$ Provision$relating$to DETAILS$OF$PROVISION$ $ 1)$Armed$Forces$ The#North#and#South#are#to#maintain#separate#armed#forces.#There#is#to#be#the#withdrawal#of# 91,000#government#troops#from#the#South#within#2#and#half#years.#The#SPLA#has#8#months# to#withdraw#its#forces#from#the#North.#The#Naivasha#Protocol#that#forms#part#of#the#CPA# outlines#the#details#of#integration:#it#allows#for#integrated#units#of#21,000#soldiers#(of#which# half# will# be# government# and# half# SPLA)# to# be# formed# during# the# 6# year# interim# period.# They#are#to#be#deployed#to#sensitive#areas#(such#as#the#3#under#dispute).#These#units#will#be# the#interim#period,#the#South#decides#not#to#secede,#both#sides#will#unify#into#a#39,000#strong# force.# 2)$Autonomy$ The#South#will#have#autonomy#for#6#years,#which#will#be#followed#by#a#referendum#regarding# secession#from#Sudan#to#be#held#in#2011.# 3)$Oil$wealth$ led#government.#The#remaining#2%#will#be#advanced#to#the#oil#producing#areas#on#a#monthly# basis.#The#oil#wealth#sharing#formula#is#structured#for#oil#reserves#that#are#extracted#from# territories#within#South#Sudan#only.## 4)$Economic$issues$ will#be#used#in#the#north.#Since#South#Sudan#was#in#favour#of#running#a#secular#system,#it# will#adopt#a#conventional#banking#system#as#opposed#to#an#Islamic#one.#Originally,#before# the# war,# Sudan# had# used# the# pound# as# its# currency,#therefore# the# pound# was# reinstated# during#the#six#year#interim#period.##
18 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
5)$Administration$ Positions# in# the# central# transitional# government# are# to# be# split# 70:30# in# favour# of# the# government,#and#55:45#in#favour#of#the#government#in#the#contentious#areas#of#Abyei,#Blue# national#unity#is#to#be#formed.# 6)$Islamic$Law$ in#Khartoum#is#to#be#decided#by#an#elected#assembly.# 7)$Other$
Implementation$Challenges
The# CPA# provided# for# the# instituK ment#fell#short#of#achieving#economK unions,# civil# society# organizations# tion# of# various# specialized# commisK ic# decentralization,# on# the# basis# of# and#other#stakeholders,#was#not#perK sions# acting# as# monitoring# bodies.# which# the# states# and# local# governK ments#would#have#key#roles.#This#is#a# South#Sudan#where#security#regimes# between# the# two# parties# –# NCP# and# central# and# fundamental# problem# as# dominate. SPLM# K# on# how# the# implementation# it# will# later# be# seen# that# most# of# the# K process# could# be# directed,# derailed# national#budget#gets#exhausted#at#naK cern,# the# CPA# overlooked# problemK K tional#(federal)#government#level#with# wards#that#respect.#This#generated#an# K atmosphere#of#suspicion#between#the# ernments6#as#a#result#of#the#shortcomK The media in particular was two#parties#as#each#one#of#them#was# ing. treated X especially by the NCP X as afraid#its#counterpart#may#achieve#an# # a threat to the peace process rather upper# hand# in# the# implementation# Another#CPA#weakness#is#manifested# than as a partner for the sake of process.#From#the#onset#this#caused#a# in# the# fact# that# the# agreement# only# dissemination of information on the recognized# two# legitimate# political# same and# good# faith# between# them.# FurK actors#K#the#SPLM#and#NCP#K#thereby# thermore#the#establishment#of#various# relegating#other#political#groups#and# Eastern#Sudan.#As#such,#even#if#peace# important#commissions#prescribed#in# actors# notably,# the# many# opposition# was#achieved#between#the#north#and# the# CPA# was# considerably# delayed,# political#parties,#trade#unions#and#civK south,#the#country#continued#to#be#in# il#society#organizations#to#the#periphK of#several#milestones#such#as#the#borK ery,#a#situation#that#was#to#become#a# these#peripheral#fronts. der#demarcation,#Abyei#Referendum,# big#recipe#for#polarization.#This#realK Popular# Consultation# in# Southern# K Furthermore,# the# CPA# disempowK Kordofan# and# Blue# Nile# States,# and# ceived#as#a#bilateral#arrangement#beK ered# other# important# instruments# of# tween# the# SPLM# and# NCP,# towards# checks# and# balances# in# the# system,# borders. which#most#people#in#Sudan#did#not# like# the# civil# society# organizations# Not# to# mention# the# limited# capacity# and# the# media,# through# the# cooptaK of# the# SPLM# and# the# general# estabK the agreement only recognized two tion# of# their# strong# members,# thereK lishment#of#the#South,#which#greatly# legitimate political actors X the SPLM fore# producing# loopholes# such# as# hampered# the# CPA# implementation# and NCP X thereby relegating other corruption#and#bad#governance.#The# process.# The# large# number# of# transiK political groups and actors [...] to the media#in#particular#was#treated#(espeK tional# institutions# (such# as# the# comK periphery cially#by#the#NCP)#as#a#threat#to#the# missions)# represented# a# challenge# to# peace#process#rather#than#as#a#partner# the#human#and#organizational#capacK feel# a# sense# of# ownership.#AdditionK for#the#sake#of#dissemination#of#inforK ity#of#the#SPLM.#The#enormity#of#the# ally,#the#CPA#is#devoid#of#an#inclusive# mation#on#the#same7. task# of# postKwar# development,# comK peaceKbuilding# strategy# capable# of# avoiding# state# failure.# This# point# is# The# nonKimplementation# of# the# proK validated#by#the#fact#that#the#mechaK K nism# established# through# the# variK Southern# Kordofan# and# Blue# Nile# ous#bodies#and#Commissions#–#called# States# is# another# major# case# of# CPA# was#a#nightmare. to# regulate,# adjudicate# and# monitor# neglect.#This#has#manifested#today#in# the# CPA# implementation# K# could# not# CPA$weakness$and$neglect humanitarian# catastrophe# ongoing# From#the#above#table,#oil#wealth#sharK and# lack# of# trust# between# the# SPLM# in# these# two# regions.# Coupled# with# ing# and# all# other# forms# of# taxation# and#NCP.#As#a#result,#the#lack#of#inK that#is#the#non#implementation#of#the# revenue#collected#from#the#South#and# clusivity#in#the#peace#process#means# Abyei# Protocol.# The# result# of# these# divided#between#north#and#south#was# that# the# development# of# democratic# deliberate# acts# of# neglect# has# been# one#of#the#fundamental#cornerstones# culture#conducive#to#the#participation# K K of# opposition# political# parties,# trade# tions# between# the# SPLA# and# Sudan#
19 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
Armed#Forces#(SAF).#The#latest#in#this# charged#with#the#task#of#demarcation.# the# chairmanship# of# Thabo# Mbeki# episode#of#confrontations#is#the#invaK and#the#auspices#of#the#African#Union# sion#and#occupation#of#Abyei#by#SAF# in#April#2012#were#directly#the#result# K#require#support#in#order#to#decisiveK was# only# possible# through# pressure# of#the#neglect#of#the#implementation# ly#resolve#the#remaining#disputes. from#the#late#May#2012#United#Nation# of#this#CPA#aspect. Security#Council#Resolution#20468.# Endnotes In# conclusion,# weaknesses# and# neK Moreover,#during#the#term#of#the#CPA,# glects#of#the#CPA#clearly#prove#that#a# and#became#an#authoritative#voices#of#the# the#two#parties#was#the#National#PeK implementation#process#is#needed.#It# should#adopt#a#robust#approach#charK The# author,# prof.# Douglas# Johnson# is# a# most of the oil wealth resources are acterized#by#a#strong#commitment#to# well#known#scholar#of#the#country#and#an# interestingly located in the border democratic# change.# This# requires# a# important#expert#and#commentator#on#the# areas much#wider#involvement#by#all#stakeK Sudans holders# towards# the# achievement# of# K troleum#Commission#lack#of#transparK reconciliation#and#mutual#respect#for# danic#retrieved#on#23/06/2012.#Sudanic#is# ency,#with#regard#to#the#disclosure#of# the#common#interest#of#peace.#Such#an# the# actual# amount# of# revenue# from# approach#will#recognize#that#endemK areas# of# the# Sudan,# most# of# which# are# the# petroleum# sector.# Their# activiK now#generally#assigned#to#the#ChariKNile# ties# resulted# in# huge# discrepancies# branch#of#the#NiloKSaharan#family## in# wealth# sharing# distribution,# thus# of#deeplyKrooted#issues#and#therefore# reinforcing# the# mistrust# between# the# require#a#complete#structural#change.# sudan/16htm,#retrieved#on#27/06/2012# parties.#In#2007,#this#culminated#in#the# SPLM# pulling# out# its# members# from# Default.aspx?tabid=515,# retrieved# on# participating# in# the# National#AssemK again and has assumed a different 02/06/2012 dimension – that of an international K Unity.#Of#course#this#SPLM#action#imK hensive#Peace#Agreement#signed#between# peded#the# proper# implementation# of# the#CPA#as#per#its#timeline. Although# the# Troika# was# viewed# as# K the# CPA# watchdog,# it# did# not# rally# ment. Of# major# interest# to# South# Sudan# is# the#international#community#enough# also#the#border#demarcation#between# to#ensure#that#SPLM#and#NCP#impleK sudantribune.com,#published#on#28th#May# north# and# south# as# per# the# borders# 2012 as# they# stood# on# January# 1,# 1956.# K The# strategic# importance# of# this# asK emerged#once#again#and#has#assumed# K pect#rely#in#the#fact#that#most#of#the# K trieved#on#26/06/2012 oil#wealth#resources#are#interestingly# K the# international# community# is# still# opted# unanimously# on# May# 2,# 2012# and# clear#boundaries,#each#side#continues# important#for#the#pending#issues#to#be# it#calls#for#Sudan#and#South#Sudan#to#imK to#claim#encroachment#on#its#side#of# implemented,# in# order# to# ensure# the# the# border,# hence# resulting# in# skirK coexistence#of#the#two#countries#living# mishes# and# clashes.# Khartoum# has# side#by#side#as#responsible#members# the# two# parties# should# resume# negotiaK continuously# obstructed# the# work# of# of# the# international# community.# The# tions# on# all# the# pending# and# non# impleK current#ongoing#negotiations#K#under# mented#aspects#of#the#2005#CPA.
20 ITPCM#International#Commentary December#2011 ISSN.#2239K7949
by Laura Nistri
IOMF&International&Organisation&for&Migration THE HUMANITARIAN DIMENSION OF THE CRISIS
21 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
The# 9th# of# July# 2011# was# a# day# celK remain# shackled# to# providing# emerK ebrated#across#the#world#by#South#SuK gency#assistance#for#decades#to#come. Sudan.# Those# living# in# the# border# danese,# for# it# marked# the# IndependK Since# May# 2011,# humanitarian# and# Khartoum,# whereas# those# living# in# Republic#of#South#Sudan.# government# partners# had# been# proK the#Equatoria#Region,#including#Juba,# The# journey# to# independence# was# viding# emergency# assistance# to# long# and# hard,# over# two# decades# of# 120,000#people#displaced#from#Abyei,# states# of# Kenya# and# Uganda.# # Many# K a# disputed# area# between# Sudan# and# Southern# Sudanese# moved# beyond# hensive# Peace# Agreement# in# 2005,# whose# validity# came# to# an# end# in# Liberation#Movement#(SPLA)#and#SuK selfKdetermination# for# the# people# of# dan#Armed#Forces#(SAF).##The#Abyei# migrants# or# refugees,# according# to# South#Sudan.##Over#5#days,#3,910,197# IDPs# found# shelter# with# extended# what# kind# of# assistance# and# liveliK South#Sudanese#marked#their#ballots# family# members# in# the# neighbourK hood# they# have# been# building# up# in# to# determine# whether# South# Sudan# should#remain#a#part#of#Sudan#or#beK K come#independent.1 in#temporary#transit#sites#established# During the civil war an estimated 4 An# overwhelming,# 98,83%# voted# in# favor#of#independence#which#was#ofK Abyei#town#was#burnt#to#the#ground# Those living in the border states with along#with#surrounding#villages.## The# Republic# of# South# Sudan# was# whereas those living in the Equatoria quick# to# receive# recognition# from# The#Abyei#Temporary#Arrangements# Region, including Juba, generally the# international# community,# it# was# Agreement# stipulated# between# the# rd# member# of# the# K Kenya and Uganda United#Nations#within#a#week#of#the# tion#Movement#(SPLA)#prior#to#IndeK declaration# of# Independence# and## pendence#in#June#2011#detailed#a#joint# fying#all#of#those#who#wish#to#return,# later# that# month,# it# became# the# 54th# administration# structure# and# called# they#are#referred#to#as#returnees.##A#reF African#Union#member#state#(27#July# for#the#establishment#of#a#new#peaceK turnee 2011).# # The# challenges# for# the# newly# keeping#force,#United#Nation#Interim# Security#Force#for#Abyei#(UNISFA).# area#falling#now#within#South#Sudan,# Despite# the# deployment# of# the# secuK has#expressed#an#interest#to#return#or# the#need#to#address#underdeveloped# rity# force# to# Abyei,# the# government# returned#since#the#signing#of#the#CPA# road# and# rail# networks,# nonKexistent# of# Sudan# was# reticent# to# withdraw# in#2005. health# and# welfare# services# and# faK police#and#army#forces#from#the#area# The# International# Organization# for# cilities,# unite# a# nation# of# ethnically,# Migration#reports#that#since#the#signK culturally,# and# linguistically# diverse# ing#of#the#CPA,#over#2.5#million#peoK groups,#and#respond#to#the#reintegraK ple# have# returned# to# South# Sudan.# tion# needs# of# the# hundreds# of# thouK have# not# moved# very# far,# they# have# Between# last# December# 2010# and# sands#of#returnees#that#had#returned# June# 2012# they# were# over# 360,000,# since#the#beginning#of#the#CPA.##The# North# of# the# Abyei# Administrative# the#majority#of#them#from#Khartoum.## Area#which#is#rich#in#oil.# Sudan# estimate# that# there# are# still# independence# as# numerous# humaniK Since# SAF# withdrawal# some# IDPs# 350,000# K500,000# South# Sudanese# livK tarian# emergencies# unfolded# within# have#begun#to#return#to#their#villages,# ing#in#Sudan,#despite#the#fact#that#the# weeks#of#separation#from#Sudan.## Understanding# the# complexities# of# shelters# and# polluted# water# sources.## these#communities#and#a#proper#regK the# humanitarian# response# to# the# istration#exercise#could#not#be#carried# multiple#emergencies#in#South#Sudan# determine# whether# to# provide# asK out.# K sistance# to# those# returning# to# Abyei# out#funding#for#transition#and#recovK or# to# those# that# are# displaced# in# the# Access# to# traditional# return# routes,# surrounding#region.##The#response#is# roads# and# railways# passing# through# Without funding for transition complicated#by#the#reluctance#to#creK Southern# Kordofan# and# Southern# and recovery, reintegration, and ate#a#pull#factor#to#a#disputed#region# Darfur#States,#has#been#limited#in#the# sustainable development programs, where#there#are#outstanding#political# the humanitarian community in and#security#issues#which#need#to#be# rich#and#disputed#areas#of#Abyei#and# South Sudan will remain shackled to addressed# and# where# resurgence# in# providing emergency assistance for also# supported# by# the# humanitarian# decades to come tertiary#displacements.### through#Kosti#and#onto#Renk.##Renk#is# ery,#reintegration,#and#sustainable#deK a#durable#solution#to#a#more#complex# the#most#northern#town#in#South#SuK velopment#programs,#the#humanitarK and#long#lasting#humanitarian#emerK dan#and#has#limited#ability#to#provide# ian# community# in# South# Sudan# will# gency.# During# the# civil# war# an# estiK space# and# services# for# large# transit#
22 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
sites.#During#the#rainy#season#it#is#cut# of# South# Sudanese# are# stranded# in# ian# community# and# relied# on# donor# Khartoum# unable# to# return# to# South# funding#to#assist#with#the#continuous# since#October#2011,#when#the#border# Sudan#without#assistance#through#huK K with# Sudan# was# closed,# goods# and# manitarian#or#government#organized# commodities# need# to# be# brought# in# resolve#outstanding#issues,#both#interK by#road,#barge#or#by#boat#from#Juba# nally#and#issues#with#Sudan#pending# K order#to#12,000#stranded#returnees#livK from# the# separation,# has# led# to# hesiK tion# and# the# lacking# of# other# viable# tancy#by#donors#to#be#as#generous#as# commercial# transport# options,# here# 12,000#individuals#were#moved#by#huK they#have#been#in#the#past. returnees# become# stranded# without# manitarian# partners# to# Juba# through# means#of#proceeding#south,#this#area# an# expensive# airKbridge# operation# (it# Yusif Batil X the newly established cost#$#5#million#USD#and#included#79# refugee camp in Maban County, Upper Nile State X received 15,000 determined#that#there#are#over#18,000# refugees in 8 days and in Yida, Unity stranded#returnees#in#Renk,#residing# State, over 4,000 refugees were partners# respond# to# the# needs# of# inK reported arriving in a single week ternally# displaced# communities# and# Returnee# is# not# an# internationally# to#stranded#returnees#in#entry#points# recognized# status.# Returnees# are# not# The# UN# and# other# humanitarian# protected# by# enhanced# international# country,# in# November# 2011# refugees# partners# forecast# a# deteriorating# huK standards#and#the#national#legislation# manitarian# environment# within# the# in# force# to# safeguard# their# journey# K next#six#months,#whereby#the#last#UN# ing# the# aerial# bombardment# of# their# SC# res.# 2046# (2012)# Calls& for& ImmediF Returnee is not an internationally villages#and#the#increased#scarcity#of# recognized status. Returnees are not food#across#the#state.##Refugees#from# South&Sudan,&and&Resumption&of&NegoF protected by enhanced international South#Kordofan#State#were#also#crossK tiations#will#hardly#impact#within#the# standards and the national ing# over# into# South# Sudan# from# the# unfolding# scenario.# The# assumption# legislation in force to safeguard Nuba# Mountains# where# they# had# is# that# refugees,# IDPs# and# returnees# their journey and reintegration will#keep#on#growing#in#number,#the# process is scarce and rarely SAF#and#SPLA#North.##Sudan#has#reK capacity# of# the# national# government# implemented peatedly#denied#access#to#UN#observK will# continue# to# deteriorate# due# to# the#shrinking#economic#space,#war#in# and# reintegration# process# is# scarce# there#are#over#113,000#refugees#in#UpK South# Kordofan# and# Blue# Nile# State# K per#Nile#State#and#55,000#refugees#in# will# continue# unabated# unless# there# ernments#of#Sudan#and#South#Sudan# Unity# State.# These# areas# are# located# is# an# intervention,# interKcommunal# resolved# (Memorandum# of# UnderK close# to# the# borders# creating# critical# standing#on#Returns,#March#2012)#to# access#problem#for#the#humanitarian# cause# of# internal# displacement# and# work# in# cooperation# with# all# other# response# and# being# subject# to# periK destruction#of#property,#and#food#inK parties# that# work# on# the# return,# in# odical# aerial# bombardment# by# SAF.## security,#due#to#poor#crop#production,# order# to# facilitate# and# assist# in# the# will#fuel#tension#among#communities# voluntary# return# and# reintegration# provide#emergency#relief#to#refugees# along#ethnic#lines.# in#peace#and#dignity#of#the#nationals# On#the#9th#of#July#the#people#of#South# of#South#Sudan.##A#few#weeks#before,# (the#newly#established#refugee#camp# Sudan#have#celebrated#a#year#of#IndeK the# two# governments# had# adopted# in# Maban# County,#Upper# Nile# State)# pendence.##Unfortunately,#the#achieveK the# Framework# Agreement# on# the# received#15,000#refugees#in#8#days#and# ments#of#the#past#year#are#likely#to#be# Status#of#Nationals#of#the#Other#State# in#Yida,#Unity#State,#over#4,000#refuK K gees#were#reported#arriving#in#a#sinK litical,# and# social# challenges# that# the# should#assume#full#responsibility#for# gle#week.# country#is#facing,#exacerbated#also#by# K the# multiple# and# complex# emergenK als# in# line# with# international# princiK The# emergency# response# to# vulneraK cies. ble#communities#rests#almost#entirely# Agreement# nor# the# MoU# have# been# on#the#shoulders#of#humanitarian#acK K K Endnotes icy#adopted,#and#thousands#of#returnK sist# its# people# has# been# crippled# by# ees#are#stranded#across#South#Sudan# the# serious# economic# crisis# resulting# waiting#for#land#allocation#in#order#to# from#lack#of#oil#revenues,#continuing# a# whole,# was# conducted# in# April# 2008.# begin#their#new#lives.## economic#blockade#and#severe#austerK rejected# by# Southern# Sudanese# governK The#shutdown#of#oil#production#alone# ment,#the#census#showed#the#population# how# to# legalize# their# status# in# SuK resulted#in#a#loss#of#98%#of#the#governK of# South# Sudan# to# be# 8.26# million.# Since# dan#or#whether#they#have#the#option# K then#no#other#population#census#has#been# to# remain,# hundreds# of# thousands# ernment#has#turned#to#the#humanitarK carrying#out#yet.##
23 ITPCM#International#Commentary April#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
by Amgad Fareid Eltayeb
Sudanese&PhD&researcher&in&Life&Science& based&in&Khartoum SUDAN: POWER DEMONSTRATIONS OF A FAILED STATE FORM#OF#FASCISM.
24 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
The# term# failed& state# is# sometimes# even#more#obvious.#President#Bashir# rulingKclass#worldview#is#imposed#as# took#advantage#of#the#instability#and# the#social#norm#(Alan#Bullock,#1999).# Formal# theorists# of# accused# regimes# The# Islamic# front# and# its# successor,# tend#to#defend#their#systems#by#saying# the#National#Congress#Party#K#which# Kordofan# elections,# whose# two# canK conducted# the# 1989# military# coup# K that# brought# the# current# regime# to# propaganda# rather# than# realistically# power#K#do#actually#represent#a#social# describing# state# or# regime# status.# In# K class.# This# class# is# mainly# composed# the#case#of#Sudan,#we#have#all#the#reaK K of# educated# villagers# who# migrated# sons#to#believe#that#this#is#not#the#case.# force#immediate#disarmament#on#the# to#towns#and#were#integrated#into#the# In# classical# political# literature,# Max# SPLA1#in#May#2011,#dismiss#an#elected# higher#middle#class#of#the#society#as# state# as# the# entity# governor# of# another# state# (Blue# Nile# professionals# and# merchants.# They# capable# of# maintaining# the# monopK state)# and# appoint# an# army# general# K oly#on#the#legitimate#use#of#physical# as#ruler#of#the#state.#On#3rd#September# 2011,#Bashir#declared#a#state#of#emerK dictatorship#(the#1969#–#1985#Nemeri# statehood#is#in#doubt,##thus#becoming# gency#in#the#Blue#Nile#State#and#disK missed#its#governor,#Malik#Agar,#who# The Islamic front and its successor, was#elected#in#April#2011,#appointing# the National Congress Party [...] do actually reepresent a social class of#military#clashes#in#Blue#Nile,#Nuba# as# military# ruler# of# the# state.# This# [...] mainly composed of educated Mountains,# and# South# Kordofan# was#accompanied#by#mass#arrests#of# villagers who migrated to towns clearly#demonstrates#that#the#current# SPLM/N# members,# the# irrational# deK ruling#regime#in#Sudan#is#not#able#to# struction# of# state# infrastructure# (inK maintain#this#essential#condition.# cluding#the#state#cultural#centre)#and# government),# when# they# formed# a# shaky# political# alliance# with# the# rulK In#Darfur,#the#International#Criminal# K ing#regime,#helping#them#to#succeed# Court#is#prosecuting#several#state#ofK ing# until# this# time.# This# act# was# opK in#their#coup#against#the#third#democK posing#the#constitution#itself#and#can# racy#(1985#–#1989)#and#seize#power#in# President#Omer#Al#Bashir#K#and#there# never# be# described# as# legitimate# nor# 1989. have#anything#to#do#with#political#corK # ICC#investigation#according#to#a#forK rectness.# Legitimacy# of# the# physical# The#regime#and#its#political#allies#conK mal# request# from# the# UN# (SudanTK power# used# by# the# national# governK tinue#to#describe#their#ideology#as#the# ribune# 2006).# This# prosecution# was# ment# in# these# occasions# is# of# course# only# universal,# natural,# and# desired# carried# out# because# of# the# massive# questionable. way# to# rule# Sudan.# President# Bashir# by# the# government# supported# proxy# A# recent# FailedKStates# Index# develK South# secedes# he# would# change# the# force#K#known#as# #K#but#also# Fund& constitution,# introduce# Islamic# laws# by#the#regular#army#troops.#Recently,# for& Peace& Research& Centre,# in# collaboK (Shariaa#Laws)#containing#no#impuriF also#the#Sudanese#Minister#of#Defence# ration# with# magazine,# ties K ranked#Sudan#as#the#third#failed#state# cial#language#of#the#state#(BBC,#2010).# in#the#world#for#2011.#There#were#no# On# the# same# day,# all# mobile# phone# statement# accused# him# of# 41# crimes# networks#companies#sent#a#text#mesK against#humanity#and#war#crimes#inK the# ranking# of# Sudan# as# it# was# the# sage#to#every#phone#in#Sudan#stating# cluding# persecution,# torture,# as# well# number#one#failed#state#in#both#2006# that# 96%# of# Sudanese# were# Muslim# as# murder# and# rape,# occured# durK and# 2007# (Kristen# Blandford,# 2011).# and#95%#of#them#had#Arab#origins.#It# The#index#was#created#in#2005#and#it# was#clear#that#the#government#decidK K ed#to#adopt#the#ArabKIslamic#notion#as# President# Representative# for# Darfur# nomic,#and#political#indicators#for#the# the#norm#for#Sudan.# at#that#time.#This#K#and#similar#other# 1#(Fund# warrants# including# the# one# against# for#Peace,#2012).# all mobile phone networks ## companies sent a text message to actual# deep# involvement# of# the# state# Despite#all#this,#the#regime#is#still#able# every phone in Sudan stating that apparatus#in#using#immoral#physical# to#impose#its#popular#control#over#the# 96% of Sudanese were Muslim and power#in#Darfur#in#the#last#decade. society.#It#is#using#all#the#elements#of# 95% of them had Arab origins # to#maintain#its#power#and#its#populist# illegitimate# use# of# physical# power# is# K It# is# a# political# party# headed# by# AlK turally#diverse#society#(as#is#the#case# A recent FailedXStates Index in#Sudan)#can#be#dominated#K#ruled#K# uncle,#who#was#once#(and#for#a#long# developed by the Washington based by#one#social#class,#whose#dominance# period# of# time)# a# federal# minister# Fund for Peace Research Centre [...] is# achieved# by# manipulating# the# soK in# Bashir# government.# The# platK ranked Sudan as the third failed cial# culture# (beliefs,# explanations,# form# uses# its# newspaper# Alintibaha,# state in the world for 2011 perceptions,#values,#morals)#so#that#its# which# stands# for# alertness# in# Arabic,#
25 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
to# spread# severe# racism# and# hatred.# Cultural# hegemony# serves# the# realiK zation# of# another# element# of# the# toK commonly#used#in#this#newspaper.#It# talitarian# state# power:# it# makes# the# when#the#police#and#parliament#fail#to# majority#of#people#quietly#accept#the# guarantee#stability#to#the#community# political# activists# using# socially# deK use# of# brutal# force# against# dissident# (Leon# Trotsky,# 1932).# The# economic# rogatory# terms# such# as# prostitutes.# minorities.# The# regime# tends# to# deK crash# which# followed# the# independK Although# there# is# very# strong# state# ence# of# the# oilKrich# South# provoked# press#censorship#in#Sudan,#this#newsK K K paper# is# # subject# to# restrictions# and# ity#versus#minority,#in#order#to#create# wide#popular#riots.#Once#again#fascist# its#publications#are#never#questioned.# a#popular#fear#among#the#masses.#The# measures#seem#to#have#been#the#only# This#creates# an# increasing# belief# that# social#and#economical#elements#charK way#for#the#Sudanese#regime#to#mainK the# stance# of# this# newspaper# and# its# tain#its#political#domination.#The#real# platform# are# actually# representing# K fascist# face# of# the# Sudanese# governK the# government# and# its# ruling# party.# ment#has#been#disclosed.#This#judgeK Arab#Muslims#in#the#north#and#the#inF the# newspaper# describes# itself# in# its# #in#the#South.#Darfur#is#described# Cultural hegemony serves the such,#ignores#all#the#pending#economK Mussolini# (Italy),# Franco# (Spain),# realization of another key element ic#and#resourceKrelated#disagreements# Suharto# (Indonesia),# and# Pinochet# of the totalitarian state: it makes the between#farmers#and#shepherds.#Even# majority of people quietly accept the the# struggle# for# civil# rights# is# transK characteristics# of# fascism# (Lawrence# use of brutal force against dissident formed# into# religious# controversy# minorities between#Muslims#and#secular#society.# shape#the#picture#of#the#state#in#Sudan# In#addition,#these#strategies#K#through# today:# slogan#as#the#voice#of#the#silent#majorK the#strong#state#monopoly#of#the#meK ity.#On#the#other#hand,#the#newspaper# dia#K#continue#to#have#the#support#of# Powerful$and$Continuing$Nationala K the#people.# ism:#even#in#response#to#internal#tenK mental#actions. The# case# of# the# Sudanese# regime# reK sions# regarding# economic# and# civic#
26 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
K and#implementation#of#the#articles#of# other#private#health#care#investments.# national#collusion#against#Sudan. the#law#(like#indecent&dressing#which#is# only#directed#towards#women).#As#a# Labor$Power$is$suppressed: Disdain$ for$ the$ Recognition$ of$ Hua result,# court# sentences# providing# for# order#of#this#regime#when#it#came#to# man$Rights:#detention,#torture,#beatK punishments#such#as#lashing#are#freK power#was#to#dissolve#all#the#elected# ings,#sleep#deprivation,#electric#shock,# quent# against# women.#Article# 152# of# trade# unions.# Any# labour# strike# is# and#other#forms#of#physical#and#menK treated#with#extreme#violence#by#the# tal# abuse,# are# usual# practices# of# the# Sudanese# security# agencies.# Security# the#immediate#detention#of#their#trade# K which# may# not# exceed# 40# lashes# or# union#leader#and#the#public#beating#of# al#violence#and#harassment#of#female# doctors#in#the#streets.# activists,#including#the#alleged#brutal# Controlled$ Mass$ Media:# Sudanese# Disdain$ for$ Intellectuals$ and$ the$ authorities#have#a#long#history#of#closK Arts:# It# is# not# uncommon# for# proK ing#newspapers#and#silencing#journalK fessors# and# other# experts# to# be# cenK ists.# Continuous# press# censorship# is# sored# or# even# arrested.# Professor# M.# 2012).#Not#to#mention#the#systematic# taking#place#and#prolonged#court#casK Zein# alKAbidin# Dean# of# the# College# practice# of# rape# carried# out# by# the# es# against# journalists# are# a# common# proKgovernment# militias# in# Darfur.# practice.# For# example,# in# May# 2012# Azhari# University# was# detained# for# K state# security# agents# had# prevented# almost#2#weeks#during#February#2012# distribution# of# the# Almidan# newspaK without#charges#being#raised,#for#havK Despite the acute economic crisis K in Sudan, over 77% of the state munist#party#K#13#times,#while#many# on#a#newspaper.#The#newspaper#was# budget is dedicated to military prominent# journalists# face# criminal# closed# for# the# same# reason.# In# the# expenditures, while less than 4% is charges# for# commenting# on# political# early#1990s#Professor#Farouk#Moh#IbK spent on health and education events.# # Journalists# are# also# arrested# rahim#was#arrested#and#severely#torK by# the# National# Intelligence# and# SeK tic,#that#is#to#say#the#Obsession$with$ curity# Services# laws# which# give# # the# evolution. National$ Security.# Members# of# the# right#to#arrest#for#a#period#of#40#days# NISS,# regardless# of# their# rank,# enjoy# without# raising# charges.# The# NISS# full# legal# immunity# against# all# laws# has# a# list# of# policy# provisions# which# in May 2012 state security agents requiring# NISS# approval# to# proceed.# are# changeable# and# ungoverned# by# had prevented distribution of the Needless# to# say,# such# approval# had# law#or#judicial#order.#For#example,#it# Almidan never# taken# place# despite# the# many# demands#newspapers#to#abstain#from# the Sudanese Communist party cases#raised#against#the#police#by#the# covering# the# International# Criminal# X 13 times, while many prominent legal#system. Court,# government# corruption,# huK journalists face criminal charges for man# rights# violations,# Darfur,# the# commenting on political events a war#in#South#Kordofan#and#Blue#Nile,# goats$as$a$Unifying$Cause:#The#SudaK armed# movements,# and# many# other# Obsession$ with$ Crime$ and$ Punisha nese#government#always#tries#to#idenK topics. ment:#the#power#of#the#Sudanese#poK tify#its#enemy#as#a#public#threat#for#the# lice#is#almost#limitless.#In#March#2012,# community,#by#using#racial,#ethnic,#or# Religion$and$Government$are$Intera Awadia#Ajabna,#a#young#woman#livK religious#labelling.# twined:#the#government#tends#to#use# ing# in# Khartoum# was# shot# dead# by# Islam,#which#is#the#predominant#reliK Supremacy$ of$ the$ Military:# Despite# gion# in# the# country,#as# a# tool# to# maK the# acute# economic# crisis# in# Sudan,# nipulate# public# opinion.# The# Sudan# brother# of# being# drunk.# Although# over#77%#of#the#state#budget#is#dediK many# were# enraged# by# this,# there# cated#to#military#expenditures,#while# issues# Islamic# judgements# (fatwas)# less# than# 4%# is# spent# on# health# and# in# political# issues# that# are# of# public# at#least#not#in#public.# education.#This#was#true#in#the#past,# concern#and#support#the#government# even# at# the# time# of# the# CPA# impleK stance. Rampant$Cronyism$and$Corruption:# mentation.#Every#year#the#parliament# since#2004#Transparency#International# approves#a#budget#having#these#perK Corporate$ Power$ is$ Protected:# large# centages. industries# and# businesses# in# Sudan# most#corrupted#countries#in#the#world# K according#the#Corruption#Perceptions# Rampant$ Sexism:# many# of# the# curK spread# corruption# also# plays# a# role,# Index. rent# Sudanese# laws# are# highly# sexist# and# some# of# them# are# designed# esK private# businesses.# For# example,# the# Fraudulent$ Elections:# the# regime# pecially# against# women.# The# Public# tends# to# repeatedly# manipulate# the# K owner#of#the##ì2#largest##private#hosK results# of# elections.# In# the# previous# siderable#power#in#the#interpretation# pitals#in#the#country,#along#with#many# presidential# elections# of# 2010,# maK
27 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
jor# frauds# were# highlighted.# Videos# References: K K one?,”#Free#Inquiry,#Spring#2003,#page#20 lot#boxes#were#recorded#(BCC,#2010).# The# New# Fontana# Dictionary# of# Modern# Thought#Third#Edition,#1999. K K since 2004 Transparency ety,#1922. International (TI) has ranked Sudan K 1935.#2000 countries in the world according the K Corruption Perceptions Index une.com/ICCKNoKSudaneseKofficialKimK co.uk/news/worldKafricaK12033185) mune,19321) This# cannot# continue# forever.# SudaK nese# government# acrobatics# in# manK arrest#for#the#Sudanese#Minister#Abdel#RaK States# Index:# Frequently# Asked# QuesK not# succeed# as# people# started# to# reK www.iccKcpi.int/NR/exeres/C41F9D16K fundforpeace.org/global/?q=fsiKfaq) sist#it#long#time#and#the#resistance#is# D6A2K48FFK9A01K5AD2D96DF7B4.htm) K spreading#day#by#day.#Such#resistance# continues#and# shall#overcome#at# last# worldKreportK2012/worldKreportK2012KsuK Publication# FFP# :# CCPPR11SD# (Version# dan) and#they#believe#that#they#are#not#deK K peace.org/global/states/ccppr11sdKcounK video# shows# election# fraud,# April# 2010# the#injustice#and#fascistic#measures#of# the#ruling#regime.#
28 ITPCM#International#Commentary December#2011 ISSN.#2239K7949
by Siham Khalid
NUBIAN AND LAND ISSUES IN SOUTH KORDOFAN
29 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
Southern# Kordofan# is# home# to# both# existing# entitlements,# and# pave# the# K Arab#Muslims#and#African#Christian# way#for#unprecedented#forms#of#comK ern# Kordofan)# and# Bentiu# (Northern# part# of# South# Sudan).# The# year# 1998# K K marked#the#signing#of#bilateral#trade# cal#and#ethnic#favoritism,#which#can# agreements# with# China# concerning# be# traced# back# to# independence# in# in the Nuba Mountains, Darfur, large#arm#deals#and#training#of#MiliK 1956,# have# led# to# the# polarization# of# southern Blue Nile or South the#area.# Sudan [...] no individualXprivate landownership was recognized the#north,#the#abolishment#of#the#auK The#administrative#province#of#SouthK tonomous# region# of# the# South,# and# pointed# in# the# northern# and# central# the#introduction#of#Sharia#law#in#the# the# conclusion# of# the# CPA# in# 2005.## districts# of# Sudan,# nothing# of# this# legislative# system# as# a# means# to# terK The# area# was# further# divided# by# a# kind#was#pursued#in#the#Nuba#MounK rorize# and# humiliate# the# governK decision#to#allow#the#border#areas#of# tains,# Darfur,# southern# Blue# Nile# or# the#Blue#Nile#and#Southern#Kordofan,# South#Sudan.##Consequently,#“no#inK second#civil#war#that#lasted#from#1983# through# popular# consultation,# to# reK dividualKprivate#landKownership#was# to#2005. main#with#Sudan#or#join#South#Sudan# recognized#in#these#regions.” The# continued# mutual# distrust# beK Ultimately,# government# policy# faK K tween# South# Sudan# and# Sudan# and# vored# investment# companies# over# tional# Islamic# Front# (NIF)# staged# a# the# deferred# post# secession# proviK traditional#Nuba#farmers,#and#mechaK military#coup#and#took#over#the#govK sions#of#the#CPA#threaten#to#cause#a# ernment#in#Khartoum,#thus#aborting# return#to#war#in#Southern#Kordofan.## investors,# replaced# traditional# farmK the#peace#process#and#upcoming#conK Should# this# occur,# the# population# of# ing.# # Small# farmers# facing# distorted# stitutional# conference# with# SPLA/M.## Southern# Kordofan# and# the# Nuba# prices#and#unfair#terms#of#trade#could# As# war# escalated# in# the# South# and# tribes#will#pay#the#ultimate#price. no# longer# compete# in# the# domestic# moved#towards#the#Nuba#Mountains# market.#This#exacerbated#the#poverty# (Southern#Kordofan)#in#1998,#with#the# Historically, land has been among#the#Nuba,#and#deepened#their# looming#danger#of#the#SPLM#winning# distributed according to social sense#of#marginalization. the# war# with# its# new# alliances# with# norms that assigned land to the# Nuba# people,# the# government# of# families or individuals on the basis Sudan#armed#the#Arab#tribes#against# of traditions and colonialXera Southern#Kordofan#mainly#because#it# land ownership legislation. Land is# stored# in# manKmade# basins# called# Mountains#and#started#forced#relocaK disputes are normally resolved tions#of#the#Nuba#tribes#towards#soK by consensus through dialogue in#the#area#remain#a#challenge#for#the# called#“Peace#Villages”. between tribes population#due#to#the#fact#that#these# basins#rely#on#the#rainy#season#for#reK By#the#1990s,#oil#production#began#to# plenishment.#Through#the#years#these# basins#have#become#dry,#due#to#enviK seized#large#areas#in#the#south#from# southern$kordofan ronmental#changes#and#global#warmK The#issue#of#land#in#Southern#KordoK K the# start# of# crude# oil# production# in# fan,# inhabited# mainly# by# the# Nuba,# ity#have#prevented#the#local#populaK Southern# Kordofan.# # These# events# has# been# an# obstacle# for# peace# and# tion# from# replacing# these# caused#the#civil#war#to#escalate.##Soon# K land# has# been# distributed# according# water scarcity forced people to to# social# norms# that# assigned# land# abandon their land and seek jobs in to#families#or# individuals#on# the# baK Khartoum, and other large towns pursuing# a# peace# initiative# called# sis#of#traditions#and#colonialKera#land# the#Declaration#of#Principle#(DOP)#as# ownership#legislation.##Land#disputes# This# water# scarcity# forced# people# to# members# of# the# Intergovernmental# are# normally# resolved# by# consensus# abandon# their# land# and# seek# jobs# in# through#dialogue#between#tribes. Khartoum,#and#other#large#towns,#in# that#called#for#autonomy#and#selfKdeK order#to#provide#for#their#families. termination#for#South#Sudan. K The#adoption#of#the#Islamic#ConstituK 1956,#Sudan#confronted#a#situation#of# tion#in#Sudan#in#1997##marked#the#end# institutional/legislative#dualism#with# increased# and# ultimately# brought# of#the#Declaration#of#Principle#agreeK respect# to# natural# resources.# # State# about#their#partnership#with#the#SuK K out#of#control#once#again.##A#coalition# tem# of# natural# resource# legislation,# (SPLM/A).# of# the# National# Democratic# Alliance# made# decisions# determining# land# and#SPLA/M#forces#opened#an#eastern# access#and#user#rights#that#would#alK Oil$discovery front,# seized# patches# of# territory# beK ter# established# equilibriums,# violate# Oil# was# discovered# in# the# south# in# tween#the#Red#Sea#and#the#Blue#Nile,#
30 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
threatening# the# Roseires# hydroelecK major#points#of#the#negotiations.#The# census# in# Darfur# and# Southern# KoK tric# dam# near# Damazin.# # Ultimately,# K rdofan#by#preventing#displaced#Nuba# this# brought# about# the# Khartoum# rdofan#into#two#states#and#the#second# Peace# Agreement# signed# between# was#the#decision#allowing#the#popuK The demarcation and reassignment the#government#and#six#splinter#rebel# lar#consultation#in#the#Blue#Nile#and# of areas of Southern Kordofan was a clear attempt of the government to members#were#absent#in#the#negotiaK politically marginalize the Nuba and tion#leading#to#the#agreement.##All#of# this#compromise,#the#Nuba#tribes#lost# replace them with Arab tribes loyal this# coincided# with# the# commenceK a#bargaining#chip#that#they#were#nevK to the government in Khartoum ment# of# exploration# and# developK er#able#to#regain. ment#in#the#Sharaf,#Tabaldi#and#Abu# Mistrust#between#the#SPLM#and#the# from#returning#to#their#homes#in#orK K National# Congress# Party# (NCP),# and# der#to#maintain#the#dominance#of#the# the# lack# of# political# will# display# by# Arab#tribes. made#between#May#2002#and#January# their#partnership#government,#led#to# # 2005,# and# many# explain# this# initiaK hesitancy.# The# NCP# feared# that# the# The# Regional# elections# of# Southern# tive#was#due#to#the#increasing#interest# popular# consultation# would# lead# to# Kordofan# were# conducted# on# May# 1# the# Nuba# tribes# deciding# to# join# the# K But# most# of# all,# the# evident# interest# South,# which# would# lead# to# the# loss# dum# of# South# Sudan.# # Preoccupied# regarded#pressure#from#the#oil#lobby# with#its#new#found#independence#the# upset# for# being# denied# access# to# the# South# forsook# its# allies# in# the# north,# lucrative# Sudan# market# because# of# The# popular# consultation# was# an# atK American#Sanctions. tempt# to# give# the# Nuba# indigenous# was#to#remain#in#power,#and#the#isolaK These#incidents#suggest#that#the#crisis# tribes# the# political# mechanism# to# tion#of#the#Nuba#allowed#the#NCP#to# in#Southern#Kordofan#was#caused#by# determine#their#future.##But#the#conK dominate#the#election#process.##There# economic# competition# surrounding# sultation# never# took# place.# The# NCP# the# issue# of# oil# exploitation# between# made# only# false# promises# to# Nuba# the#two#Sudans. tribes#due#to#pressure#from#the#interK the# continuation# of# the# Darfur# conK national#community.# Comprehensive$Peace$Agreement The# Comprehensive# Peace# AgreeK Southern$Kordofan$election ment#in#2005#represents#a#missed#opK The# demarcation# and# reassignment# the# International# Criminal# Court# in# portunity#to#bring#justice#to#the#Nuba# of# areas# of# Southern# Kordofan# was# tribes# because# it# failed# to# give# them# be#reelected#as#governor#in#Southern# the# chance# to# address# the# issues# of# politically#marginalize#the#Nuba#and# Kordofan.##As#governor,#he#can#safeK power#sharing#and#land.###In#contrast# replace#them#with#Arab#tribes#loyal#to# to#the#peace#agreement#that#they#conK the#government#in#Khartoum.# cluded#with#the#government#in#2002,# victory#essentially#marked#the#beginK the#CPA#leaves#the#Nuba#to#an#uncerK In#accordance#with#the#CPA,#the#genK K tain#future. eral#elections#were#scheduled#for#2009# ern#Kordofan. but# were# held# in# April# of# 2010.# # The# Two# highly# crucial# elements# of# the# main# reason# for# the# delay# was# the# Disheartened,# the# Nuba# have# lost# CPA# are# (i)# the# sixKyear# transitional# disputed# results# of# the# 2008# census# hope# for# any# political# change.# They# period# that# led# to# the# referendum# which#led#to#a#new#one#to#be#held#in# have#also#become#skeptical#about#the# and#the#secession#of#the#South#Sudan# SPLM# North# representing# their# inK from# Sudan,# and# (ii)# the# contested# of# counts# recorded# increased# from# terests.##Consequently,#the#party#has# areas#between#the#North#and#South,# 1,406,404# to# 2,508,268# persons.# The# lost# popular# support# from# the# Nuba# namely#Blue#Nile,#Southern#Kordofan# K in#Southern#Kordofan.#The#loss#of#the# and# Abyei,# would# decide# their# fate# lished#by#the#NEC#on#March#4#2011,# South,#which#produced#70#percent#of# through#popular#consultation. included# 642,558# voters# in# Southern# the#oil#revenues#as#well#as#the#weakK In#exchange#for#the#guarantee#of#a#refK Kordofan,#out#of#1,172,406#eligible#votK ness#of#the#opposition#in#the#Southern# erendum#for#South#Sudan,#the#SPLM# ers.#The#Carter#Center#noted#that#the# Kordofan,# allowed# the# NCP# to# reasK number# of# registrants# was# “approxiK sert#control#of#the#area#by#exploiting# In exchange for the guarantee of mately# 100,000# fewer”# than# during# K a referendum for South Sudan, the the#previous#April#2010#elections. sions# in# order# to# advance# their# ecoK SPLM abandoned the Nuba agenda nomic#agenda. The# issue# of# ethnic# and# religious# identity# was# of# great# concern# to# the# The#unwillingness#of#the#NCP#to#give# abandoned# the# Nuba# agenda.# This# ppposition# party# but# these# two# eleK the# Nuba# a# genuine# chance# to# deK ments# were# highly# downplayed# by# cide# their# fate# has# created# obstacles# for# peace# and# reconciliation.# There# the# government# of# politicizing# the#
31 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
to#arise#between#the#two#Sudans,#and# ments#in#the#Near#East#and#North#Africa# world/2001/oct/02/afghanistan.terrorism3 the#emergence#of#a#humanitarian#criK Region”,#Report# 3rd# March,# 2003,# www. th# sis#in#Southern#Kordofan. ifad.org/events/nrp/case/sudan.pdf 2.## Mohamed# Sulieman,# CultivatK An# Evaluation,# www.sudantribune.com/ Conclusion The#discovery#of#new#wealth#caused# Natural#Resource#Management,#1999,#InK pdf an# opening# of# an# eastern# front# durK ternational# Development# Research# CenK K ing#the#civil#war#that#changed#the#dyK namic#of#the#civil#war#to#one#of#cenK Problem# ;# the# Next# Darfur# Crisis# group# tre# vs.# periphery# rather# than# one# of# Africa# report# n.# 145# www.crisisgroup. North#vs.#South,#the#Centre#represent# org/~/media/Files/africa/hornKofKafrica/ elites# of# the# Regime# and# their# loyal# The#Nuba#question#,Paper#Conference#(acK sudan/Sudans%20Southern%20KordoK supporters# and# the# peripheries# repK fan%%20Problem%20The%20Next%20# resented#in#the#Sudanese#population# org/documents/Kunda%20Kumey%20 Darfur# of#the#South,#North#and#the#East#that# Nuba%20Question.pdf# 10.# Sudan#tribune#website,#Factbox:# Southern# Kordofan# Elections,# last# modiK interest#and#manipulation#of#the#ReK or# Development# Opportunities# “,# acK K gime. cessed#on#the#12#May#2012) 5.# Sudan# News# Agency# (SUNA):# Kordofan,38531 K 11.# Darfur# Relief# and# DocumentaK rdofan,#Sudan#and#South#Sudan,#with# –Special# Representative# for# the# African# the#facilitation#of#the#African#Union,# MissionKUnited#Nation#mission#in#Darfur,# 2012#report#of#2012#on#the#5th#population# have# reached# an# agreement# on# oil# consensus#in#Sudan,#southsudaninfo.net/ revenues,# transport# fees,# and# transiK April#18th#2012) K sudan.pdf K eration# Lifeline# Sudan# :# resolution# /# ern# Kordofan# remained# unresolved# and#now#threatens#the#stability#of#the# December# 1990,# A/RES/45/226,# availK North#Sudan#and#possible#returns#of# http://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/ K docid/3b00efe454.html# [accessed# 20# June# splmKtoKboycottKelectionsKinKmostKofK fur. 2012] northKsudanK3660 K K Endnotes: K 1.# IFAD#website,#”Empowering#the# K rural#poor#under#volatile#policy#environK dan#and#South#Sudan#
32 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
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33 ITPCM#International#Commentary July#2012 ISSN.#2239K7949
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