Recruit and Inservice Training Programs. the Feasibili, of Training Institute Of

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 114 744 CG 010 204

AUTHOR Bard, Morton TITLE Family Crisis Intervention: From Concept to Implementation. National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice Monograph. INSTITUTION National Inst. of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (Dept. of Justice/LEAA), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Dec 73 NOTE 18p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC-$1.58 Plus Postage DESCRIPTOPS Crisis Therapy; *Educational Programs; *Family Problems; Instructional Programs; *Intervention; *Law Enforcement; *Police; State of the Art Reviews

ABSTRACT One of the most hazardous assignments police officers face is dealing with family quarrels and disturbances. In 1972, 13 percent of all policemen killed in the line of duty died while responding to disturbance complaints. Despite these dangers, techniques for dealing with such crises are rarely included in police recruit and inservice training programs. The feasibili, of training police as specialists in family crisis intervention was first tested by the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance in 1967. ThevNational Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice belie0s that crisis intervention training can enhance police safety and make police service more responsive to community needs. The ,Institute has prepared this monograph to explain the concept underlying the training and to discuss some guidelines and problems .*1 organizing a training program. (Author/HMV)

*********************************************************************** Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished * * materials not available from other sources. ERIC makes every effort * * to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal * * reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality * * of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available * via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). EDRS is not * responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions * * supplied by EDES are the best that can be made from the original. *********************************************************************** FAMILY CRISIS

INTERVENTION:

FROM CONCEPT TO IMPLEMENTATION

MORTON BARD

This project was supported by Grant No. NI -70 -068, awarded by the National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S. Department of Justice under the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, as amended. Points of view or opinions stated in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.

U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION & WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEENREPRO. DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATIONORIGIN- ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRE- SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY N 0 0 December 1913

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

Law Enforcement Assistance Administration

National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice LAW ENFORCEMENT ASSISTANCE ADMINISTRATION

Donald E. Santareili,Administrator Richard W. Velde, Deputy Administrator Charles R. Work, Deputy Administrator

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF LAW ENFORCEMENT AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE

Gerald M. Caplan, Director

For sole by the Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office Washington. D.C. 20402 - Price 55 cents Stock Number 2700-00244 CONTENTS

Page FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION vi THE CONCEPT

Crisis Intervention 1 Interpersonal Conflict Management 3

ORGANIZATIONAL AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS. 7 -. Ambivalence and Ambiguity . Models of Implementation :ft 9 Training 10 Relationships With Other Agencies 11

REFERENCES 13

4 FOREWORD"'

One of the most hazardous assignments police officers face is dealing with family quarrels and disturbances. In 1972, 13percent of all policemen killed in the line of duty died while responding to disturbance complaints. Twenty- seven percent of the assaults on police officers occurred in the same setting. The risk is even greater for the participants in these quarrels. Of all murders reported in 1972, 2-4.3 percent occurred between family members, 7.1percent during a "lover's quarrel," and 41.2 percentas the result of other arguments. The vast majority of all aggravated assaults involve relatives, neighborsor a cqu a in tanCeS.. Despite these dangers, techniques for dealing with such crisesare .rely included in police retreat 'arld.inservice trainingprograms. 'Rqsearch, indicates:iliac tramecl icrisis-interverition are less likely to be injured or assaulted when handling fights and disturbances. Some researchers believe well-trained officers also serve to reduce homicide and assault rates. The feasibility of training police as specialists in family crisis intervention was first; tested by the Of Law.. Enforcement Assistance. in"1967:: The National Institute has continued to support this work, expan4ing the training focus from a small group of selected volunteers to a broad range of officers and refining the experience of earlier projects. The Institute believes that crisisintervention training can enhance police safety and make police service more responsive to community needs. From a broader perspective, this sophisticated training technique changes the police function in concrete and positive ways. Success is measured in terms of police ability to solve disputes rather than piling up. felony arrests. As the police begin to view themselves as skilled conflict managers capable of defusing potentiallyexplosivesituations, "'beneficialeffectsarefeltthroughout the department. Successful intervention in family disputes also can result in many economies, eliminating the time and expense involved in bringing a case to court. This monograph explains the concept underlying the training and discusses some guidelines and problems in organizing such a program. We hope it will be useful both as an introduction to crisis intervention techniques and as an aid to those agencies interested in adopting this training method.

Gerald M. Caplan Director :IN.O.tional Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice 1:4

INTRODUCTION

Police administrators today are constantly seeking toimprove the quality and delivery of police services. However, because these serviceshave beciime so diversified and complex, their improvement must involvecertain new otrgani- zational strategies. An important idea to consider in determining theseorganization, egies is the concept of policing as a "person profession," thatis, one wh guires a facility in interpersonalrelations. If one accepts this assumption, itallows that the training of police officers in the acquisition ofinterpersonal skills should occupy a high priority in the police system. One area of police work that requires a skill ininterpersonal relations is that of family crisis management. Although processingfamily disturbances con- stitutes an important aspect of police work, and although asignificant proportion of injuries and fatalities suffered by police occursin this area, police administrators have generally not addressed themselves tothe realities of this problem. Some years ago, however, a study indicated that thetrainir&of police officers in specific interpersonal skills could improve andfacilitate the management of domestic disturbances (1). Utilizing resources from both thebehavioral and social sciences, this project in crisis interventiontraining demonstrated that there were more effective, safer, and more satisfying waysfor police officers to handle family crises than the traditional means. Whatis more, there were some indications that skillful performance of family crisis intervention wasviewed as a valuable service by thecommunity. Given the frequency with whichpolice departments are confronted by family disturbances, andgiven the limited c petence of and unclearmandate for police officers in such situations, it natural to find police administrators respondingquickly to the implications of that initial study. Unfortunately, however, enthusiastic implementation offamily crisis programs often went forward with toolittle understanding of the underlying concept and with even lessappreciation of the organizational pitfalls which can result from adopting these programs. It is the intent of this monograph to help correctthat situation by briefly explaining the concepts undergirding police family crisisintervention and by exploring some of the organizational implications inherentin a "go" decision by a police department. It is not expected that this discussionwill be an exhaus- tive one; it is only intended to alert the interestedpolice administrator to some ,of the important issues involved.

vi SF THE CONCEPT

The use of the term "family crisis" in our orig- serious, long-term consequence of such events. The inal demonstration study was intended to broaden logic of this formulation was subsequently sup- the view of what was involved in the usual family ported by others (1, 2,,4, 5,7) mostly in settings fight. Typically, police officers have regarded the that lent themselves to his approach, that is, in amp event 4., an alcohol-inspired"nothing" about hospitals and in clinics.. which ktle could be done. The term crisiswas But intervention approaches based upon this inteiidg4ocommunicate a sense that a dispute is theory posed an enormous challenge to mental usually a tip-of-the-iceberg phenomenon, that is,a health institutional practices. Long accustomed to spontaneous and obvious expression of some deeper operating by requiring people to "come in" for difficulty in the family. It was assumed that broad- help, professionals were, and continue to be, hard ening an officer's perception of a family disturbance put to develop methods of intervening at times of was a necessary first step to acquiring the skills for crisis when people are more susceptible to being dealing more effectively with these events. influenced by others (3, p. 13). A variety of efforts While theoriginal study'sresults supported have been made by institutions to achieve some that assumption, in most police departments the outreach capability, including twenty-four hour term "family crisis" merely became a new and per- walk-in clinics, telephone hot lines, mobile crisis haps more professional way of saying "family units and local storefront clinics. These methods, fight." A namechange alone, therefore, is insuffi: intended to reduce the time interval between the cient. The new name should reflect new knowledge crisis event and "laying on the hands," have and new understanding. If it does not, implemen- brought to light some inherent flaws. For one tation of both training programs and organizational thing, crisis services were usually secondary to the changes may be compromised. more centgal concerns of the mental health enter- 40. In order to explain the importance of the term prise, nagneti,diagnosis, treatment and training. "family crisis intervention" as originally defined, Crisis intervention as a preventive strategy received two areas of human behavior which relate to this little more,,than peripheral attention. (This phe- police function will be discussed. They are inter- nomenon no different essentially than the feat personal conflict management and crisis interven- of preventive medicine in the priority system of tion theory and practice. the medical profession). Indeed, a crisis became virtually ArdiStinguishable from an acute psychiatric emergency. And so, just as ideas tend to con- CRISIS INTERVENTION form to''40stitutional constraints and practices, During the past three decades crisis intervention crisis intervention became only a new term and has occupied an increasingly important place in was tantamount to putting old wine into new mental health applications. Lindemann (11), an bottles. si early contribution to crisis theory, posited that early Early effOrts to deliver crisis services surfaced skillful and authoritative intervention in critical other difficulties as well. Often, the use of the personal events could forestall the possibly more service was- determined by the prior knowledge ter 1 or experience of the person incrisis, that is, by his extent, so reduced in his ability to cope thathis recognition of need for the service or even by his behavior may be regarded asregressed. Either knowledge of the service's existence. More impor- actively or passively, he seeks help or direction. tant, perhaps, the methods employed rarelyreached And, those in the environment who are perceived those who, by virtue of lack of education or im- as powerful are apt to be seen as the sourceof poverished circumstances, were unlikely to recog- order andstabilityinanotherwisesuddenly nize their need and to reach out for help at the choatic world. time of crisis. Further, since crisis services usually For the surgical patient undergoing the crisis of are a part of mental health facilities, they may not a sudden change in body form orfunction, only be positioned close enough to the site of a critical the surgeonis seen as having almost magical event to be of use to the victims. Finally, even powers to order, to restore, tofacilitate adapta- when in crisis; many people are apprehensive about tion. What he says, what he does, how he says it the implications ,of any psychiatric contact. and how he does it may be endowed with sig- Those who have worKed with the crisis concept nificance far beyond the real. Similarly, seeking hate emphasized the importance of the earliness the helpful power of authority is extremely impor- of the intervention in taking advantage of the tant for a person in a crisis-induced emotional state. openness of the person incrisis. However, the Recognizing the significance of authority pro- speed with which interventio'i can be accomplished vides a context for answering the question about is strongly influenced by how predictable the crisis how it is possible to plan for prompt intervention was. As McGee (12 )has suggested, crises fall on in all crises. Clearly it is not possible to plan 'fcitc. acontinuum of predictability. There are those the sudden, unpredictable and arbitrary stressful that can be seen coming, so to speak. They range event. But it is possible to enlist theparticipation from the normal developmental crisis to such of an existing service delivery system whose.. do- 14 events as a new job, a school examination orelec- main iscrisis. whose mode is immediacy and tive surgery, And then there are those crises pre- whose very essence is authority. These three attri- cipitated by wholly unforeseen events.:.such as butes are all essential for effective crisis interven- natural disasters, serious accidents, or crimes. It tion. The irony is that they should be absolutely would seem logical that crises that can be antici- unique to an agency not usually identified as part pated lend themselves to planning and there- of the helping system ... the police (10). Police fore earliness of intervention can be ,assured. But officers usually are the first summoned when a the unanticipated or sudden crisis event presents sudden crisis occurs (appeal for help), they have an extraordinary challenge. Since it cannotbe pre- ahighly organized mobile responsecapability dicted, how isit possible to plan for immediacy (immediacy), and they have the legal and sym- of intervention? bolic power to "do something" (authority). The Leaving aside the answer to that question for the crises with which they commonly deal are natural moment, let us consider theimportance of author- disaster, crime and serious accident... events that ity. The perceived power of the care-giver has can have shattering impact. Thesefactors, when always been a secret weapon of the helping system, taken together, attest to the unique potentials of This phenomenon of power is even more im- the police as a primary crisis intervention resource. portant in the management of people incrisis In effect then, the half-million police officers in particularly those under the impact of a sudden, this country constitute an untapped natural re- arbitrary and unanticipated crisis, The crisis has a source for the management of theunpredictable chaoticeffect;coping mechanisms areseverely crisis event that so defies the mental health insti- taxed and a sense of helplessness ensues. In a tional capability. Indeed, it can be argued that this however sense, the individualis,to a lesser or greater group is already delivering crisis services,

2 8 grudgingly and ineptly at the present time. This profound effects upon others, particularly family grossly inadequate service deliveryisonly the members. natural consequence of the dual role the police 6. Suicides ;Ind 'attempted suicides. As with 4 occupy in society. As,the instruments of power, psychotic reactions, these occurrences profoundly the police are encouragedto view themselves. affect others. Skillful intervention by policemay simplistically as "dirty workers" whose essential offer significant preventive opportunities. mission is to clean up or control the human flotsam Even a cursory examination of these crisescom- and jetsam of society. At thesame time, they have municates the unique potentials for crisisinter- increasingly fallen heir to a vastarray of helping vention in the police service delivery system. Fur- functions, estimated to be between 80(.7i.- and 90' ther, it is suggested that the kind of immediacy in of manhours. time and place that can be achieved by the police The range of unpredictable crisis events that cannot be achieved by any other element in the come within the purview of the police is almost helping system. In fact, given institutionalcon- infinite. Members of that service delivery system straints, the preventive.mental health objectives are positioned in time and place for an array of of crisis intervention theoryare unlikely to be crisis intervention roles. The following typify the realized by existing mental health operations. Ulti- kinds of events that lend themselves to skillful mately it may be more rational, and indeed more crisisinterventionasapreventive strategy by economic toutilizethe police systemforthe police officers: achievement of the objectives of crisis intervention. 1. Crime victimization.The victims of crimes, It really remains for the mental health professions particularly those againstthe person, experience to acknowledge that fact and to develop means extraordinary stress reactions. A policeman trained by which the police may be used in an outreach in crisis intervention techniques can have the dual capacity. It will require that mental health profes- effect of helping the victim in stress while at the sionals conceive of new ways of "giving knowledge same time eliciting infotmatio.n, necessary forh away" -to- those who are not trained in mental successful investigation of the crime. health theory but who are in a position to be more 2. Natural disaster, In this category are included effective than theorists. If there is a commitment such events as fire, flood, explosion, earthquake, to prevention iti mental health, then there must be tornado, etc. The suddenness and impact of the a challenge to develop means for utilizing the event leads to a "disaster syndrome." The dimen- immediacy and authority of the police system. sions of this syndrome and specific techniques for combatting itareessential knowledge forthe police who must restore order after such an event. INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT 3. Notification. A frequent police activity with MANAGEMENT little recognition by laymen, this involves inform- The management of interpersonal conflict is ing the family or next of kin of the death or probably the most time-consuming aspect of the injury of a family member. In this circumstance police function. Cumming (8) monitored 82 con- the police officer himself both causes the crisis secutive hours of telephone calls to the Syracuse and can act as an agent in its resolution. (N.Y.) Police Department and found that almost A. Accident. Ranging from vehicular homicides twenty percent of them were for disputes and fights to falling objects, these events differ somewhat in public and private places and among family from the "disaster syndrome" in that the chaos is members, neighbors, and totalstrangers. The personal and exists in an otherwise ordered and police departments of Dallas(Texas), Kansas intact environment. City (Mo.), New York (N.Y.), and Cambridge 5. Psychoticreactions.These reactions have (Mass.) report similarly high percentage of time

562,6A ) - 74 2 9 alWated to interpersonal conflict. Cumming con- leads naturally to his becoming involved as a third that although theapprehension of law party in interpersonal conflicts.This function is breakers may stand in the public mind as the crux one which can neither bereadily delegated nor of police work, most of a policeman's day is spent ignored. Both the urgency and destructive poten- in more mundane matters such as ... acting as an tial of interpersonal conflict requires the kind of outside mediator in situations of conflict- ( p. 170 ). timely andauthoritativelylawfulthirdparty The word mundanc. inthis connection, has response capability thatisabsolutely unique to interesting implications.For one thingitisa the police function. reflection of the policeman's denigration of a dan- Certainly it is no secret that when push comes gerous and disagreeable function.For another, it to shove, the police enforcethe political, economic reflects the television and detective-novel inspired and social views of the establishment. If thede- public fantasy of what it is that occupies dramatic livery of human services was acknowledged as primacy in police work. However, the incredibly being consistent with those views, policemen would_ complex role of mediation is anything but mun- be given the training and the encouragement nec- dane and the consequences of incompetent third essary to deliver those servicescompetently. Such party intervention are very serious;it can and training would serve not only to change potentially often does contribute to violence rather than to dangerous ways of reacting to a conflict, but also pacification. A significantpercentageofthose would result in a more satisfying job performance. police officers killed and injuredin the line of Indeed, a recent study demonstrated that the per- duty were involved at the time in efforts to manage formance of policemen trained in conflict manage- a human conflict. Both thedire effects on officers ment improved Significantly asmeasured by tradi- and the high homicide and assault rate among tional police criteria (14). citizens may be traceable to the persistent neglect Furthermore, a general sense of securityin a of the significance of the third party intervention community is not only the productof a lower role of the police. crime rate. There is mounting evidencethat citizens The reluctance of both the public and thepolice feel secure when they are convinced that govern- to acknowledge the roleof the police in conflict ment is responsive totheir needs. The policeman management is a costly misrepresentationof an is both the most visible and the mostimmediately important reality. More and more, the police, who available extension of governmental authority.As are our most immediate representativesof a remote a crucial servicewhich communicates responsive- governmental authority, find it difficult to separate ness, conflict management goesfar toward generat- their duties in social regulation and public security ing,' a sense of security. from a num- fromtheday-to-day management of complex Many, of these observations result human probiems. Conceptions of the police role ber of years spent directing actionresearch pro- which emphasize remoteness of authority by down- grams that have sought, amongother things, to grading human services contribute to public dis- test the feasibilityof training police for third party order and insecurity, alienate the police from those intervention in interpersonal conflict (3, 5).Dur- they are charged with protecting, and, in a circular ing the course of these studies in NewYork City, sense, negatively affect their crime controlobjec- it was possible to collect data on morethan 1,500 tives. It can be reasoned that the goal of delivering cases of police managementof conflicts among human services can be regarded as an objective people. However, it should be notedthat because that, because of its profound effect upon public of the nature of the original studyinvolving family study's trust and cooperation, is equalwith the objective conflicts and the nature of the subsequent of of crime control. setting,( low income housing projects) most The usual role of a policeman is one which the data relate to family disputes.Nevertheless it

4 may be usefulto touch briefly upon some of followed by a period of field trainingover time. the findings. And the major thrust of the trainingwas to Since training was a critical variable in these encourage the kind of self-criticism which permits studies, a number of methodswere used to assess the practitioner to learn from his mistakes. Regu- training effects. Most strikingwas the finding chat larly scheduled case conferenceswere used which policemen, even when randomly selected,can learn permitted the officersto continue the process of and practice relevant interpersonal skillsto affect learning as they practiced in the field. their performance as conflictmanagers. What is Perhaps it would be useful-ito takea closer look more, the evaluation suggested that the changes atthe kinds of changes experientialtraining in police 1-41avior whichare necessary for effective methods brought aboutin the officersin our third party performance donot require a corre- studies. The following wereamong the training sponding change in the attitudes and beliefs ofthe effects noted: 1) the officerswere better able to policeman.. That is, despite changes in behavior regard both parties in conflictas contributing to our measures suggested that the changes occurred the situation rather than to see the disputeas the while attitudes remainedconstant. responsibility of one "crazy person"; 2) the officers Itwasour impressionthatthebehavioral were able to maintain objectivity in the way they changes observed were related to thenature of the behaved as well as in theway they perceived the training. We call the training methods whichwe conflict; 3)the response toward the police of used "affective" and "experiential" methods.The those in conflict was positive; 1) therewas little methodology of such training differs considerably evidence of the need to employ force; 5) there from the more traditional methods ofthe military- was absence of injuries to officers; 6) the officers vocational training and from the academic model more frequently employed techniques other than as well. In the military-vocational, instructionis arrest and or court referral. along "how-to" lines and encourages the applica., In one of our studies we attempted to determine tion of formulae to ensure job performance. In whether conflict management training produced the academic, learning is highly abstract, verbal any measurable effects on the residents of a com- and passive; it rarely requires translation of knowl- munity (5 ). An independently conductedcorn-. edgeintooperationalapplication.Whilethe munity attitude survey revealed that the residents military-vocational admirably serves thepurposes of the housing projects in which officers had been of mass troop movement or of assembly-linepro- trained in interpersonal conflict management evi- duction, and while the academic model is ideally denced a greater sense of security afterone year suited to contemplative and precise scholarship, than residents in two control projects. It should neither can possibly serve the needs ofa policeman be emphasized that the sense of security didnot who must make ',very rapid decisions in highly appear related to reported crime. It was our impres- variablesituationsinvolvingcomplex human sion that the improved quality of police services interactions. (i.e. more sensitive interpersonal behavior by the What then, given these needs, didour "'affec- police) communicated to the residentsa greater tive" and "experiential' trainingprogram consist sense of responsiveness by the authorities upon of? Most of the course content focusedupon whom they were dependent fortheirsecurity behavior within an actual socialsituation. The and welfare. methods employed ranged from specificallypre- Our studies to date have confirmed the Presi- pared police social science information (communi- dent's Commission (6) finding that inmost dis- cated in a context which encouraged discussion) putes "often the parties really want (the officers) to real life simulations and video-taped role plays. only to `do something' that will settle things" rather A short period of intensive classroom trainingwas than make an arrest (p. 291). It appears tous

5 that people in conflict want an objective, skillful kind of violence that originates in interpersonal and benign authority who can successfully nego- conflict can be enhanced by the use of a previously tiate, mediate or arbitrate a constructive outcome. unacknowledged human resource. In a departure The passions of the moment require a "here and from the traditional view of their function, itis now" legally sanctioned intervention which no suggested that the police have a unique potential other agency of the helping system is capable of for delivering a service which can alleviate or delivering. Indeed, it can be shown that the police prevent violence. Indeed, it is suggested that given are even summoned to offices of psychiatrists; to their symbolic and lawfully authoritative role, the social and welfare agencies and to hospital clinics police,ifprovided withskill, competence and for the purpose of managing disputes inthose institutional support, can better serve the need for settings. third party intervention in human conflict ("here Also, our experiences to date have convinced and now") than any other agency of the helping us that we have only just skimmed thesurface system. Important functions related totraining, phenomena inthird party intervention. We are to research, and to knowledge-building have been aware that much of a policeman'sbehavior results defined for social science in the achievement of from a mix of understanding, insight, knowledge these kinds of service roles by the police. and intuition. But exactly what is the full range For societyto encourage excellence of police of approaches used by officers in dealing with dis- performance in conflict management is one way of putes? In order to learn the answer to that ques- removing the stigma which we place on conflict tion and others, we must build bridges between in human relations. As Deutsch (9) recently said, the practitioner in the field and the researcher in "... the issue is not how to eliminate or prevent the laboratory. A recently designed approach which conflict but rather how to make it productive or we plan to put into effect soon is anelaboration at least, how to prevent it from being destructive." of a strategy suggested by R. E. Walton ( 13). The In providing a clear sanction for the police to model proposed an active and intimate collabora- deliver this much needed third party intervention tion between police practitioners in the field. and service, we are acknowledging that conflict is not university Ilsed socialscientists. The suggested only a realistic and inevitable part of relationships collaboration would result in an instrument for among people, but can also present us withinher- knowledge-building for the police system and for ently constructive opportunities. In addition, by social science as well. The opportunities for study- legitimating a human need whose traditional closet ing aspects of human aggression in an actual social status has been so costly in terms of humanlife situation are limitless. and social disorder, we are expressing our concern Finally, society's capacity for coping with the for and respect of the individuals in need.

6 12 ORGANIZATIONAL & OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

AMBIVALENCE AND AMBIGUITY ordinates, which can effectively subvert themost An organization can undertake changes inits efficiently designed plan. operations for any number ofreasons. Often the Before instituting a family crisis component, implicit and explicit reasons underlying the effort the police executive would be well-advisedto to change are closely related to the success or expect this subtle form of unintentional subver- failure of the operation. Indeed, perhapseven sion on the part of other policemen and deal with more than the "nuts and bolts" of implementa- it openly. There is sufficient evidence by now that tion, it is the underlying commitment that deter- family crisis intervention is police work and not mines the outcome of organizational change. It is social work. Police have been doing the job useless if not self-defeating; to pretend thatam- grudgingly (and in most cases ineptly) to their bivalence is not a factor inherent in change efforts. own disadvantage, as police homicides and assaults But failure to recognize and confront this ambiva- will attest. Acknowledgement of the function does lence results in policies that are ultimately destruc- not make it social work; training for the function tive to the success of an effort to change. Itmay does not make it social work; and, organizational be useful, therefore, to identifysome of the sources restructuring does not make it social work. of policy-making ambivalence that have subtle It must be understood that the family crisis and corrosive effects upon the implementation of approach to police training does not in any way the family crisis concept by police organizations. alter the basic identity of the police. Instead, its The social work myth. Even themost well- major objective, as established by research, is for intentioned and best informed police executive family crisis intervention to enable the policeman may have difficulty in including helping services todo hisjob with greater effectiveness, with as an important function for a policeman. There greater personal safety and with greater personal somehow remains a residue of conviction that satisfaction. Unless that issue is clearly understood, successful implementation is endangered. helping people is essentially a social work function The community relations myth. In most cases that is discrete from the "real" work of the police. the term community relations is a euphemism for This attitude, while historically understandable, public relations. Quite commonly, police ,officials is associated with the belief that any helping func- regard a concept like family crisis primarily in tionrequiringthe use of interpersonal skills terms of its value in changing the public's percep- diminishes the masculine authority image of the tions of the police in a positive direction. That is, police. If this feeling of ambivalence exists ina it is seen as a concept which would appeal to the police executive, it can wreak havoc with policy community in general and to "do-gooders-who-do- decisions and with administrativearrangements. not-understand-real-police work anyway" in par- It can result in him giving doublemessages and tir,,ziar. If this motivation is the primary one for otherwise conveying his uncertainty to his sub- instituting a family crisis program, then the pro-

7 .1 3 gram can be expected toflounder. What is more, ensure the long-termcontinuation of the change. a program which is merely ashort-term commit- Failure to do this is yet another expression of the ment to achieve a questionablepublic relations subtle feelings of ambivalence which communicate payoff contributes not only to cynicism within the themselves throughout the organization and are police, but also to cynicism of the generalpublic. certain to be a factor leading to failure of the Community sophistication about publicrelations change. gimickry is now at a point where even subtle Recommendations. The foregoingdiscussion expressions of it are quickly detected. More than was not intended to becomprehensive . . .only that, the ambivalent policy-maker whoseprimary illustrative., It has only attempted to touch upon concern is to sell the publicfails to grasp a vital some of the subtle andhidden factors that may be realityto mount a program essentially to im- at work when a decision ismade to implement a time-honored traditional sys- prove imageisto condemn ittofailure. The new approach in a image of any organization, and particularly that tem. Yet, unless thesefactors are understood, of a helping agency, is defined by the quality of articulated and confronted, their influence indeter- functions performed; it is measured by the day-to- mining outcome is quite predictable. To undertake day activities of each ofitspractitioners.. No to implement family crisis as apolice function amount of verbal game playing canconvince a requires, as afirst step, recognition that ambi- person that the actions heperceives are other than valence is a natural consequence of change in they appear. As with the "social work myth," any any organization. Inevitably,ambivalence leads vestige of the "community-relations myth" as a to ambiguity which' ultimatelydefeats the change source of ambivalentfeelings about family crisis effort. intervention, dooms it to failure. The following recommendations may be help- The funding game. Society has recently begun fulincountering the destructivepotentialof to appreciate morefully the importance of law ambivalence:' enforcement, and has become increasingly gen- 1) The executive decision to "go" withfamily the Chief erous in supporting itsefforts to upgrade itself. crisis, whether derived unilaterally by When increased public support firstmaterialized, or by him in concertwith his executive staff, must almost any reasonably designed "experiment" or be reinforced bydirecteffortstosurfacethe "demonstration" program was looked upon favor- sources of ambivalence.This means that a chief ably. Programs were usually undertaken on a trial cannot just assign responsibilityfor this new pro- basis using funds that were "added on" toexisting gram to a subordinate staffmember and then treat budgets. This "soft-money" approach was par- the strategy as if it was the sole responsibilityof ticularly well-suited to organizational ambivalence that individual. Instead, we suggest that theChief in program policy-making. Often, without aware- hold executive group meetings with responsible ness, the decision to implement a newapproach staff on a regularly scheduled basis in order to was taken withoutreallocating any existing budget tease out and confront thoseambivalences that dollars, thus denying any commitment or per- figure prominently in the organization. This para- manence to a new program. doxically simple yet difficult exercise has a multiple Given experience and research to date, thework payoff. It reinforces executive commitment and "experiment" is no longer justified with respect communicates readiness and willingness to con- Further it to the significance offamily crisis as a viable front any organizational ambivalence. policing strategy. Organizational policy makers serves to reduce the isolationof responsible staff may still require add-onfunds to launch such a and reassures such staff that the commitment to program but any planning shouldacknowledge this program is deep and not merely theproduct the need for reallocation of existing funds to of executive whim. 8 14 2) Whatever the ultimate operational design 3)Ithas implicationsforother generalist- might entail, it must have clearly defined incentives specialist roles (e.g., youth, rescue, etc.) in which and rewards. Traditional rewards in police organi- each officer has a specialized area of expertise. It zations are geared almost entirelyto functions avoids the need for each patrolman to be all things that constitute the smallest proportion ofman- to all people. hours. For example, promotion to detective (asa 4) It enhances the morale of patrolmen in that reward) may be based on a particularly dramatic their area of special expertise is respected by both holdup arrest. This serves to reinforce the police- their colleagues and the public. Further, it defines man's conviction that rewards are most likelyto a specific function for the exercise of professional be related to crime-control functions. Meansmust discretion while maintaining general patrolcapa- be found to reward those myriad functions which bility. require as high a degree ofcompetence as do 5)It can take advantage of natural or latent family crisis intervention techniques: One of the talents of patrolmen. most telling statements of unequivocal commit- Generalist Model. An alternate model,more ment to an organizational change is through a suitable to small organizations is for all patrolper- reordering of reward priorities.Incentives and sonnel to be gi/en training in family crisis theory rewards can serve most effectively to reduce orga- and practice. This was the model employed in the nizational ambivalence and its resultant ambiguity. housing study; as the research findings indicate, it can be useful as a strategy. The advantages of this model are: MODELS OF IMPLEMENTATION 1)Itis suitable for small organizations that The execution of any idea requiresa model turn out too few men to have the luxury of a which contains all of the important elements of generalist-specialist on each tour. the concept and which can serveas the means for 2)It ensures involvement of all personnel in achieving the desired goal. Given thegeneral acquiring special knowledge. structure of police organizations, three models will 3) While the quality of service delivered will be discussed; the choice ofa specific model, how- show greater variance than it would with selected ever, will depend upon the nature of each situation. generalist-specialists, it will tend to maximize the Generalist-Specialist Model. Thiswas the model impact on the department itself and on the public. used in the original family crisis demonstration 4) It minimizes the tendencyto delegate all project. In essence, a selectedgroup of general family intervention functions toa small unit;it patrolofficers .processedallfamily disturbance reinforces family crisis as the ongoing responsi- calls in a specified area. These officers operated bility of all patrol personnel. in uniform and on all tours of duty; whennot Specialist Model. In contrast to the preceding engaged inthe management of a familydis- models, we have not had any experience with the turbance, they provided general patrol services specialist model. However, our impressions gained in an assigned sector. This model has the follow- in studying police operations and theory suggest ing advantages: that this may be the least desirable model. Indeed, 1) Professional identity of the officer ispre- assigning exclusive specialization for family inter- served. In the eyes of his colleagues and of the vention to selected officers who haveno general public the officer charged with family crisisrespon- patrol responsibilities appears to have few, ifany, sibilities is still a "real cop." redeeming virtues. Therefore, the following dis- 2) In a large organization, it appears to bean advantages should be weighed before proceeding efficient way of delivering a needed service without with this model: sacrificing general uniformed patrolcoverage. 1) This is the model through which organiza-

9 1 clonal ambivalence is most likely to be expressed. of training that breeds the greatest cynicism since The delivery of the service becomes the exclusive it comes aci.oss as "lip service" or "going-through- responsibility of the specialist and satisfies only the the-motions." This approachismost likelyto policy decision with no reference to the broader communicate organizationalambivalence about operating responsibilities of the organization: the training itself, not to speak of the lack of 2) It tends to create two classes of citizenship commitment to the content of the training. within the organization; those who do "real" police Combined Intensive and Field 'Training. This work and those who do social work. This encour- model, if properly conceived and employed, holds ages the public to think of the police asbeing the greatest promise for human service functions. either "bad guys" or as being "good guys;" that is, The brief and intensive training must be carefully those who are aggressive enforcers and those wh.. designed to be consistent in content with the ulti- are benevolent authorities. mate objectives of the program. But even more 3) Itis ultimately destructive to morale and important, the intensive training should be re- hence destructive to the function of the specialist. garded as orient-alive rather than conclusive. It The specialist feels alienated from his colleagues should be the foundation upon which training in and confused in his identity as a policeman if his the field will build. Naturally, the methods em- functions are restricted to a single dimension of ployed in that training should also set the tone service. Consider, for example, the derisive designa- and prepare the officer for the kind of methods to tion of "kiddie cop" for juvenile specialistsin be used in the field. It is unlikely, for example, many departments. that the exclusively. lecture audio- visual format will be feasible in the field. At the conclusion of the brief intensive and TRAINING orientative training, itis essential that there be It must be clear by now that preparing police- follow-up in the field. It is here that the bulk of men to deliver a highly complexhuman service training occurs, in the human service professions requires unusual training for specific skills. Indeed, ...that is, in "learning-by-doing." In medicine the it requires a,kind of training that is a synthesis of basic orientation afforded by the medical school is that which is traditional in police work and that followed by years of continuous training in the which is found in fields which concentrate exclu- clinic and hospital geared to practice. The methods sively on human services. Once again, there are used are essentially those of case study and self- different training models that must be considered, critical analysis of practical applications of theory. Intensive Training. In police organizations, the If field training is possible in the kind of life and characteristic way of preparing personnel with death emergency-oriented field that medicine repre- specific skills is to run them through a brief and sents, itis equally possible and necessary as an intensive training program. The methods of in- adjunct to the basic training of policemen. struction are usually of a "how-to" nature, largely A final word on training. Given the present by lecture augmented by audio-visual aids. At the transitional state of police training, and given its conclusion of the training experience, the patrol- movement to a broader model than the traditional man returns to the field. There isusually little if military-vocational one, few police organizations any follow-up evaluation and evenless likelihood have the in-house capability to conceptualize or of ongoing training in the field. implement the kind of training that successful FieldTraining.Usuallyunsystematic,frag- family crisis intervention entails. Hence, as much mented and methodologically questionable, field assistant' as possible must be obtained from out- training can be found to range from the roll call side resources, thatis, from the academic and exercise to informal "rap" sessions. It is this form professional communities. While itistrue that

10 IG most previous efforts at collaboration have been that the police executive ensure interagency liaison found wanting, it is also clear from recent develop- from the outset so that the necessary resourc:es will ments that committed police leadership can inspire be available. successful input from such outsideresources. Some final words are in order with respect to police family crisis intervention. This document has only touched upon some of the issues relevant RELATIONSHIPS WITH to the implementation of such a program by police OTHER AGENCIES organizations. Acknowledgement of the highly A critical variable in making family crisis inter- complex functions performed by the policeis vention a successful strategy is the establishment inherent in the decision to develop sucha program. of working relationships between the police and It has been the position of this monograph that other agencies of the helping system. However, thequestionsofsocialregulation and public given the fact that many of these agenciesare security are inseparable from the day-to-dayman- already overburdened,it would be foolhardy to agement of complex human problems. The police have unreasonable expectations of their abilityto are our most immediate representatives of a remote be of service. In order to ensure maximum partici- governmental authority. Conceptions of their role pation though, agency representatives should be thatreinforce remoteness contributetopublic included as part of planning very early. insecurity, alienate the police from those theyare It should he noted that because a policeman is supposed to protect and, ina circular sense, nega- involved ina crisis when emotions are at their tively affect the objective of crime control. If height, and is perceived as someone with authority, citizens are to cooperate in theprocess of crime he may be in the best possible positionto effect a control they must trust the police. Suchtrust is constructive outcome. Because of this,a skilled engendered by the competent delivery of those policeman 'may be preferabletoacommunity human services that occupy so much ofa police- agency. But there will be cases which require ser- man's time. It can be said,therefore, that the vices beyond the ability of the officer. In those delivery of services like family crisis has parity instances, resources should be available andrespon- with crime controlasan objective of police sive. With proper training and judicious referring, organizations. these agencies can be effective backups. It is vital

11 1? REFERENCES

1. Bard, M. "Alternativetotraditional law of Violence, New York: Bantam Books, 1970. enforcement." In Korten, E. F. et al (Ed.) Psy- 7. Caplan, G. Principlesof Preventive Psy- chology and The Problems of Society. Washington, chiatry. New York: Basic Books, 1964. D.C., American Psychological Association, 1970. 8. Cumming, E. Systems of SociaAegulation. 2. Bard, M. "The price of survival for cancer New York: Atherton Press, 1968. - victims." In Strauss, A. L. (Ed.) Where Medicine 9. Deutsch, le "Toward an un nditig of Fails. Transaction Books: Aldine Publishing Co., conflict." International Journal of Gr Tensions, 1970. 1: 42, 1971. . f. 3. Bard, M. Training Police as Specialists in 10. Janis, I.. ik.),._ichological Stress. New York: Family. CrisisIntervention. Washington, D.C.: John Wiley, 19513:- U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970. r, 4. Bard, M. "The role of law enforcement in the 11. Lindemann, E. "Syrntomat6loky and man- helping system." Community ilifental Health Jour- agement of acute grief." American Journal,of Psy- nal. 7: 151, 1971. chiatry, 25:213, 1944. 5. Bard, M., Zacker, J., and Rutter, E. Police 12.. McGee; T. F. "Some basic consider lions in Family Crisis Intervention and Conflict Manage- crisis intervention." Community Mental Health ment: An Action Research Analysis. Final Report Journal, 4 : to National Institute of Law Enforcement and 13. Walton, R. E. Interpersonal pracenmAing: Criminal Justice, LEAA; U.S. Department of Jus- Confrontations and Third PartyX'onsultation. tice, 1972. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969. 6. Campbell, J. S., Sahid, J. R. and Stang, D. P. 14. Zacker, J. and Bard, M. "Effect on conflict Law and Order Reconsidered: Report of the management training on police. performame.". National Commission on the Cause and Prevention Journal of Applied Psychology, 58:202, 1973.

S, CIOVERNNIFNT PRINTING OFFICE 1971 0 - 562*569

1 8 13