The Internet in Norway Dissemination and Use

PER HETLAND

Media-Technological Dramas: The It has been claimed that the Norwegian press Internet Meets the Public1 does not have much space for more professional science and technology communication (Eide and In our day and age the general public usually meets Ottosen 1994). Traditionally science and technology new communication media through the old and well communication has been understood within an en- known mass media. There the new media are inter- lightenment tradition. It has been those with exper- preted, dramatised and given content. It is therefore tise who were to communicate knowledge to the instructive to follow a new medium in its embryonic general public via the different mass media. How- stage, because in this stage of its development there ever, much of the communication of research and arise many understandings or also misunderstand- technology that takes place via the mass media has ings, as McLuhan chose to say. Of the new media other frames of reference than the conventional en- the Internet is perhaps the one that most clearly il- lightenment tradition. The attempts of the world of lustrates this situation. Thus the presentation given advertising to communicate research and technol- by the mass media will perhaps over time be experi- ogy are an example of this. In this connection it is enced as a dramatisation of possibilities and prob- important to draw a distinction between the commu- lems. Selected aspects of the new media are nication of research and the communication of tech- problematised. Others are under-communicated or nology. The communication of research has as a rule are not registered at all. The success of the Internet a weaker connection to commercial interests than is might therefore just as well stem from the fact that the case for the communication of technology. In the actors around the Internet have been good at addition the communication of technology has communicating certain attractive or challenging vi- strong allies among the public in the form of differ- sions of the possibilities of the Internet rather than ent groups of technology users. One may thus expe- from the “superior” technological properties of the rience a greater diversity of “publicising actors” Internet. At the same time news of the Internet within the communication of technology than with- might just as well be representations of what the in the communication of research. Often these pub- “media society” believes people like to read, rather licising actors appear in roles that make it difficult than an adequate description of the Internet. Exotic for the public to identify on whose behalf they are events may be emphasised. More trivial and perhaps “speaking”. Technology enthusiasts or “zappers” more important properties may remain unknown to can for instance be used more or less systematically the public. The established mass media in this way by technology producers and marketers to get user include the public in the processes of interpreting, feedback on the products and to promote the same inscribing and transcribing when it comes to under- products. When new media technology is being in- standing the new communication media. troduced, the established “media society” forms an important collection of stakeholders. The same ac- tors therefore wish to participate when new media Department of Media and Communication, Univer- maps are to be drawn. The story of the Internet years sity of Oslo, Box 1093 Blindern, N-0317 Oslo, 1995-97 is thus also a story of how old media actors [email protected] accommodate to new media.

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Namnlöst-12 3 2005-08-16, 12:06 In 1973 Norway was linked to one of the structures in society. In this process of co-construc- Internet’s predecessors, ARPANET. However, be- tion the power relations between the actors are of tween 1973 and 1990 the networks that were going central significance. In this context there is a great to be the future Internet were mostly used for com- difference between having influence on a text or on munication between different research institutions. a media technology as a recipient or user, and hav- In the middle of 1990s several companies started to ing influence on the agenda on which the text or market Internet-access for the general public and in media technology has originally been produced 1995 the Internet was put on the public agenda in (Morley and Silverstone 1990). The coverage of the Norway. Three years later, in 1998, Norway was Internet in the three newspapers2 Aftenposten number 3 in the world when it came to Internet ac- Morgen, Dagbladet and Dagsavisen Arbeider- cess. The popularising by the mass media of the new bladet, together with the growth in the number of media technology had been central in the work of households with private access to the Internet, setting this agenda. At the same time the agenda of shows how the Internet met the public in the years the mass media was closely connected with the pub- 1995-1997. See figure 1. lic agenda. If we look more closely at agenda-set- In the same period the Internet to an increasing ting research, we can see that the first level of extent made its mark on parts of the policy agenda. agenda-setting research was concerned with how the In his annual speech to the nation in 1997 the Presi- media give prominence to some issues rather than dent of the United States, Bill Clinton, placed most others, so that they affect the public’s understanding weight on education: “The aim is that all eight-year- of what are the important matters on society’s olds shall be able to read and that all twelve-year- agenda. The second level of agenda-setting research olds shall have access to the Internet”. The aim that is more concerned with how the media give salience “all twelve-year-olds shall have access to the to certain attributes, so that the media affect the Internet” has been copied in a number of those na- public’s understanding of what are important as- tions that want to be in “the First Division of the in- pects of the questions that are put on the agenda formation societies”. Goals of this type are often (McCombs, Shaw, Weaver 1997). In studying how based on notions of the intrinsic properties of tech- the Internet has been put on the agenda, I shall ex- nology. These are notions that have clear technol- ploit both the perspectives mentioned, that is to say ogy-deterministic features. Through different forms how the Internet has been emphasised as an impor- of investment in technology the wish has therefore tant new medium of communication and which as- been to achieve other important societal goals. At pects of the new communication medium have been the same time there is great uncertainty in political emphasised. The stories of the Internet as they have life and in a number of connections the public has been told in the Norwegian press are therefore cen- therefore been invited to participate in dialogue. tral to this study. Spigel has previously done a paral- The emphasis on the principle of communication for lel study of how the introduction of television was public information work supports this desire for dia- represented in magazines of different kinds (Spigel logue (NOU 1992:21). For the Internet this has 1992). A premise for her study was that new media manifested itself in among other things the IT fora4 are introduced to the general public through old me- which the former minister Bendik Rugås estab- dia, and an analysis of the magazine representation lished, “The IT forum for the elderly” and the would therefore say something about which agenda “Young people’s IT forum”. television was put on. Within agenda-setting research the focus has In agenda-setting research the agenda of the me- been on the three agendas mentioned: the agendas dia is seen as the independent variable, that is to say of the media, the public and policy (Dearing and the cause variable, while the public’s agenda is seen Rogers 1996). It is however not very fruitful to limit as the dependent variable, the variable that is af- the information society’s stories to these three agen- fected. This applies both to the first and to the sec- das. The fourth agenda must be included. The fourth ond levels of agenda-setting research. However, the agenda is formed by technology developers, tech- question is not what the mass media, through their nology producers and their marketing of new prod- stories about the Internet, have done to the public or ucts. By way of illustration mention may be made of what the public has done to the stories about the an advertising campaign in which it was stated that Internet, but rather how the mass media, the public “He is 23, has his own Internet address and eats and the new medium of communication have pro- anxious thirty-year-olds for breakfast”. Through vided the foundation for a co-construct of new marketing they try to enrol the users in their under- understandings, new forms of expression and new standing of the possibilities of technology. In this

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Namnlöst-12 4 2005-08-16, 12:06 Figure 1. Number of Articles about the Internet in the Three Newspapers and the Number of Households (in thousands) with Access to the Internet (half-yearly figures3)

Thousands 400

350 Articles

300 Private Internet 250

200

150

100

50

0 S95 A95 S96 A96 S97 A97

connection the media play several roles. Two of the like Nicholas Negroponte have actively contributed more central roles are that (a) they include the pub- to the information society’s stories, both through lic in a process of interpretation, inscription and their own written presentations and through innu- transcription when it comes to understanding the merable appearances, not least for prominent politi- new communication media, and (b) they promote cians (Gates 1996, Negroponte 1995). more or less uncritically the agenda of their sources. The information society’s stories have been told This latter role has been described by a number of for the last 25 years with varying actors and degrees writers, both with reference to technology in par- of commitment. Since 1995 the Internet stories have ticular (Nelkin 1995), and with respect to PR/mar- renewed the information society’s stories. These keting more generally (Allern 1997). Michael stories have been given a wealth of new actors and Callon describes how engineers become “sociolo- not least metaphors. What is it that makes the infor- gists” through their hypotheses about what other mation society’s stories interesting? To this question people want and need (Callon 1987, this perspective many different answers can be given, not least be- in the project has been treated in greater depth in cause the question touches on so many aspects of Hetland 1997). According to this reasoning a large societal development. By way of introduction I shall part of the technology developers’ work lies in therefore content myself with the general answer stamping new technology with their own interpreta- that these stories are in an active interplay with the tions of user possibilities and then working to en- development of society, and that it is therefore not sure that the users support these interpretations by possible to understand the developments in which making use of the technology. This work means that we now find ourselves without also understanding one has hypotheses about what the users need and the significance of the information society’s stories. what they do not need. After the engineers have In order to be able to describe the process of co- done their job, the technology producers transform construction in a broad perspective, in this presenta- the engineers’ prototypes into commercial products. tion I shall first take a closer look at how the public In this connection new communication media have accommodates to the new media5 and thus contrib- been the arena for both an unusual technological utes to establishing frames of reference for the inter- “idealism” and the establishment of some of the pretation of the information society’s stories, in this world’s greatest concentrations of private capital. case the mass media’s Internet stories, before I de- Bill Gates with his company Microsoft has become scribe the inscribed public of the Internet stories. In an actor with whom even the government of the a forthcoming article I want to take a closer look at United States has problems in dealing. At the same how the media and the public inter-act on the devel- time Bill Gates and central technology developers opment of interpretation repertoires and thus the in-

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Namnlöst-12 5 2005-08-16, 12:06 terpretation of the Internet (Hetland 1999). The pect becomes clearer. The categorisation is used to popularisation process is in other words a process in describe the information society’s “losers” and which the media and sections of the public inter-act “winners” in simple technology-deterministic terms. on the content and progress of these stories. The advantage of traditional innovation theory is that it is suitable for a thorough description of per- From Technological Repertoires to sonal differences when it comes to the adoption of innovations. The disadvantage is that the theory has Interpretation Repertoires only to a slight extent taken account of the fact that “To be or not to be? That is the question!” exclaims communication media represent technology for fa- Hamlet in Shakespeare’s famous drama. Clear paral- cilitating communication in and between groups of lels to this fundamental question (and answer) are to actors. In other words one has little use for new be found when we study how the Internet has been communication media if those with whom one communicated and popularised in the mass media. wishes to inter-act do not have the same access to However, here the question of to be or not to be has the medium. If one wishes to understand the distri- become a question of whether you are “on the net” bution of communication media, intrinsic character- or not. “Net surfers are Norway’s aristocracy of istics of users and non-users are of limited interest, bread-winners. Those who do not use the Internet as such characteristics tend towards regarding inno- will fall behind, both socially and in the hunt for the vation on the basis of the actors’ individual points best job”, is what it said in Dagbladet. This type of of view. This approach to new communication me- perspective reflects the “magic” properties of the dia provides little insight into the societal role of the Internet in our hunt for the good things society can media. What is more interesting is to understand offer and it illustrates how the new medium has what societal communication relations the media been communicated and popularised. Inscribed in enter into. In purely historical terms the Internet has the Internet stories there are notions of the public as sprung up from research and teaching institutions. readers. These stories are in other words written for The pioneer users were therefore research and a presumed public. On the other hand large sections teaching institutions, public administration and the of the public have related to the Internet both with business world – in that order. Seen in this way the respect to the presentations given by the mass media distribution of the Internet will also be precisely and through practical actions: they have started us- connected with decisions made in research and ing the Internet. There are several ways in which to teaching institutions, in public administration and in consider the introduction of a new communication the world of business. Experiences of the medium medium. A traditional representation has been to through organisation-based decisions may again link development over time with different theories promote a diffusion based on individual decisions. of innovation (Rogers 1995). Even though it is not a As an illustration of this 51% of the active necessary condition traditional innovation theory Internet group in November 1998 had access to the has a tendency to consider users or the public on the Internet only through organisation-based decisions, basis of intrinsic characteristics. An example of this i.e. through job or school, while 21% had access to is an American investigation6 which was reported in the Internet through individual decisions, i.e. pri- detail in the Norwegian media. The title in vate access in the home. 28% had access to the Dagbladet was, as already mentioned, “Net surfers Internet in more than one social arena, i.e. both are Norway’s aristocracy of bread-winners. Those through job or school and in the home. In this con- who do not use the Internet will fall behind, both nection it is important to be aware that the individu- socially and in the hunt for the best job”. In the in- al’s connection with the labour market also plays a vestigation the population was divided into four practical role for the distribution of the medium in groups depending on their use of five different me- the home; 21% of those who had private Internet ac- dia technologies. With this starting point the groups cess had this paid for by their employer. The term “super-connected” (2%), “connected” (7%), “semi- “access” is a broad concept that conceals important connected” (62%) and lastly “de-connected” (29%) differences. Membership of society’s forms of or- are introduced. This categorisation is based on dif- ganisation through production and reproduction ferent types of communication practice and is as gives different access to arenas for communication such relatively unproblematic. However, if one as do other economic, temporal and social factors. looks more closely at what properties one ascribes In addition differences in technological and commu- to the different groups, and what consequences one nicative competence influence the manner in which extracts from this categorisation, the problematic as- the individual exploits the Internet. The fact that I

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Namnlöst-12 6 2005-08-16, 12:06 Figure 2. Access to Internet after Access Point7

% 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1995 1996 1997 1998

Job/school Both Home

nevertheless use the concept of access here is be- most international and different degrees of mediated cause available statistics are based on criteria of this communication from the most personal to the most type. technology-based. It is nevertheless not the case that In earlier studies we have shown how groups of users who have the same technological repertoire at actors on the basis of an extensive inventory of com- their disposal are necessarily included in the same munication media pick out a limited repertoire in interpretive repertoire. Empirically the foundation is order to satisfy present communication needs therefore established for a wealth of combination (Olsen and Hetland 1989:157). I shall therefore take possibilities. Like Klaus Bruhn Jensen one can thus as a starting point the concept of technological rep- argue that “particular interpretive repertoires may or ertoire in order purely empirically to describe the may not be available to different demographic seg- choices of communication media that different ments, and the specific combinations of interpretive groups make. The concept of technological reper- repertoires with social background variables is, in toire, however, has implications beyond the fact of any event, a matter for empirical inquiry” (Jensen functioning as a description of the technologies that 1995:93). When it comes to the use of new commu- are adopted. A technological repertoire also func- nication media, I shall argue that interpretive reper- tions as a central element in the constituting of “in- toires for the Internet are to a very great extent con- terpretive repertoires” (Potter and Wetherell 1987). stituted against the background of three central fac- My claim is that interpretive repertoires used in or- tors: (a) the actors’ participation in society’s forms der to understand new communication media are in- of organisation through production and reproduc- timately connected with the way in which groups tion, (b) the actors’ construction of identity through among the users are included in society’s forms of new communication media and finally (c) the so- organisation. In an earlier study Mowlana tried to cialising processes that are linked to communication develop a broad approach to an understanding of to realise different forms of participation in society different groups’ participation in society’s arenas and to make possible different forms of identity for- for communication. In that connection he draws up mation. two central dimensions: (a) the individual–system The concept of interpretive repertoire is used dimension and (b) the dimension of face-to-face here as a cover term for a number of elements. In communication – technology-mediated communica- developing the concepts of technological repertoire tion (Mowlana 1984). Along these two dimensions and interpretive repertoire the concept of “techno- one can imagine different degrees of inclusion in logical frames” has been useful (Bijker 1995:123). forms of organisation from the most local to the In contrast to Bijker I have however found it impor-

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Namnlöst-12 7 2005-08-16, 12:06 tant to operate with two concepts in order to distin- (Lindlof 1988), but does not presuppose to the same guish more clearly between the adoption of given extent that sections of the public are predisposed for technologies and the interpretation and inscription the creation of meaning through the same interpre- in which one participates with respect to the same tive actions (see also Jensen 1995:91). technologies. An interpretive repertoire can contain Interpretive repertoires are thus constituted when the goals one has for communication, the problems inter-action around a technological object begins. It one wishes to solve, and which solution strategies is therefore necessary to analyse new communica- one finds for these. Further interpretive repertoires tion media as a process in which a number of may contain “local” theories as a basis for deci- choices are made rather than to consider the choice sions; theories within the modernisation paradigm as having been completed when a given medium is give, for instance, other expectations of new media made available. The study of interpretive repertoires than theories within the hybridisation paradigm requires a qualitative approach. Here I wish first to (Hetland 1996:3-4). In the modernisation paradigm present an important element in the constituting of earlier forms of communication are replaced by new interpretive repertoires, i.e. the technological reper- communication media. The main idea is that new toires. Against the background of the users’ practice communication media are to replace the need for I have chosen to divide the public into three rough travel, post etc. Thus the modern society is extended technological repertoires. Having access to a com- to the most outlying outpost. Closely linked to the puter means that one has access to installed base. modernisation paradigm we find various linear Let us start with a dichotomy based on access to in- models of innovation. The competing paradigm I stalled base: (a) those who have access to computers shall call the hybridisation paradigm. In this para- at home, at work, at school or in other places, (b) digm new communication media can replace earlier those who have no such access. So far the installed forms of communication, but the most important base of personal computers is an expression of how implication of the hybridisation paradigm is how- many can relatively easily gain access to the ever that new communication media create both Internet. This group may again be divided into two: new forms of communication and more communica- those who use the Internet actively and those who tion. In the hybridisation paradigm technological are hesitant. Now it is not the case that new techno- change is perceived as ecological. Technological logical repertoires replace earlier technological rep- change is ecological in the sense that if one removes ertoires; elements from earlier technological reper- or adds central factors, the whole system undergoes toires will as a rule be included in more recent tech- a change that influences many other factors. Stories nological repertoires (cf. the discussion of the mod- within either the modernisation paradigm or the hy- ernisation paradigm versus the hybridisation para- bridisation paradigm naturally lay down different digm). With this reservation I shall now outline determinants for how one imagines the develop- three technological repertoires for the management ment, dissemination and use of new communication of information and communication: media. Other important factors are the importance PT-repertoire. The relationship to the “information of tacit knowledge. The latter is not least important society” is linked to the mass media as an informa- in relation to testing procedures, models and criteria tion channel and well known media such as post and for the design of new communication solutions. The telephone for interpersonal long-distance communi- users’ communication practice may break with the cation. They do not use personal computers. suppositions that are built into the technology. In this way the users take an active part in shaping and IT-repertoire. The relationship to the “information adapting the technology for organisational and indi- society” is linked to the mass media as an informa- vidual needs. In this connection technological mod- tion channel and well known media such as post and els and metaphors can be a resource from which telephone for interpersonal long-distance communi- both designers and users get ideas (Coyne 1995). As cation. The central information technology is the specific user groups gradually emerge, these will be computer as an advanced calculator and typewriter. included in some main repertoires. Inclusion is not ICT-repertoire. The relationship to the “informa- however a one-dimensional process. Since an inter- tion society” is linked to integrated information and pretive repertoire can have a number of elements, communication technologies in play and/or work. different individuals and organisations will perhaps emphasise the elements differently. The concept of To illustrate the recent developments I will for the interpretive repertoire has many features in common 1998-survey split the ICT-repertoire into two sub- with what Lindlof calls “interpretive communities” groups:

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Namnlöst-12 8 2005-08-16, 12:06 WICT-group. The subgroup that mostly use the access to the Internet. A closer look at the different Internet when it is necessary for their work-perform- groups in 1998 illustrates that age is an important ance. factor for the dissemination of the Internet. In the PT-repertoire the average age is 61 years, in the IT- PICT-group. The subgroup that use the Internet as repertoire 42 years, in the WICT-subgroup 34 years much as possible in both play and work. and the PICT-subgroup 30 years. The first thing we This categorisation is based on the users’ practice. can therefore assert is that the distribution of IT and As long as the Internet years 1995-1998 represent a the Internet is for the moment very much a question turbulent phase of introduction, the flow between of generation. In fact the generation aspect became the different repertoires will be large. If we consider more marked in the two-year period. When account developments in this period, we can describe inclu- is taken of the short period of time, the growth in sion in the three repertoires in the course of a three- both installed base and access to the Internet is re- year period. The tripartite division reflects the indi- markable. We can therefore see that the attention viduals’ participation in society’s forms of organisa- paid by the mass media to the Internet corresponds tion through production and reproduction, the indi- to the attention the public paid to this medium by viduals’ construction of identity, and their socialis- starting to use it. However, the “public” does not ing processes in a given historical context. The only consist of individuals acting on their own be- group within the ICT repertoire increased from 11% half; far more important for the diffusion of the me- to 36% in the course of the three-year period, while dium are the decisions taken by “collectives” such the group within the PT repertoire was reduced from as organisations, firms, schools and public adminis- 44% to 29%. See figure 3. tration. This will be made clear by the next back- This means both that the Internet had consider- ground variable I wish to deal with, namely gender. able growth and that at the same time the installed Women’s “reluctance” when it comes to using base had a practically similar growth until 1997. It the Internet has been problematised in the mass me- is tempting to assume that growth in the installed dia, in policy documents and in public debate. In base of computers is in part connected with the de- purely historical terms one will probably find a cor- sire to have access to the Internet. This supposition responding “reluctance” when it came to using in- is supported by responses in the Gallup InterBuss. formation technology in general. In 1997 and 1998 There is still a potential for further growth in however women and men as a whole had roughly Internet use. In 1998 64% in the IT-repertoire and the same percentage access to information technol- 35% in the PT-repertoire would have liked to have ogy. As far as more active use of the Internet is con-

Figure 3. The Internet Years 1995-19988

% 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1995 1996 1997 1998

ICT IT PT

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Namnlöst-12 9 2005-08-16, 12:06 Figure 4. Age and Gender in each Repertoire

Age PT IT WICT PICT

13-29 10 24 41 57 30-44 10 34 36 29 45-59 16 27 18 7 60 + 64 15 5 7 Total 100 100 100 100 N 299 354 258 110 Average age 61 42 34 30 % women 56 60 42 30

cerned, there are nevertheless far fewer women than mentioned settlements within reasonable commut- men who started using the net. This may in part be ing time. If the municipality fulfils the requirements linked to the fact that for various reasons women are for centrality on more than one level, the highest of more “reluctant” and more “bound by tradition” these levels applies. So defined, 53 % of the Norwe- than men. However, there is much to suggest that gians are found in the “urban”-category, 25 % are large parts of this difference can be traced back to found in the “rurban”-category, while 22 % are systematic differences between women and men found in the “rural”-category (1.1.1998). Figure 5 when it comes to their participation on the labour illustrates the percentage of the ICT-repertoire market. To take just one example: women are over- along the rural-urban continuum. represented in care work in which face-to-face com- We see that there is a marked difference between munication is more important than communication the different categories and that the difference in- by means of different media. The proportion of creased from 1997 to 1998. If this is a permanent women has however increased in the ICT repertoire: trait we do not know yet. If one looks only at young it was 28% in 1995, 30% in 1996, 33% in 1997 and people or people with higher education the differ- 38% in 1998. ences along the continuum are smaller, which indi- The time-space relationship is considered espe- cates that an important part of the difference may be cially important in Norway. An example of this is ascribed to differences in general age compositions, the fact that 70% of the members of the Norwegian and differences in “rural”, “rurban” and “urban” parliament believed in 1996 that investing in IT and employment systems. As has been mentioned, the the Internet would strengthen rural areas of Norway interpretive repertoire is constructed when inter-ac- in relation to urban regions9. However, to illustrate tion around a technological object begins. This in- the situation I will simply present the distribution of ter-action presupposes the exchange of information the ICT-repertoire along the rural-urban continuum. and thus communication. In what follows I shall Centrality is a measure of a municipality’s geo- therefore take a closer look at information and com- graphical position seen in relation to a centre where munication systems concerning the Internet. a higher order of functions is found. Three levels are used in this small analysis based on Standard Clas- Information and Communication sification of Municipalities 1994. The highest level, here called “urban”, includes the six main national Systems Concerning the Internet cities and/or regional centre and the surrounding Certain technologies and certain technological ob- municipalities within a defined commuting time. jects are looked upon as being bearers of significant The middle level, “rurban”, includes the 25 towns meaning, i.e. they are associated with specific social with a population between 15,000 and 50,000 and groupings or developmental features of society. the surrounding municipalities within a defined These may be social groupings or developmental commuting time. The lowest level, “rural”, includes features of society that one wishes to identify with, the 50 small towns with a population between 5,000 or to distance oneself from, as the case may be. The and 15,000 and the surrounding municipalities Internet can be said to have such a meaning-bearing within a defined commuting time. The lowest level function, for many people made explicit by such also includes all municipalities with none of the terms as the “post-modern society” and “cyber-

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Namnlöst-12 10 2005-08-16, 12:06 Figure 5. The ICT-Repertoire along the Rural-Urban Continuum10

% 50 45 41 40 35 35 32 30 26 26 25 24 20 15 10 5 0 Rural Rurban Urban

1997 1998

space”. Thus when people express attitudes to a spe- therefore be established. At the same time those out- cific medium like the Internet, it is not only the me- side the repertoire will to a lesser degree participate dium as such that they are making statements about, in the specific information and communication sys- but just as much the social context into which the tems. In this way different social groups participate medium fits. Those who have already included the in interpretive, inscriptive and transcriptive proc- medium in their technological repertoire will have a esses of a medium based on very different access to predominantly positive view of the medium, while information. We find common arenas for informa- those who are included in other technological reper- tion and communication about the Internet first and toires will have a more critical view of the same me- foremost within the mass media and the social net- dium. Attitudes to the Internet therefore tell us works. See figure 6. something about the extent to which we can expect Those who are included in the ICT repertoire increasing inclusion in the ICT repertoire11. The in- stress job and school as well as special media as vestigation shows that the negative group amounts their most important source of knowledge about the to 4% within the ICT repertoire, 19% within the IT Internet. Special media in this context include spe- repertoire and 50% within the PT repertoire. The at- cial journals, magazines, periodicals, the Internet, titudes that have been established will in turn influ- suppliers of equipment and access, and other things. ence what type of information one obtains. Often On the other hand large groups within the PT reper- this information will be used to confirm already es- toire have the mass media as their most important tablished attitudes. source of knowledge of the Internet. The fact that Within a technological repertoire, specific infor- job and school and special media are stressed as the mation and communication systems of special rel- most important sources of knowledge for groups evance to social groupings within the repertoire will within the ICT repertoire does not mean that the

Figure 6. Most Important Source of Knowledge about the Internet (per cent)12

Special Family & Not Repertoire Job & School media Friends Mass media with it Response in % ICT 42 53 38 15 0 97 IT 29 22 42 40 4 94 PT31227611986

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Namnlöst-12 11 2005-08-16, 12:06 Figure 7. Read Material about the Internet in the Daily Press when there is such Material (per cent)

Repertoire Always Usually Seldom Never Total Response in %

ICT 12 44 36 8 100 100 IT321472910099 PT 4 8 40 48 100 97

same groups have a passive attitude to the mass me- tion of science and technology are the experts – of- dia. It is rather the case that inclusion in a specific ten in the form of researchers and scientists. Here I technological repertoire leads to greater interest in have chosen to have a completely open mind about acquiring knowledge about a subject with the aid of who are experts – I have therefore studied in closer several sources. The population were therefore detail how this diversity, from Internet experts in the asked whether they read material about the Internet form of researchers and technologists to Internet op- in the daily press when there was such material, as ponents, appears in the stories. In this connection I well as what sort of material they preferred to read. have therefore chosen to consider them all as actors See figure 7. in the Internet drama. This is a first presentation of We can see from the figure that people within the the actors in which the narrators behind the stories – ICT repertoire are the most active readers of mate- the journalists – will only partly be visible. The rial about the Internet. The same group is also most journalist who narrates, however, will be dealt with “instrumental” when reading the daily press. It is more thoroughly in a forthcoming article (Hetland first and foremost material about new possibilities 1999). I have further chosen to concentrate on the as well as Internet policy that this group is con- explicit actors – those who speak with their own cerned with. New possibilities here represent a voices in the stories. In many stories it is more group of news which for example takes up new ap- anonymous actors who appear as the “ordinary” plications, new commercial possibilities and tech- man, woman, youngster, senior citizen etc. Before I nological innovations. Further, the same group is in- say more about how the actors get into the act with terested in Internet policy, such as new frameworks their own voices, I shall briefly introduce the way in for competition, price policy and distribution policy which the stories are geographically localised. 61% in relation to teaching and business activity in par- of the stories are localised to Norway alone, 22% of ticular. People within the PT repertoire are not very the stories have elements from both Norway and interested in Internet policy, and otherwise divide what we may call other pioneer countries, 16% of their interest between “new possibilities”, the over- the stories have exclusively elements from other all category “other” and “negative material”. What I pioneer countries, while 1% of the stories have ele- have called “negative material” is for instance news- ments from other countries, either developing coun- paper articles about criminal offences committed tries or former “East-Bloc” countries. There are with the aid of the Internet or on the Internet, but clear differences between the three newspapers also dramatic descriptions of different negative con- when it comes to letting the actors speak with their sequences, both individual and societal, of the own voices, to the extent to which the actor is in Internet. People within the ICT repertoire are in fact quoted. Most frequently we find such actors in other words the most active readers of Internet news Aftenposten (61% of the articles), more seldom in in the daily papers, so it is therefore of interest to Dagbladet (41% of the articles), while it is some- analyse more closely whether this also marks the what more often in Dagsavisen Arbeiderbladet than news. Is it the case that the popularising articles in Dagbladet (45% of the articles). Aftenposten dis- about the Internet in the mass media have an “in- tinguishes itself also by either letting the same inter- scribed” public? viewee have a say on several occasions or letting several voices speak in the same article. In 28% of the articles there are two or more quotations. What The Inscribed Public then characterises those articles in which actors Both implicitly and explicitly different actors appear speak with their own voices? In the analysis of the in the Internet stories in the mass media. The group text of the articles each article has been coded ac- of actors who have gained the greatest attention in cording to how the article is angled13. That is to say earlier research on technology and the communica- to what extent the article concentrates on what ap-

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Namnlöst-12 12 2005-08-16, 12:06 pear to be positive possibilities of the Internet, or al- Concluding Summary ternatively negative possibilities of the Internet. We have also had a separate category for articles which The mass media and the social networks are the take up both the positive and the negative possibili- most central common arenas for processes of inter- ties. It turns out that the more critical the points that pretation, inscription and transcription when it are made in the article, the more probable it is that comes to understanding the new communication the people speaking are directly quoted; or put the media. How the mass media put new communica- other way round, if the journalist in fact lets differ- tion media on the agenda is therefore important for ent kinds of expert put their views, then there is a the dissemination of the same medium. At the same greater probability of a more nuanced picture of the time the mass media are a meeting place for the Internet. agendas of the public, of the world of policy and of Another matter that has interested not least the the technology producers. Here the other agendas politicians is the ratio between men and women in are both promoted and problematised. Thus a co- the information society. In 63% of the articles there construction of new understandings, new forms of are either identifiable or anonymous actors in which expression and new structures in society takes place it is possible to identify whether they are men or with the mass media as the common arena. This women. In these 966 articles 77% of the articles are process of co-construction includes first and fore- dominated by male actors, 13% of the articles are most those who are already included in the relevant dominated by female actors, while 10% of the arti- technological repertoires, i.e. the co-construction cles have approximately just as great weight on fe- includes first and foremost those we perceive as in- male as on male actors. Since we know that in the novators when it comes to adopting the new com- same period of time the proportion of women has munication medium. In other words in the articles increased within the ICT repertoire, one might sup- different actors, whether it be the “ordinary” man or pose that this development would also be reflected woman or various forms of expert, are allowed to in news about the Internet. However there is no have a say about their experiences of the Internet. clear tendency in that direction. The proportion of However, some actors are given a stronger voice articles that either had just as many female as male than others. In this way not only a particular techno- actors or were dominated by female actors, was 23% logical repertoire is promoted, but also particular in- in 1995, 26% in 1996 and 20% in 1997. One may terpretive repertoires. therefore claim that the newspapers do not follow up the general trend in Internet use.

Notes by 22.3%, Dagbladet by 26.3% and Dagsavisen Arbeiderbladet by 4.8%. These papers were chosen 1. The project “Media-technological dramas: The to provide as broad a description as possible of how Internet meets the public” is being financed partly the general public meets the information society’s by the priority area “Communication: Technology stories. There are newspapers with more comprehen- and culture” (http://www.hf.uio.no/ktk) at the Uni- sive coverage of news of the Internet, such as versity of Oslo, and partly by the Norwegian Re- Dagens Næringsliv. However these are directed at search Council under the programme “Societal and special target groups in the community and not at cultural presuppositions for information and com- the general public. The article data base consists of munication technology” (http://www.jus.uio.no/iri/ altogether 1538 articles, Aftenposten Morgen (659), afin/skikt/). This project started in the spring of Dagsavisen Arbeiderbladet (508) and Dagbladet 1997 and will be concluded in the autumn of the (371). year 2000. 3. For household access I have calculated average fig- 2. These three papers were read by a total of 40.2% of ures for each half-year (1996 and 1997) on the basis the population over the age of 13 years in 1995/96 of Gallup’s polls. The figures for 1995 are more un- and by a total of 42.2% over the age of 13 years in certain and are the result of calculations based on 1996/97 according to Gallup, Forbruker&Media the number of households with a PC and a modem. (statistics specially provided). According to the 4. http://www.ungit.dep.no/and http://www.eldreit.dep.no/ same source the figures for each individual paper for 5. In order to obtain a survey I used special runs on the 1996/97 were such that Aftenposten Morgen is read Gallup InterBuss for 1995, 1996, 1997 and 1998

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Namnlöst-12 13 2005-08-16, 12:06 (the November count for each year). In 1997 and Dearing, J.W., and E.M. Rogers (1996) Agenda-Setting. 1998 I in addition put six questions of my own to the Thousand Oaks: Sage. whole population. Gallup InterBuss is a quarterly in- Eide, M., and R. Ottosen (1994) “Science journalism” vestigation in which use of the Internet is the central Without Science Journalists: Notes on a Norwegian theme. The investigation is conducted by telephone Media Paradox.” Public Understanding of Science every quarter using a nation-wide representative 3, no. 4 (1994): 425-434. sample of 1000 people over the age of 13. Gallup Gates, B., N. Myhrvold, and P. Rinearson (1996) The InterBuss was carried out for the first time in No- Road Ahead. USA: Penguin. vember 1995 and thus shows developments in re- Hetland, P. (1996) Exploring Hybrid Communities: Tel- spect of central use and access questions. Viewed ecommunications on Trial. Oslo: Department of Me- from the angle of media studies one of the weak- dia and Communication, Report no. 29, Ph.D. Diss. nesses of the investigation is that relatively few Hetland, P. (1997) Media Technological Dramas – Be- questions are put to those who do not use the yond Domesticated Monsters and the Brutalism of Internet. The strength of the investigation is its thor- Triviality. University of Oslo: Communication: ough coverage of use and access questions, plus the Technology and Culture, http://www.hf.uio.no/ktk/ fact that the investigation over time will describe a innlegg/notat7.html. historical development. Hetland, P. (1999) The Mediation of Expertise: The 6. The Digital Citizen Survey was fielded by the Luntz Internet Meets the Public, University of Oslo: Com- Research Companies during the second and third munication: Technology and Culture (forthcoming). weeks of September 1997. Luntz conducted tel- Jensen, K.B. (1995) The Social Semiotics of Mass Com- ephone interviews with 1000 randomly selected U.S. munication. London: Sage. adults aged 18 or older, along with an additional 444 Lindlof, T. (1998) Media Audiences as Interpretive Com- interviews with likely technology users. The margin munities. In J. Anderson (Ed.) Communication Year- of error for the entire survey was + 2.6 per cent. book. Newbury Park: Sage. http://www.hotwired.com/special/citizen/survey/ McCombs, M., D.L. Shaw, and D. Weaver (1997) Com- survey.html, downloaded 22/1-98 munication and Democracy: Exploring the Intellec- 7. The figure is based on Gallup InterBuss. Estimates tual Frontiers in Agenda-Setting Theory. New Jer- for 1995 and 1996. Exact figures for 1997 and 1998. sey: Lawrence Erlbaum Ass. 8. The table was produced on the basis of special runs Morley, D., and R. Silverstone (1990) Domestic Commu- on Gallup InterBuss for 1995, 1996, 1997 and 1998, nications: Technologies and meanings. Media, Cul- the November counts for each year. ture & Society 12, no. 1 (1990): 31-55. 9. Scan Fact/Aftenposten 10/9-96 Mowlana, H. (1984) The Myths and Realities of the “In- 10. Calculated on the basis of InterBuss 1997 and 1998 formation Age”: A Conceptual Framework for 11. The following figures are from InterBuss 1997. Theory and Policy. Telematics and Informatics 1, 12. The question allowed the opportunity of crossing off no. 4 (1984): 427-438. several alternative responses. The total sums there- Negroponte, N. (1995) Being digital. London: Hodder fore exceed 100%. and Stoughton. 13. In order to check the intercoder reliability parts of Nelkin, D. (1995) Selling Science. How the Press Covers the material were coded by two different coders. The Science and Technology. New York: W.H. Freeman intercoder reliability is measured for every variable and Company. and it varies from 88% to 97%. Norges Offentlige Utredninger (1992) Ikke bare ord... Statlig informasjon mot år 2000. Oslo:Statens forvaltningstjeneste. Bibliography Olsen, O.E., and P. Hetland (1989) De mange muligheter og den snevre bruk – om telematikkens trivialise- Allern, S. (1997) Når kildene byr opp til dans: Søkelys på ring. In P. Hetland, P. Knutzen, R. Meissner, and PR-byråene og journalistikken. Oslo: Pax. O.E. Olsen (Eds) Nært, men likevel fjernt: Tele- Bijker, E. Wiebe (1995) Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs matikk og lokal utvikling. Stavanger: Rogalands- – Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. Cam- forskning. bridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Potter, J., and M. Wetherell (1987) Discourse and Social Callon, Michel (1987) Society in the Making: The Study Psychology. London: Sage. of Technology as a Tool for Sociological Analysis. In Rogers, Everett M. (1995) Diffusion of Innovations. New Wiebe E., Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor York: The Free Press, fourth edition. Pinch (Eds.) The Social Construction of Techno- Spigel, L. (1992) Make Room for TV. Chicago: University logical Systems: New Directions in the Sociology of Chicago Press. and History of Technology. Cambridge, 83-103. Coyne, R. (1997) Designing Information Technology in the Postmodern Age: From Method to Metaphor. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.

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Namnlöst-12 14 2005-08-16, 12:06 A Discourse of Legitimacy Critiquing the Culture Agenda in Finnish Public Broadcasting

GREGORY FERRELL LOWE

A zealous and time-honoured commitment to cul- setting has been similarly construed (Kemppainen, tural concerns is a cornerstone of public broadcast- 1998). ing in the comparatively small Nordic countries Here as elsewhere, the legitimacy of a public (Hujanen and Jauert, 1998). The preservation and service approach to and practice in broadcasting nourishment of Finnish culture has long been a cen- continues to be vigorously challenged. This is fun- tral plank and supporting beam in the legitimacy damentally a debate about legitimacy that is keyed platform that justifies Yleisradio’s [YLE] position to differences of opinion in social, political and cul- in and demands on their society (Enden, 1996). tural perspectives. “Some debaters think that public Compelling contemporary evidence is found in the service broadcasting remains a historical relict, 1993 Act on YLE which legislatively reaffirms the while others argue that in the new environment its company’s mandate to frame the services of public unique features will be more important than ever” broadcasting here in culture-centred terms. This Act (Hujanen and Jauert, 1998:124). The essence of complements and extends a cherished historic devo- such conflict hinges on the degree to which public tion to such concerns, and has been suggested as the service broadcasting remains socially relevant and clearest unbroken thread of continuity in YLE’s in- legitimate. To the extent that it does enjoy continu- stitutional history (Lowe and Alm, 1997). Culture ing or strengthening legitimacy, a decisive element services in Finland and elsewhere in northern Eu- is rooted in the strongly cultural agenda that tends to rope are tightly linked with the legitimating logic of frame the enterprise (Radio and Television Systems the Nordic welfare state wherein democratisation of in the EU Member States and Switzerland, 1998). broadcast programming is rooted in the ethic of pro- The situation in Finland is relevant to this more en- viding “universality” in access to signals and con- compassing “discourse of legitimacy.” tent (Hujanen, 1995). Yet for all its evident centrality, “culture” has That “public service” ethic, its presumed and in- largely flourished under an assumed identity. It is cumbent values, as well as its institutional complex- summoned as a god-term to explain and justify what ion and practical operation, have been challenged is and isn’t done, but in the institutional setting it is and critiqued (e.g., Raboy, 1996; Avery, 1993; Fos- rarely explicitly defined. The meanings and values ter, 1992). Today’s competitive context is strikingly of ”culture” can, however, be ascertained and critic- dissimilar when compared with monopoly arrange- ally analysed. There are, of course, a variety of ways ments twenty years ago. The differences are largely to describe this area of media studies, here it is a function of increasing competition with the pri- framed as a three-dimensional construct: produc- vate, commercial sector, and the more general influ- tion, texts and reception. In this article, the author ences of market-oriented rationale in political, so- focuses on the first of those dimensions by investi- cial and economic spheres of interest. The Nordic gating the ways culture is defined in professional discourse and for practical reasons. The analysis critically investigates “culture” as a defining ele- Department of Journalism and Mass Commun- ment in the legitimacy discourse that characterises ication, University of Tampere, P.O. Box 607, FIN- YLE in the 1990s. It is framed by a heuristic pro- 33101 Tampere, [email protected] posed by Lowe and Alm (1997) in which the envi-

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Namnlöst-27 15 2005-08-16, 12:17 ronmental context of broadcasting is considered un- ments, critiques and extends that work. Since 1992, der the rubric of four interdependent “markets”: po- the author has served as a consultant to YLE radio, litical, popular, professional and open. The four and in that capacity has undertaken a variety of re- markets are analysed in terms of “value transforma- search and teaching projects involving all of tion,” suggested as a dialectical dynamic character- Yleisradio’s radio channels at one time or another – ised by the interplay of change and continuity. Here, often repeatedly and in cumulative fashion. In those the focus is on analysis of discourse about culture, capacities, the author has worked with most of contextualised by the YLE professional market of YLE’s radio professionals, and enjoyed fruitful op- radio broadcasters as they discuss its importance in portunities to observe work cultures and practices in reference to political and popular markets. The find- concert with broadcaster discussion and discourse ings suggest that: about those undertakings. Interviews are focused on learning about under- 1) The ways culture is defined by broadcasters are standings and perspectives among radio profession- keyed in large part to a variety of self-serving ra- als in YLE’s three Finnish-language, post-1990 re- tionale, which also account for why the term is form channels (discussed shortly). The Swedish- so often hazy in definition. language section undertook its own reform in Octo- 2) That alternative semantic constructs have as ber, 1997 and is a topic of study at the present time much to do with internal institutional struggles (Radio Extrem and Radio Vega). over programming and channel policies as genu- In the formal research setting, respondents are ine differences in cultural emphases with regard queried to solicit descriptions and explanations of to political and popular markets. concepts rooted in normative values. The format re- lies on the use of a series of standardised open- 3) And that “culture” serves as a time-honoured and ended questions followed by probes to deepen un- still politically relevant theme in YLE’s dis- derstanding (see Patton, 1990). The interviews be- course of legitimacy, in terms of institutional gin with a brief description of the research project, policies and structure as well as in relation to as well as how the data will be used and why the Finnish society at large. study is important. Each respondent is promised confidentiality to relieve anxieties about, or poten- Methods tial threats posed by, institutional politics. The methods are briefly explained, culminating in a re- The reported findings are based on data collected quest for permission to tape-record the interview. over a seven year period beginning in 1991. Here as Respondents are aware that no one other than the elsewhere, the 1990s have been a decade of ferment interviewer will hear the tape, that the contents will and reform keyed to the increasing societal preval- be transcribed, and that he or she will receive a hard ence of market-oriented preferences and a correlated copy. This is necessary because English is not the expanding presence of private, commercial competi- native language of respondents. This procedure tors (Wiio, 1998). In this context, the discourse of helps to insure accuracy, fairness and clarity. The legitimacy enjoys a robust presence in political, pro- first item is designed to establish rapport. Each re- fessional and open markets. The situation offers spondent is asked two sequential questions about fruitful avenues for case-study research about the his or her position and work history: What is your constitution and complexion of a mediated and frac- correct title? What is your job and primary responsi- tured public sphere in contemporary societies. bilities here? The questions encourage respondents Given the literature already cited, such issues enjoy to talk about themselves and their work histories. a much broad and inclusive purview. These data are useful for providing context for the In the present article, analyses are based on inter- answers. view data. These data are derived from public radio The items are asked in order, with most having broadcasters and administrators working for YLE. two or three separate but related elements. Each be- The interviews invite respondents to describe and gins with a brief statement to provide context for the explain perceptions and applications of normative topic. In the present case, discussion begins with the values in their everyday work. Baseline data are de- following: “During my time here at YLE and in rived from a dissertation study conducted in 1991 talking with the people who work for the company, when 36 broadcasters and administrators charged I’ve found that there is a lot of talk about culture. It with managing channels and making programs were seems to be quite important to the company and the first interviewed. Annual, on-going research supple- people who work here.” The questions about the

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Namnlöst-27 16 2005-08-16, 12:17 topic are then asked in order: 1) What is culture? 2) the most part, these have been about channel and What does that mean for your work? 3) Why is this programme formatting and structure, transformation cultural agenda so important for the company? in professional work culture, and alternative, com- The interviews are conducted in English, which parative approaches to broadcast journalism. In the is a caveat in considering the results. This is the pri- course of such work, participants frequently voice mary reason that each interview is tape-recorded issues and ideas about culture and professional and transcribed. Fortunately, most Finns speak Eng- practice. These discussions inform understandings lish as their third language (the first two being Finn- and perceptions considered in the present article. ish and Swedish by law), and broadcasters at YLE The research perspective suggests dialectical are relatively fluent given the prevalence of English qualities in institutional life. Attention is devoted to in news, technical and professional practices. After change as a defining quality, but as much is devoted each research project the people who have been in- to continuity as a co-determinant tendency. Rela- terviewed are invited to attend a session in which tions between continuity and change are conceptual- the findings and results are presented, and where ised as dynamic, contradictory and reflexive aspects further discussion is invited which encourages par- under the rubric of ”value transformation process.” ticipants to critique them for accuracy and fairness. This is investigated via discourse and observation There are three key limitations in utilising this that query meanings and values of fundamental im- methodology. The first and potentially greatest is portance to the public broadcasting enterprise. the cross-cultural and linguistic limitation. The These include: audience, public service, journalism, steps taken to deal with this have already been dis- entertainment, information and, in the present case, cussed. The central problem that remains is that not culture. everyone is equally fluent. A Finnish-English dic- The author is an American academic with a dec- tionary is used to help clarify matters when there is ade of research about YLE public radio program- confusion. Not all interviews are equally rich and ming and operation investigating institutional dy- useful. The number of times this becomes a con- namics in light of the company’s practical and ideo- founding aspect that can’t be redressed is fortun- logical history in relation to its contemporary mar- ately low, about 1 in 10. The second limitation is ket-related experiences and societal context. This that people tend to rationalise what they do and work can be summarised as critical investigations of think in ways that are self-serving. This is not a the relations between media, culture and society, problem in the present case because questions are with a focus on the practical and philosophical intended to probe individual values and perspect- framework that legitimates public broadcasting. ives, and then analyses seek to find similarities and contrasts within and across the total data set that al- low critiques of rationalisation. The third limitation Yleisradio Oy is that a standardised approach limits flexibility in Yleisradio Oy (translated: General Radio Corp.) en- pursuing ideas and topics that arise in the process of joyed a monopoly in radio until 1985. As was the answering a particular question. The solution has case in most European countries, YLE was char- been to follow-up on such after the standardised tered as a public institution while private, commer- item has been answered but before moving on to the cial stations were forbidden. How radio has been next research item. Most interviews require an aver- done, why it has been done in the ways it has been age of 90 minutes, with the maximum being about done, and who was able to do it, have been deter- 120 minutes and the minimum about 60 minutes. mined by legal mandates, institutional legacies and This methodology has been fruitfully used over the centrality of public broadcasting to Finnish so- the years, most recently in funded research about the cial life. digitalisation of Radio Suomi (translated: Radio Like the BBC in Britain, over the seventy-two Finland) production and on-air technical systems years of its history YLE has become a relatively with regard to its reflexive relations with work cul- wealthy and certainly an influential social institu- ture. The notion of “reflexivity” and “agency” in the tion. It is beyond the bounds of this article to detail pursuit of continuity or change is premised on ideas the comprehensive idealisations and practices of the discussed at length by Giddens (1984). European “public service” approach to broadcast- Analyses are also the result of less standardised ing. Suffice it to say that this approach has been observations. Throughout the 1990s dozens of semi- conceived and defended as the antithesis of the nars and workshops have been conducted with YLE American private commercial approach, and that in radio broadcasters across its public channels. For large measure the public service enterprise has been

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Namnlöst-27 17 2005-08-16, 12:17 deeply committed to national, cultural themes – es- Ylen ykkönen is the most traditional channel pecially in the Nordic context. Similarly, as high- while Radiomafia intends to be innovative in the lighted by Hujanen and Jauert (1998) the increasing corporate context. “Intends to be” is appropriate be- use of “public service” as an institutional frame, cause, as will be demonstrated, the channel is con- rather than the previous “public broadcasting” char- strained by the structural legacies and characteristic acterisation, is an indication of social and political work cultures that marble the company overall. conflict related to the legitimacy of the approach in Ylen ykkönen features classical music and “serious light of the growth of commercial alternatives. talk” programmes about arts and sciences, distance- In 1985, the Finnish government made a deci- education services, religious programmes involving sion with long-term ramifications for Yleisradio the Church of Finland (Lutheran), plus documenta- when an “experiment” in private, local and commer- ries and radio theatre. Programmes are intended to cial radio was approved. This was subsequently ex- contribute to social enlightenment, most are pre-re- tended for another two-year period in 1987, and corded rather than live, High Culture arts are a pri- then ratified as a permanent addition to the Finnish ority, production practices tend to adhere to a media mix in 1989. The process and results of those monthly rhythm (although this is changing), and air- decisions and subsequent practices have been topics ing “demanding, high-quality” programmes is cel- of scholarly publication (Prehn, 1998; Lowe and ebrated. Ylen ykkönen maintains continuity with the Alm, 1997; Enden, 1996; Hujanen, 1996). These in- most traditional values of YLE’s public service in- dependent local radio channels initially targeted tentions in Finnish society and “keeps faith” with its young Finns with popular music, but in more recent social-responsibility legacies. The channel has done years have begun targeting Finns in their 30s and quite well since its inception, averaging 11-13% of 40s with a blend of adult contemporary music and the national market. news programming. Radiomafia is targeted to teenagers and young YLE had provided select programs of youth-ori- adults with popular music and features about topics ented content beginning in the 1960s, and initially and trends of interest to Finnish youth. In recent in reaction to pirate broadcasting. Thus, the com- years the channel has tended to be more about music pany had not completely neglected such program- flow and less about journalistic service. The situa- ming or its fans in Finnish society, but both were tion is in flux, however, due to abysmal ratings in quite marginal in the institutional context. The chief national survey research over the past two years. practical problem with this had become shockingly Most of their broadcasters are young freelancers in clear by 1989 as the company suffered sharp de- their 20s, programmes are live rather than pre-re- clines in ratings as the youth market tuned in the in- corded, Popular Culture arts are the priority, pro- dependents in increasing numbers (Kemppainen, duction practices adhere to a weekly rhythm, and 1998). In the interests of the institution’s survival being entertaining is a mandate. Unfortunately, as and future health, it was decided that YLE must em- hinted above, that mandate has not been accom- bark on a reform and restructuring of their radio plished in consistently sterling fashion, at least to channels. the extent that one can premise such a claim on di- Prior to the 1990 radio restructuring, YLE had minishing ratings. Although the channel enjoyed two national channels (called The Primary Pro- better than 20% of national weekly ratings in the gramme and the Parallel Programme) and nine re- early years of its operation, a steady decline since gional channels. Afterwards, the first national chan- 1994 crystallised in middle 1998 at an alarming 9% nel became Ylen ykkönen (translated: YLE’s First) rating. The channel is in crisis due to increasing and the second became Radiomafia (translated Ra- competition with the private sector, and particularly dio Mafia), an entirely new enterprise devoted to since 1997 when the Finnish government licensed a serving young Finns as a popular culture, public ra- first national and private commercial competitor dio channel. The third channel is a network organ- (Radio Nova). ised under the auspices of the national office of Ra- Radiomafia discursively eschews much of the dio Suomi with 20 regional stations (plus local news traditional ideas and practices of Finnish public ra- offices in area towns and villages). These mostly dio (and did so especially in their initial years of op- programme the morning and afternoon drive-time eration, 1990-1993). Personnel have defined their periods (although the volume of daily programmes channel primarily in opposition to those traditions. originating at the local level continues to increase Whereas Ylen ykkönen features continuity slowing for competitive reasons). giving way to change, Radiomafia has featured

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Namnlöst-27 18 2005-08-16, 12:17 change slowing ebbing back to continuity. Such ten- from broadcasters in other channels. Resentment dencies indicate the dialectical qualities of value and resistance is keyed to a (perceived) dispropor- transformation, and will be considered in more tionate amount of resources and related in-house depth shortly. Taken together, these channels pro- prestige historically and, to a lesser degree, cur- vide the best indications of a value transformation rently accorded the handful of broadcasters specifi- dialectic that has energised the public radio dynamic cally devoted to so-called High Culture program- in the 1990s. The company considers both channels ming. essential to the social legitimacy of the public Resistance and opposition to this conception is broadcasting enterprise in Finland, and both are most noted among Radiomafia personnel for simi- fundamentally situated as culture-oriented services. larly self-serving reasons, but is certainly not con- Radio Suomi has a national office in the capital fined to this channel. Broadcasters within Ylen of Helsinki that provides hourly newscasts about na- ykkönen who work for other units have also criti- tional and international events of the day. The na- cised the approach. In the main, opposition is tional office also produces specialised programmes framed as a reaction against the old YLE where cul- that are offered to the regional stations including, ture was too narrowly defined and classically con- for example, programmes produced by the Music strued. Those outside the Culture Programme unit Department. The lion’s share of daily programming, make statements to the effect that “what we do is and especially within peak listening periods, is pro- also about culture!” The bulk of respondents, then, duced by the regional stations. These focus on local react for and against institutional legacies as these and regional news. The channel also features the impact their respective self-interests. most Finnish popular music, much of it in the form But the practice of organising expert units to ad- of tangos and other forms of music that are fre- dress and service particular publics, conceived in quently castigated as Finnish “oompah” or “schla- specialist cultural terms, is common across chan- ger”, but which are popular among middle-aged nels. Radio Suomi has a Music Department that pro- Finnish listeners – especially during the summer duces specialised programmes under the rubric of holiday season. Taken together, Radio Suomi ac- “music journalism,” and Radiomafia has “program counts for a consistent 35-38% share of the weekly teams” with similar duties relative to popular cul- listening market, and is the most competitively suc- ture genre. Broadcasters working specifically with cessful of YLE’s post-reform efforts. music in every channel tend to define (and defend) themselves as specialist “music journalists” because the institution privileges journalists as the cream of Practical Dimensions of “Culture” YLE professionals, and has tended to devalue DJs Broadly construed, YLE radio professionals de- as “people who just play records.” scribe culture with regard to practical concerns, and In these regards, culture appears not only as fo- as three overlapping but somewhat distinct notions. rums of particularised artistic accomplishment, but These are treated as categorical descriptions below as institutionalised, politicised and contested prac- and are framed by the author to summarize respond- tices framing and informing work culture within the ent definitions and perceptions of the term. In most company at large. Segmenting and valuing the rela- ways, these represent practical dimensions of a dis- tive merits of cultural genre indicate patterns and course that situates culture in an institutional con- perceptions that define the institution in those or- text with reference to applied settings. ganisational terms that provide the ground and con- The first dimension is most often discussed with text for professional identity, activity and valuation. reference to the “old YLE,” meaning Yleisradio Thus, the preservation and nourishing of “culture” prior to the 1990 reform. Culture has been viewed acts as a warrant for validating company structures, as segmented areas of professional expertise con- resource allocation, channel and broadcaster iden- signed to specialist production units comprised of tity and promotion, work experiences, and collegial producers and, since the early-1970s, journalists. discourse. It is all about whom is ‘most’ legitimate, These lay claim to expertise in various venues of and culture plays a pivotal role in legitimating those fine art, including theatre, classical music, painting choices. and sculpture, ballet, opera, literature and so forth. Culture is secondly construed as a series of ar- This approach is most overt in Ylen ykkönen’s Cul- tistic artefacts. This application is hinted in the first ture Programme unit. For self-serving reasons, this conception because culture as a series of artistic ar- channel’s practitioners favour and defend this attri- tefacts furnishes the subject matter that comprises bution in contrast to criticism (often quite harsh) the purview of expertise justifying culture as spe-

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Namnlöst-27 19 2005-08-16, 12:17 cialised production units. But whereas the later fo- their channels, both are fundamentally devoted to cuses on broadcaster identity and performance, the preserving and nourishing artefacts of cultural art. former focuses on the objects for which expertise is The chief difference is with regard to the age of the claimed. Specialised production units are about or- artefact and corresponding targeted audiences. Ylen ganisation and collective programming, whereas ar- ykkönen focuses on time-honoured genre and clas- tistic artefacts are about orientation and individual sical works of artistic merit (although, of course, subject matter. these include modern examples of such), whereas At Ylen ykkönen, subject matter decidedly privi- Radiomafia is devoted to contemporary expressions leges artefacts traditionally associated with High of youth culture production. In that regard these Culture and Fine Art. The Radio Theatre department channels are different in their approaches to culture produces dramas in the Finnish language, while a because the first is more about preservation while Classical Music department is responsible for pro- the second is more about nourishing. Despite that, gramming that aspect of the channel’s total profile. however, the channels are much the same in their The Radio Symphony Orchestra is independent of devotion to programming that celebrates culture as the channels per se, but certainly has a deeply sym- artistic artefacts. The subject matter is segmented, biotic relationship because Ylen ykkönen airs the but the underlying principle is not. Whether the ar- bulk of their performances. There are also pro- tefact is displayed in a museum or a carnival is a grammes devoted to poetry readings and critical matter of presumed aesthetic values, which of analyses of literature and literary figures, as well as course has decisive impact in ordering the relative units responsible for productions covering annual degrees of legitimacy accorded each genre of arte- opera festivals. Here one finds continuing dedica- fact in institutional terms. But the same company tion to the mission of “enlightenment” through edu- comprises the context and forum for both pursuits. cation (as classically conceived) in the project of The legitimating premise rests on the fact that the Western civilisation. artefacts are on display somewhere and in some This enlightenment mission is of fundamental fashion that has social relevance. importance to understanding the continuing devo- The third concept is historically newest and ac- tion to High Culture and the Fine Arts in YLE. cordingly more narrowly restricted than the other From the beginning of company history, it was be- two, although that is changing. In 1991, culture as lieved that radio broadcasting could and should be the medium and expressions of living social experi- applied as a service for distance-education with an ence was mostly evident at Radiomafia. Since that emphasis on inculcating appreciation for the classi- time, it has become increasingly evident elsewhere, cal arts. The social results and effectiveness of these and especially within Radio Suomi which most efforts are mixed and certainly beyond the para- tightly organises schedules and practices to the meters of this article, but the idea and its pursuit en- rhythms and concerns of daily happenings. But this joy a long and deeply rooted legacy within the com- notion also plays a role in the recent retooling of pany’s idealisations of its public service goals. Ylen ykkönen in pursuit of a faster, more responsive Most broadcasters today are eager to disavow work rhythm in tune with events of the week, at that mission as something that has been elitist, old- least, if not also the day. As the medium and expres- fashioned and programmatically ponderous. Yet the sions of living social experience, culture is framed basic premise of seeking to educate listeners to as a dynamic, diverse and universally important in- varying degrees, and with the goal of aiding in their dex to on-going social practice. Culture may have enlightenment, is common and continuing – even if museum-like and carnivalesque features and traits, paraded under different semantic banners. Actually, but only in relation to the continually contemporary most of them are not so new because wanting “to contingencies of social experience. Here the current change how people think, to make a difference in life experience of a subject, object or event fur- people’s views of the world, and opening doors to nishes the template of legitimacy, as compared with something new” are slogans featured in the 1972 an institutional arrangement (in the first broad con- Organisational Guidebook that framed the In- cept of culture treated above) or a topical index of formative Programme Policy (see Nordenstreng, its presumed worth (in the second). 1972 & 1973). It’s important to note that in each construct, cul- Radiomafia is an exercise in definition-by-com- ture is construed as a vital and tightly correlated el- parison relative to Ylen ykkönen. Yet despite the ement in the project of “universality” that informs High Culture versus Popular Culture dynamic most the heartland of the public service ethic. Specialised often summoned by respondents to differentiate production units survey and analyse the universe of

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Namnlöst-27 20 2005-08-16, 12:17 artistic artefacts in various genre of cultural produc- worth the effort because of what one earns from the tion, and create programs that provide universal ac- labour – one becomes civilised and sophisticated. cess to them. Moreover, doing so is defined as a cru- Such a view harmonizes with (and is rooted in) the cial service in public broadcasting’s on-going con- educational paradigm and enlightenment mission tributions to providing cultural resources as a defin- that so characterised public radio identity and pro- ing element of the medium and expression of living gramming until the reform. Here we have the con- social experience for all Finns everywhere. servative and tradition-bound view, replete with The preceding are summarised as three dimen- elite aesthetic judgements concerning normative sions of culture as the term is institutionalised by values defining “good and bad” taste – as well as YLE radio professionals: 1) culture as expert pro- listening. Interestingly, the on-air result enjoys a re- duction units; 2) culture as a series of tangible, arti- spectable and stable audience. There is apparently stic artefacts; and 3) culture as the medium and ex- little that is dysfunctional about any of this for the pressions of living social experience. Whereas the audience that chooses Ylen ykkönen. On the con- first approach defines and defends professional trary, the premise enjoys astonishing legitimacy if identity and the second programmatic identity, the listening figures can be fairly taken as one evidence. third focuses on the chronicle of living, social expe- The view at Radiomafia provides a sharp con- rience and the expressions of cultural identity. Of trast. Here culture is described in terms that are de- most relevance here is the idea that public radio pro- liberately reactive and alternative to the preceding fessionals serve their audiences by acting as view. Culture is described as things that are “fun, facilitators of an inclusive cultural discourse that is gossipy, weird, trashy, underground, and grassroots” nonetheless organized institutionally in relatively in nature. These broadcasters are less interested in exclusive terms. One could say of the three broad the “bright full moon than in the dark side of the concepts that the first is about specialisation, the moon,” as one put it. One notes a defensive quality second about education, and the third about media- that is keyed to the historical, corporate commit- tion. In that light, all of this is about how culture ment to High Culture and a correlated reserve about helps to organize and validate work, and ways in Popular Culture. Here culture is not supposed to be which variations are summoned to explain and le- something you have to work at, but instead is some- gitimate hierarchies in normative values. But what thing you play with. It’s not about enlightenment – is “culture” in semantic terms? it’s about entitlement. Legitimacy for the channel is premised on the idea that people have a right to en- joy culture in personal terms, rather than an obliga- Cultural Semantics tion to appreciate it in social terms. At Ylen ykkönen culture is described in terms that In fact however, and despite the “darker” as- have a “heavy” and “serious” flavour. Culture is pects in the preceding descriptions, the bulk of this equated with “quality, preservation, enlightenment, channel’s programmes are mainstream recordings of and high brow art.” It is lauded as a “civilising various music genre already popular among Western force” and defended as “the best fruits of what has youth. Radiomafia has only been alternative in rela- been thought and done.” Culture makes demands on tion to the institutional context. It is clearly less al- listeners because one has to work to appreciate it. ternative in relation to the listening market, given The goal of cultural programming is to “create bet- declining audience figures. There is little that could ter people” and to enable discovery and appreciation be fairly construed as dark, closeted or otherwise of artefacts that have stood the test of time. Culture unacknowledged as outside the mainstream of top- can accomplish this because it presumably has in- ics and interests of young Finns. Nonetheless, reac- herent nobility, purity, virtue and dignity that en- tion to the channel and its profile by other company courage sober contemplation of human aspirations broadcasters has only softened from aloof critique to create things of enduring beauty and endearing and frequent ridicule to tolerant acceptance and aesthetic richness. even grudging respect in the mid-1990s. The rea- On the whole, this is a Romantic view of culture. sons for that change in part reflect a notable trend Although not true in any extreme sense, one could within the channel to back away from the aggress- nonetheless say that the construct is more homoge- ively antagonistic aspects that characterised the neous than heterogeneous, more mainstream than channel in its early years. Radiomafia defines cul- avant-garde, more artefactual than dynamic, more ture in ways as much keyed to corporate work cul- historical than contemporary, and more intellectual ture as to larger social trends, and is increasingly in- than emotional. Good culture is hard work, but stitutionalised in practice. One wonders if this might

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Namnlöst-27 21 2005-08-16, 12:17 also play some role in declining listener figures. mafia’s expense. More encompassing explanations Also the reasons are partly linked with losing the focus attention on broader institutional problems in competition with private channels since 1997. management and organisation practices, problems As respondents frame the channels, then, Ylen that are rather common across European public ykkönen is commonly characterised as the High broadcasting companies (Foster, 1992). Culture channel and Radiomafia as the Popular Cul- At any rate, Radio Suomi’s success, and the de- ture channel. This is less than precise. In the au- gree to which that is based on their music and ser- thor’s observation, Ylen ykkönen could more accur- vice profile (large in observation), indicates the de- ately be defined as a channel devoted to European gree to which domestic culture is far from fragile High Culture and Radiomafia as a channel devoted and at risk in an increasingly competitive and inter- to International Youth Culture. This is of central im- national media marketplace. The claim that domes- portance for clarifying why Radio Suomi has been tic culture is supremely vulnerable in the face of in- so successful since 1990 despite constant changes in ternational media products and competition is fre- the market. quently voiced, but this analysis supports a more Radio Suomi is primarily a news channel. There complex and finely-grained argument elegantly and are, however, music profiles and these are very im- persuasively argued by Varan (1998) in his research portant to each channel’s overall flavour and “bou- about communities in the South Pacific. At least in quet” of services. Here the most relevant aspect of Finland and for the Finns, those radio channels that these profiles (which do vary, depending on the sta- offer the most domestic content and focus enjoy the tion’s location and the community it serves) is an highest ratings and strongest market presence. Far emphasis on traditional and contemporary Finnish from being a wilting wall flower of weak and tepid ”schlager” which American programmers character- longevity, Finnish culture appears in the present ise as middle-of-the-road, adult-contemporary or case as a robust, tenacious and deeply valued aspect easy listening formats. Because Radio Suomi (na- of social life and practice – and its pursuit is a decis- tionally and regionally) airs the most of such genre, ive element in legitimating YLE’s public broadcast- it’s not surprising that broadcasters here tend to de- ing enterprise. scribe their profile as ”folk culture.” Given the pre- ceding description, however, it would be more pre- cise to say that this network is devoted to Finnish Why the Culture Agenda? Popular Culture. This is a primary reason for the The final question to be addressed here is arguably channels’ market successes (two other defining rea- the most fundamental: Why is “culture” and the sons are its localised services and journalistic fo- “cultural agenda” of such central and enduring im- cus). Radio Suomi airs the music profile most portance to YLE public broadcasting? Answering strongly correlated with popular and indigenous that requires some understanding of Finnish history tastes of Finns in the middle-age demographics. and wider social influences that can only be treated An operational reason for the network’s com- briefly in this article. But we can proceed with the bined success also hinges on the fact that it has been understanding that this is crucial to the framework most deeply involved with local competition in ra- in which all of the preceding finds relevance and ar- dio. Yes, Radiomafia was chartered and mandated gues legitimacy. Note, as well, that the following is with taking back young listeners who had switched not based on interview data, but rather on readings, to local independents, but it transmits the same pro- personal immigrant experience and on-going re- gramme everywhere in the nation and has not been search about Finnish history, society and culture. able to deal with specific local challenges very well. Finland has been both the beneficiary and victim This has been a source of frustration for many of clashes between Western and Eastern European within Radiomafia, and may also help account for cultures, broadly construed. For most of its recorded why the lion’s share of their listeners have been history, Finland was a province of Sweden (c.1100 among young people living in the countryside C.E.). In the early-1800s as the result of a war that where private local music stations aren’t available. Sweden lost, Finland became a Russian Grand This is not, however, a sufficient explanation for Duchy under Alexander II. These influences are Radiomafia’s competitive woes because the private evident, for example, in the two buildings that commercial national channel, Radio Nova, isn’t lo- dominate Helsinki’s skyline – the Lutheran and cal either, and yet has managed to conquer 22%+ of Greek Orthodox cathedrals. Also the fact that Hel- the total listening market since its introduction in sinki is the capital today is a legacy of Russian rule. the late spring of 1997 – much of that at Radio- During the Swedish colonial days Turku (in Swed-

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Namnlöst-27 22 2005-08-16, 12:17 ish, Åbo, and on the southwest coast) was the capi- type and complexion of political government for the tal. Moreover, the most significant minority in terms new nation (which was also an intercultural con- of social and economic influence are the Swedish- flict), turmoil between the Finnish-Finns and Swed- Finns (about 6% of the total population of 5 million ish-Finns erupted. Yleisradio was chartered in this total), while one of the biggest holidays of the year conflicted period (1927) and became a public com- is May Day (celebrated as a worker’s holiday as in pany (1934) shortly after it ended. From the begin- the East generally). Like Poland and Hungary, Fin- ning, then, radio broadcasting was conceived as a land is at the crossroad between East and West and centrist voice for national unification and solidarity, here the twain have assuredly met. That position and and with a keen sensitivity to the importance of cul- the difficulties it has created for a people that are ture. The particulars of “cultural threats” have cer- not genetically linked (except through cross-cultural tainly changed over the years, being today mostly marriages) nor linguistically related to either trans-European and with a robust American pres- Swedes or Russians, have inculcated a deep sensi- ence, but the principle of preserving and nourishing tivity to cultural concerns among Finns. a distinctively Finnish culture in the face of such in- Moreover, before Finnish independence was de- fluences is a constant. This continuity in Finnish so- clared on December 6, 1917, at least thirty years of cial and historic national life is reflected in the prin- artistic accomplishment committed to creating a ciples and practices of Yleisradio, particularly for myth and context for Finnish national identity had example in their mandated devotion to serve Swed- already passed. This was a period of nationalist, cul- ish-Finns on a par with the majority population tural ferment, and is frequently referred to as the (Moring and Salmi, 1998). Golden Age of Finnish Art. It includes, most nota- Given all that has gone before, it might seem sur- bly, the great composer Jean Sibelius and the gifted prising at first blush to find that “culture” has lived painter, Akseli Gallen-Kallela. These and other art- under an assumed identity without much apparent ists drew inspiration from Elias Lönnrot’s Kalevala effort to define this term and aspect of such central tales. This national epic was compiled in the mid- importance. But leaving culture as a hazily defined 1800s based on folk tales that were common in the and generally abstract notion has been strategically Karelian area near Lake Lagoda (today located in beneficial. On the one hand, doing so has provided Russia after the territory was ceded to the USSR as for great flexibility and the freedom to make pro- a penalty of WWII). The rallying cry of Finnish in- grammes that appeal to small listener groups. On the dependence was: “We can’t be Swedes, we won’t be other, it has also limited accountability because it is Russians, let us be Finns!” Thus, culture is a crucial impossible to hold anyone to a bargain that has yet aspect inscribing international influences and do- to be defined. Since the 1993 Act on YLE, however, mestic distinctiveness. that haze is less functional (Wiio, 1998). Nearly all of Finland’s legendary figures in the As a result of the Act, Managing Director Arne creation and celebration of Finnishness, from the Wessberg (approved for a second six year term in 1850s through the early decades of this century, had the spring of 1998) decentralised YLE operations. at least three telling traits in common. First, they Allocation and programming decisions today are were artists; second, they were cultural nationalists; made at the unit and channel levels rather than at the and third, they had interest in and involvement with corporate level. In return, YLE broadcasters are re- Finnish journalism. That construct offers insights quired to develop and apply precise performance in- that help explain the character and values of YLE. dicators and evaluation criteria. The trade-off, of The expansive strength of YLE’s journalistic em- course, is that more explicit criteria greatly increase phasis is relatively recent, however, being rooted in accountability. An advantage to fog is that it moves the Informative Programme Policy of the 1960s and with the wind, whereas tables of stone require peo- 1970s, and first validated by General Director Eino ple to carry them. If culture is the medium and ex- Repo. It has certainly become a defining element of pressions of living social experience, at least in part, institutional legitimacy and activity in the decades then the power of ambiguity is sacrificed for the since. Journalists are the most respected of all YLE power of control inherent in accountability. Interest- professionals, and many see themselves and their ingly, however, the power of control may actually be craft as having artistic qualities. When combined higher in a decentralised but accountable system with a commitment to national, cultural themes, this than in the previously over-centralised institution. comprises an enduring legacy. Two final aspects or dimensions of “culture” as Ten years after independence, and following a a defining characteristic of Finnish public broad- civil war between the Whites and the Reds over the casting remain to be addressed. The first is keyed to

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Namnlöst-27 23 2005-08-16, 12:17 YLE’s legal mandates and corresponding legitimacy files of existing channels and programmes, particu- as a “public service” company in relation to the so- larly those that have a relatively small audience but cial context in which it operates. The second is more can be defended as making some vital contribution internal to the company and hinges on the need for to Finnish cultural life. Further, this mission is work culture cohesion in an increasingly diverse viewed as a means of enhancing the total service and even fragmented organisation. image of the company, and thereby helps YLE to Yleisradio is legally mandated to serve the maintain the “good graces” of Finnish society – i.e., unique and various cultural needs of Finnish soci- to continually legitimate the company’s position in ety. The cultural mission of YLE broadcasting is the this social context. clearest and most enduring continuity in the compa- As to the second aspect noted above, culture is ny’s seventy-three year history to date. From its in- conceived as a defining element and principle to fa- ception in the mid-1920s, and unswervingly in cilitate a “way of thinking” for the increasingly di- every legal act and agreement impinging on the vergent units and programmes within the decentral- company since that time, YLE is charged with serv- ised, restructured company. Culture is not only a de- ing the cultural interests of all Finns. The principle fence for programmes and services in societal terms, is continued and even strengthened in the 1993 Act but also a means of welding some cohesion across on YLE which demands that the company work to the company’s fractured work cultures. In this case, foster and nourish Finnish culture as a core value in culture serves as a tool for conceptualising and its identity, and as a key warrant for its legitimacy. evaluating the company’s production processes and The pursuit is affirmed as a continuing requirement practices, as well as a rallying point that conceiv- to provide services on a universal basis. That, in ably integrates everything from radio theatre and short, legitimates its demands on public resources. classical music to pop music radio and local news The company is especially mandated with taking services. In all its abstract power, culture acts in care of the needs of those who are commercially un- practice as a kind of ideological touchstone and ce- attractive, but to also provide “comprehensive serv- ment that binds the social collective of broadcasters, ices” for all Finns everywhere. The comprehensive- furnishing each with a sense of organisational pur- ness of such services has been strongly construed as pose and professional identity. In doing so, culture cultural in nature. provides continuity in the face of sweeping changes. That mandate legitimates the company’s on-go- ing efforts to serve Swedish-Finns and the native Sami people of Lapland. Such services are ex- Conclusion tremely costly and cannot be economically rational- With all of this in mind, it is not surprising that cul- ised. Yet they are considered vital to the national ture should occupy a defining position and act as a life and health of Finnish democracy, on the basis of principle of singular, foundational importance for which they are supremely rational. Moreover, the Yleisradio Oy. Each of the company’s radio chan- same can be said of Radio Theatre and the Radio nels is legitimated as a concurrent if diverse aspect Symphony Orchestra with regard to the life and of YLE’s efforts to best serve the contemporary health of national culture. These are expensive needs and interests of all Finns with a comprehens- “products,” but are accorded legitimacy by virtue of ive service in an increasingly pan-European and in- the company’s continuing commitment to advancing ternationalised context. Ylen ykkönen caters to such and preserving the Finnish arts. Yleisradio is ex- in areas traditionally associated with European High pected to make vital and visible contributions in Culture, while Radiomafia struggles with a newly nurturing Finnish talent and supporting domestic institutionalised mission to more fully attend to the creativity. The cultural mandate and mission legit- interests of Finns in International Youth Culture. imates such pursuits. Further, an aspect of supreme importance in legit- Thus, “culture” provides a strategic agenda that imating Radio Suomi’s services and explaining its legitimates the company’s demands on tax-derived popularity hinges on that network’s devotion to funds (license fees, in the main, but also the “public Finnish Popular Culture. Taken together, these service tax” levied since 1994 on commercial channels and the services they provide are construed broadcast companies as part of the cost of doing as a vital strategic element to the political and popu- media business here). It is also competitively useful lar market legitimacy the company must maintain. because the agenda makes YLE public broadcasting Professional discourse about culture reveals a vari- distinctive in relation to the private commercial sec- ety of self-serving interests, but all of these are tor. Moreover, cultural interests legitimate the pro- framed in one form or another in ways that indicate

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Namnlöst-27 24 2005-08-16, 12:17 that “culture” is an animating force in the ethic that (forced by the successes of commercial competi- legitimates “public service” operations in today’s tors) that any perspective of Finnish culture as a competitive media marketplace. It’s all about pro- kind of seamless and monolithic entity is untenable viding “something for everybody” which is, as in light of contemporary preferences manifest in lis- Hujanen and Jauert (1998:123) point out, “the core tener choices. Thus, channel profiling and audience of universalism.” segmentation practices are also legitimated as recog- The profiling of YLE’s public radio channels has nition of cultural pluralism despite strongly shared been based on a relatively recent acknowledgement generalities in Finnish national life and identity.

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Namnlöst-27 26 2005-08-16, 12:17 Practice of Soviet Censorship in the Press The Case of Estonia

EPP LAUK

Censorship has rightly been called “the knot that corner stone for the concept of the Communist me- binds power and knowledge” (Jansen 1991). dia in general. Throughout the history of mankind, powerholders The Soviet media were strictly supervised, regu- have been keen on having control over the content lated and controlled by the Communist Party and its and distribution of public information in a society. apparatus. The control over the public word in- Authoritarian and totalitarian regimes of the 20th cluded not only the press and electronic media, but century have created the most complicated and all- also all kinds of printed matter, film production, embracing machineries of manipulation information theatre and cinema performances, exhibitions, ad- and public opinion by using the mass media and vertising etc. Moreover, the system of total control censorship. penetrated all spheres of the life in the Soviet Un- In the former Soviet Union, the mass media con- ion. Official censorship on various levels became a stituted a vital element of the Communist Party necessary agent for the maintenance of the Soviet power mechanism, used as the most efficient means State and the Communist Party. for developing and spreading the Communist ideo- When discussing Soviet censorship in Estonia, I logy. According to Lenin, the most important func- will focus on three aspects: the situation of the re- tion of the media in Soviet society was to “serve as search on Soviet censorship, the structure and func- an instrument of socialist construction” (V. Lenin. tioning of the censorship system and censorship as a The Tasks of the Soviet Power Next in Turn). The means of sovietization of the Estonian press. media were used for creating an alternative reality, “an ideologically correct symbolic environment, filled with content designed to socialize the audi- Investigating Censorship ence to the ideas and values of Communism /.../” Censorship is a word used in two meanings: 1) con- (Jakubowicz 1995: 23). The media became a stand- trol over the content and forms of the public in- ard-setter, telling readers and listeners how to be- formation, and 2) the system executing this control. have “properly” and say the “right” things. While being a means of control, censorship is In the hands of the ruling elite (nomenclatura) also a means of detailed regulation. For instance, the media were also widely used for supporting its when investigating Soviet censorship system, we status quo and its activities. “This encompasses find a complicated network of special instructions winning over people to the hegemonic ideology, and institutions that limited access to information mobilizing them in work and politics, and convinc- on the one hand, and restricted access to the dis- ing them that the regime has great successes in its tribution channels on the other. Ordinary people endeavors to better the lot of its citizens” (Novosel could not publish anything. Only certain institutions 1995: 14). Lenin’s doctrine of the party press as under strict control were entitled to publish. Under- “not only a collective propagandist and a collective ground publishing and a practice of the “double agitator, but also a collective organizer” served as a speak” can be seen as effects or reflections of such regulation (e.g., “samizdat” publications in Soviet Department of Journalism, University of Tartu, Russia, Lithuania etc. See more: Høyer, Lauk, Ülikooli 18-131, EE-50090 Tartu, [email protected] Vihalemm 1993; Sinyavsky 1980).

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Namnlöst-26 27 2005-08-16, 12:17 History knows two main types of censorship: the (No 10/1605-P, Jan. 7, 1993), the Head of the State preliminary and post-publishing censorship, which Archive Service of the Russian Federation, R. G. Pi- are both preventive and restrictive by nature. As a hoja explained that in none of Russian state archives mechanism of control, censorship can also be re- documents about receiving these files had been pressive: it can destroy literature, films, paintings found. He had, however, found a document about etc. and persecute people who create and/or distrib- the destruction of 101 files with secret documents of ute what is forbidden by authorities. Estonian censorship authorities of the years from In addition to having all the above-mentioned 1976 to 1990, which had arrived to the Chief Cen- characteristics, Soviet censorship was also pre- sorship Administration in Moscow by the end of scriptive, or “creative”, playing the role of the 1990. These files were destroyed because they “did Orwellian “Ministry of Truth”. not have scientific or historical value”. Mr. Pihoja Thus, censorship can be investigated as a repres- supposed also that the rest of the documents was sive system of control and regulation with its spe- “probably destroyed by the same reason”. cific functions, structure, instructions, methods, etc. Even if these documents were not destroyed, ac- On the other hand, the results and effects of the per- cess to them is more than problematic. In 1992, the formance of this repressive system in a society Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation passed a should be studied. This path leads a researcher into decree that imposed restrictions on the access to the several disciplines, such as history, social psycho- documents of the censorship authorities, and de- logy, linguistics. cided that the documents that contained state secrets The study of censorship is an essential part of the will never become available. project on the history of Estonian journalism, car- A researcher who studies Soviet censorship also ried out by the Department of Journalism of Tartu meets another big problem: documents show only University. This study includes four periods: the part of the activities of censors, and of the whole Tsarist censorship (from the first censorship law in system. Censors, publishers, editors, journalists re- 1804 until 1917), the regulations of the press in the ceived a large number of orders, bans and instruc- Estonian Republic in the 1920s and 1930s, the So- tions orally, usually by telephone, and these cases viet and Nazi occupations in 1940–1944, and the are not documented at all. Some rare facts of this Soviet period from 1944 until 1990. kind can be found only in the memoires of editors, In Estonia, research on Soviet censorship has be- journalists and authors (e.g., Hiedel 1995). The come possible only recently, when censorship and former high party and censorship officials are not Communist Party archives were opened for re- willing to give interviews or to answer researchers’ searchers. The situation, however, is not nearly as questions. Many of them have signed the commit- favourable as one might think. When the Red Army ment of keeping silence which was obligatory to the withdrew and German troops occupied Estonia in censorship officials, but also to many high party and summer 1941, Soviet officials destroyed most of the state officials. documents dealing with the establishment and op- Although the activities of censorship are only eration of the censorship system in Estonia in 1940. partly documented, and only a part of these docu- In the post-war decades, censorship officials sys- ments is available today, it is still possible to recon- tematically destroyed documents and materials that struct the mechanism of the Soviet censorship in Es- bore witness to their everyday work: the exercise- tonia and the principles of its operation. Some stud- books and work-diaries of censors, reports on the ies have been published about censorship on literat- character and amount of “mistakes” made by peri- ure and in public libraries, and also about the de- odical publications or book publishers, every kind struction of banned books (Liivaku 1989, 1995; of correspondence, orders and decrees concerning Lotman 1991, 1995; Veskimägi 1996). Peeter the staff of censors etc. For instance, in 1971, 186 Maimik (1994, 1996) has published two articles files with documents were taken to the Tallinn paper about the censorship on the Estonian press. Within factory and used as waste paper, in total 150 kilo- the framework of Estonian journalism history grams (Veskimägi 1996). project, a publication of censorship documents The documents (233 files) covering the years found in the Estonian State Archive and its branch – 1976 to 1990 were sent to the Chief Censorship Ad- the Estonian Communist Party Archive – is in ministration of the USSR in Moscow in autumn preparation. These documents give a general picture 1990 by the then head of the Estonian censorship of how the system of Soviet censorship was estab- administration. The Estonian State Archive offi- lished in Estonia, how it operated and how it helped cially requested the return of the files. In his letter to destroy the independent Estonian press in 1940.

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Namnlöst-26 28 2005-08-16, 12:17 The materials also contain documents about the and nationalism. Soviet censorship in Estonia clear- structure and staff of the censorship administration ly served the objective of Russification and destruc- and changes in it, secret instructions to censors, an- tion of Estonian national culture. Among the mental nual reports to the Central Committee of the Com- and physical repressions carried out by the censor- munist Party, etc. Even some documents telling ship authorities, the largest was the action of ‘clean- about the destruction of censorship materials have ing up’ libraries and destroying millions of copies been found. Documents alone cannot entirely de- of printed matter. This started in the summer of scribe the functioning of the total machinery of So- 1940, and continued with changing intensity after viet censorship, which like cancer spread its the WW II, up till the early 1960s. All libraries (in- metastases in the cultural and educational institu- cluding private ones) and bookstores were emptied tions, enterprises, organisations and even postal of so-called harmful literature, i.e. books and peri- services. Study of the censorship system, combined odicals published in the independent Republic of with analysis of the texts published and broadcasts Estonia (1918–1940). By the 1960s, more than 86 aired under the Communist regime, would more per cent of the books, and all the periodicals, issued broadly disclose the nature of this political and so- in independent Estonia were included in the lists of cial cancer. prohibited literature. (Veskimägi 1996:309) Annual reports of the censorship authorities show that in the first year of Soviet rule (1940– Historical Background 1941), over 200 000 copies of Estonian books had Estonia has enjoyed the freedoms of speech and the been destroyed. During the four years after the war press for very short periods in her history. The first (1944–1948), almost half a million copies of books periodical publication in Estonian, Lühhike öppetus/ and periodicals were burned, among them literature, Short Instruction (1766) was not censored, but all published under the German occupation. later newspapers and magazines from the early 19th In 1947, special commissions of three persons century onwards appeared under strict censorship (representatives of the censorship, CPE and the and control of the state authorities. Only in 1918, Communist youth organization) were formed for for the first time in Estonian history, the Manifesto “cleaning up” school-libraries. Every second week of Estonian Independence of February 24 declared they reported on the results of their “work” to the the democratic freedoms, including the freedoms of censorship administration. According to these re- speech and the press. In reality, however, the Esto- ports, for five years they destroyed 25 000 books nian press could use these freedoms only after the annually. abolition of the military censorship in spring 1920 After the war and in the 1950s even lists of for- until the constitutional crisis in 1933. The following bidden Soviet books appeared! These books were decades brought changing political regimes with also destroyed. Again, a parallel with Orwellian more or less strict censorship. The Soviet one was Ministery of Truth can be drawn: when changes probably the most concealed, the most hypocritical occured in the Communist Party ideology, the lists and the most efficient in oppressing the public of banned books and banned data were comple- word. mented with new names, historical events, topics Soviet censorship was first established in Esto- and items that had been ‘re-evaluated’ and declared nia on Soviet occupation in 1940, was replaced by dangerous and anti-soviet. Thus, it sometimes hap- Nazi-German occupation during WW II, and was pened that ‘heroes’ became ‘villains’ and vice versa. reinstated from 1944. Forcible sovietization of Esto- For example, in a secret letter to the Secretary of the nian society began immediately after the Soviet CPE Lentsman on Feb. 5, 1953 , the Chief of the take-over and was carried out with extreme brutal- Censorship Office I. Kübar reported on the results ity, especially during the Stalinist era from the end of the control of 47 libraries of local Communist of WW II until 1956. Communist ideology and So- Party organisations. In these libraries, a number of viet practice were in a sharp contradiction with Es- banned books was found, most of them published tonian history, cultural traditions and mentality. after the WW II in Tallinn, Moscow or Leningrad, Construction of the positive paradigm of the Soviet like A. Gratsheva. Soviet Woman Is a Full and reality was therefore largely accompanied with de- Equal Citizen of the Soviet Union. (Tallinn 1946) struction of the ‘enemy’. The most dangerous en- N. Jakovlev. October Revolution and Its Place in the emies of the new regime and its ideology appeared History of Our Homeland. (In Russian, Moscow to be the collective historical memory of the nation 1947) N. Karotamm. Speech on the Occasion of the

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Namnlöst-26 29 2005-08-16, 12:17 30th Anniversary of the Great Socialist October 1. The highest decision-making level: Revolution. (Tallinn 1947) a) Secretary general of the Communist Party of Nobody knows exactly how many books were the USSR, Politbureau of the CP of the destroyed under Soviet rule. Estimated numbers USSR, the Agitation and Propaganda Depart- range from ten million to twenty million. (Veski- ment of the Central Committee of the CP in mägi 1996:307) Some copies of each printed item, Moscow. however, were preserved in the special departments Respective local models were built up in a of certain libraries, and access to them was strictly similar way, in Estonia as follows: Secretary restricted. general of the Communist Party of the Esto- Institutionalized censorship always tries to hide nian SSR (CPE), the Politbureau of the Cen- itself: the words censorship and censor belong to tral Committee of the CPE, the Agitation and the lists of prohibited data, and the freedoms of Propaganda Department of the Central Com- speech and the press are usually publicly declared. mittee of the CPE; Officially there was no censorship in the Soviet b) the KGB structures and its Fifth Department Union and its republics. The Constitution of the Es- (until the late 1960s the Second Department). tonian Soviet Socialist Republic guaranteed the This department determined most of the top- freedoms of speech and the press to the citizens of ics and issues that were to be banned in pub- Soviet Estonia, but only on the condition that these lications, and the lists of names, roads, fact- freedoms be used for “the consolidation and devel- ories, educational establishments etc. that opment of the socialist order” (Põhiseadus 1988: were not to be publicly mentioned. It also 15). If these freedoms were used in a way that might checked the manuscripts of scientists in re- have been interpreted by authorities as harmful for search institutions (Veskimägi 1996: 329). the Soviet system agitation and propaganda, the 2. The executive, administrative level headed by the penalty for the ‘crime’ was imprisonment from six Chief Administration for the Protection of State months to seven years with or without deportation Secrets in Print (from 1990 – in Press and in the for a period of two to five years, or the deportation Other Media) of the USSR. The institution was alone (Kriminaalkoodeks 1990: 77). generally known by the abbreviation of its name Censorship also had a political justification: as in Russian – GLAVLIT. Socialism was the best social order in the history of mankind, it had numerous ‘enemies’ in- and outside Similar administrations existed in all Soviet Repub- the borders of the Socialist camp. These enemies lics (like the Estonian Glavlit) and they were subor- were only waiting for a chance to attack and destroy dinated to the Chief Administration in Moscow. Socialism and therefore, the Soviet people had to be Glavlit had censors in all bigger centres of the coun- watchful, and mistrust everything that was not offi- try (in Estonia in all district towns), special officers cially approved. in broadcasting and publishing organizations and in The first time during the Soviet rule in Estonia the postal services. that the word censorship was published in a news- The censorship administration as a whole was paper was as late as in 1987. subordinated to the Central Committee of the Com- In the course of the perestroika and glasnost, the munist Party and to the KGB at the all-Soviet level Soviet censorship restrictions eased in the late and at local levels. Organizationally Glavlit be- 1980s, and finally, in October 1990, censorship in longed to the system of the Council of Ministers, Estonia was officially abolished. but it was only an economic relationship; Glavlit ad- dressed its reports, letters and complaints to the Structure of the Central Committee. In addition, the responsibility for the practical Soviet Censorship System censorship was also put on the State Publishing, The Soviet censorship system included, in general, Printing and Booktrade Committee and the State two big sectors: the Communist Party authorities Television and Broadcasting Committee, which in and KGB, which constituted the “brain” of the sys- turn were subordinated to the Central Committee of tem, and the state censorship administration, operat- the CP. ing as an “executive hand”. The editors-in-chief of periodical publications This structure can be outlined as follows: and all publishers were accountable to and control-

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Namnlöst-26 30 2005-08-16, 12:17 led by the Propaganda Department, the local (city or A general principle of the Soviet censorship district) party committee and Glavlit. practice (as well as widely also of the everyday real- In practice, censorship was also exercised by ity!) was: what was not explicitly allowed was cer- other state institutions (ministries and their depart- tainly forbidden. However, only a limited circle of ments, local administrations, legal, cultural and edu- people were in the know of what exactly was al- cational institutions etc.). lowed and what was forbidden. Concealment was I give here some examples picked up from the largely used as an efficient means of intimidation in censorship archives to demonstrate how far total order to make people obedient to the regime. control went. Two big groups of secret censorship documents In a secret letter (9/2/1953) to the President of existed which determined what was allowed and the Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR the what was not. A central document guiding the work chief of the Glavlit complained that control over of censors was the list of banned data (the latest is- storage and use of the foreign literature in the li- sue of which List of Data Banned in Publications, brary of the AS was not strict enough. The library Radio and Television Programmes was published in reports did not show who had borrowed foreign 1987 and consisted of 183 pages). It contained data publications and how many times. The chief censor which were considered to be military and state se- demanded introduction of proper control. In addi- crets and were available to a limited circle of ac- tion, books published in Chinese, Japanese and countable persons only for official use. some other languages could not be controlled be- Certain topics and facts could never be men- cause controllers did not know these languages. tioned publicly, such as big disasters with human Glavlit therefore ordered these uncontrolled foreign losses, everything that concerned the armed forces, publications to be destroyed by the 1st of May 1953 criminality and jails, and, of course, censorship it- as there could have been forbidden ones among self. Forbidden topics and facts included the pres- them.1 ence of the Soviet Army in Estonia, everything that In spring 1966, controllers from Glavlit found a could remind people of Estonian independence in “politically incorrect” text in the visitors’ book of the 1920s and 1930s, and the Soviet annexation in the State Art Museum. The chief of the Glavlit in- 1940. Ideological bans were not included in this cluded the entire text in his letter to the propaganda list; they were determined by Party authorities de- secretary of the CC of the CPE and underlined the pending on the political situation. following: “It is the time to drive the censors off The List was regularly updated according to from behind the windows of the artists’ studios and changes in official policy and ideology (e.g., the to admit that a piece of art is an individual creation same facts, names, data etc. could be forbidden at and not a political poster made according to state one time and allowed at another time). Every time standards”. The chief censor also reported that this that a new edition of the List was brought into use, page had been removed from the Art Museum’s visi- all copies of the old one were destroyed. That is why tors’ book.2 copies of the List are very rare today. In addition to the list of banned data, lists of pro- hibited literature and authors existed (the latest was What to Allow and What to Forbid? issued in Estonia in 1966). Circulars prohibiting Within the institutional setting, censorship had two certain single topics, names or data not included in functions. The first was to block the access to the lists were issued by the higher authorities of the alternative information and eliminate from the pub- Communist Party, KGB and censorship, and these lic information everything that Soviet citizens were complete this documentation. not allowed to know. As Van Dijk has demonstrated It was not, however, only state and military se- (Van Dijk 1993 and 1996), lack of alternative dis- crets or ideological and political taboos that were courses contributes to adoption by the audience of kept inaccessible to most of society. Every state in- models persuasively presented by the authorities stitution, from ministries and governmental bodies through the mass media. to local municipalities, had secrets of its own, which The other function was to control and ‘correct’ were closed to the public. As Androunas points out, the content of public information in a way that in most cases, information was classified to conceal would create the ‘right’ model of thinking and con- inefficiency and misdeeds. All those secrets were tribute to adoption of preferred constructions of re- designed to guarantee that in the mass media, the ality. Soviet Union would appear to be a prosperous soci-

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Namnlöst-26 31 2005-08-16, 12:17 ety with popular leadership, an efficient economy, a After that the whole edition could be printed. But high level of life, a low level of crime, flourishing before distribution the publications had also to pass culture, interethnic harmony, and so on. (Androunas post-publishing censorship. 1993: 50) When the printing was complete, advance copies The other group consisted of regulations and in- were made and sent to the authorities (the Central structions of what the people were allowed to know Committee of the CP. of the republic (5 copies), the and how it should have been publicly presented. KGB, Glavlit, the Council of Ministers, the Central The basic document of this kind was the Regula- Committe of the Young Communists’ League, the tions of Printing of Non-Secret Publications (the Ministery of Defence etc.). The advance copies of latest issue in Estonian was in 1989). As it was de- all Estonian publications were sent also to the Cen- fined in the Regulations, non-secret were consid- tral Committee of the CP of the USSR and the ered “the publications which were not labelled as Glavlit office in Moscow. If within two or three days secret” (!). Regulations determined publishing and no objections arrived, permission for distribution printing of all publicly accessible printed matter (in- was given (Veskimägi 1996). cluding even timetables of public transport, confec- Newspapers were not submitted to the same pro- tionary wrapping, all kinds of tickets, post-cards, cedure. Manuscripts of the newspaper texts were personal visiting cards etc.). All printing plants and censored by the editors-in-chief (in local papers other printing or multiplying or copying enterprices since 1955) and by the head of the ‘party-life’ sec- had to operate in accordance with the Regulations. tion in the national daily newspapers. Censors con- The rhetoric used in these Regulations and other trolled the proofs and first printed copies of the instructions is a typical language of “anonymous, newspapers, and gave permission for distribution. but ever-present authority” like Galasinski and Newspapers were also censored after publication. Jaworski (1997) point out in their study of the lan- According to the Regulations of 1987 the printing guage of the Polish censorship instructions. As they plants in Estonia had to send three copies of all prove, impersonal forms and ‘we’ were used in the magazines in Russian, five copies of the biggest regulations to create a collegial body of ‘no face’, Russian daily in Estonia (Sovetskaja Estonija), one but having power. One of the consequences of that copy of each Russian newspaper and magazine, was “the assumption of a voice proclaiming the three copies of each Estonian newspaper and one regulations as if they were natural law. In this sense, copy of Estonian magazines to different controlling the censors in the Central Office appear as mouth- institutions in Moscow. In total, the number of such pieces for some higher-order power, deity-like au- institutions extended to over 20. thority of an unspecified source” (Galasinski & All material intended for publication abroad was Jaworski 1997:347). controlled according to special instructions of A short description of the procedure of publish- Glavlit. Among the documents that the author had ing and printing should serve as an example of how to sign to get permission for publication was a state- these regulations and control functioned in practice. ment that the text did not contain any valuable or As the first step the manuscript had to be pre- new data that could be used elsewhere. Such a paper sented to Glavlit for censorship. Printing plants even accompanied scientific articles to be published were not allowed to admit a manuscript for printing in international journals! without censor’s imprint Permitted for type-setting and signature with the date and the conventional sign of the censor. This sign for Estonia was MB, Words and Meanings followed by the personal number of censor. Linguists and psychologists have proved how lan- In order to get printing permission, printing guage, used in certain ways, contributes to the plants had to present the galley proofs to the censor changes in people’s attitudes and to a deliberate once again after setting and proof-reading the text. adoption of preferred models of behaviour (e.g., The censor had to confirm that the galley proof was Harré 1985, Van Dijk 1993, 1996). In her detailed identical to the approved manuscript. To check this, analysis of the formation of totalitarian discourse in another censor compared the galley proofs with the the speeches of Nicolae Ceausescu in Communist manuscript. Romania, Ilie demonstrates how “the distorted im- When the first copies of the publication were age of social reality, which is encoded in recurring printed, it had to get the permission for appearance. institutional linguistic structures produces deliber-

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Namnlöst-26 32 2005-08-16, 12:17 ate meaning violations which in turn contribute to was officially always treated as the Socialist Revo- gradually reshaping social reality through social lution of the Estonian working class. norm violations”. (Ilie 1998: 57) This model of ideological guidance also contrib- Even before the Soviet occupation of Estonia in uted to the principle that “the mass media should be summer 1940, the authoritarian regime of the sec- managed” and that “they should serve as a means of ond half of the 1930s had started to restrict the social management themselves” (Manaev 1995:68). freedoms of speech and the press. The Press Law, Introduction of the Soviet ritualized political vo- adopted in 1938, contained some regulations con- cabulary into Estonian raised its own problems. Es- cerning the treatment of certain political topics, and tonian civil society, with its long traditions of civil of the President and Government. Little attempt was law, variety of associations, private initiative, and made, however, to control and change the use of individualistic values, was and is very different from language and journalistic traditions. the Russian one “with its long history of village Establishment of Soviet power brought a very communities, authoritarian home rule (domostroi) steep break in Estonian journalistic discourse. and correspondent governmental structure empha- Newspapers were transmuted into the ‘ideological sizing orders”. (Susiluoto 1990:76). A number of weapons of the Communist Party’ and their content new words describing Soviet society were simply and language usage had been changed accordingly. transferred from Russian to Estonian: kolhoos (col- A new political vocabulary was introduced to create lective farm), sovhoos (state farm), kosmonaut a picture of happy and beautiful Soviet society in (space-man), partorg (party secretary), etc. Prob- the content of public texts, especially news media. lems sometimes arose with translation of words The skilful ways of using linguistic means to picture from Russian into Estonian. A very important word an ‘enemy of Socialist society’, and to create hate in the Soviet political vocabulary was tovarishch towards this imaginary enemy, deserve special (comrade), which was translated as seltsimees, but analysis. in Estonian language this can mostly be applied to a In the following, I will give some examples of man. An attempt to find a feminine equivalent led to how the rhetoric of Soviet totalitarian discourse was creation of the word seltsinaine, which in turn, has a built up in Estonian, and how censorship contrib- connotation of prostitute. Thus, seltsimees was uted to this process. taken into use for both, men and women. Creation of the Soviet political vocabulary goes The political glossary also contained its code of back to the period of the October Revolution. conduct of whom to speak to, and with which words Susiluoto (1990) describes creation of a glossary for and expressions (Susiluoto 1990:74). It often deter- the ‘New Society’ as a ritualization of the political mined how to interpret words, and in what context language in the Soviet Union and draws parallels or connection they should be used. Certain words with religion. “By waging active war against reli- and expressions were given either positive or negat- gion Soviet ideology absorbed a number of qualities ive connotation and had to be used only in the way and characteristics of the opponent, Russian Ortho- prescribed. For example, proletariat, revolution, dox Church. /–/ Communism, Plan, and the laws of communism, socialism, party were only used in the history were among the sacred code words /–/” positive meaning, the words like nationalistic, na- (Susiluoto 1990:73). tion, bourgeois, capitalist always had negative con- The political glossary was developed further notation. In connection with the secret decree of during the 70 years of the existence of the Soviet Russification, issued by the Council of Ministers of Union and used for canonizing the public texts. Nu- the USSR on Oct. 13, 1978, all words with a na- merous dogmas and myths were created to consol- tional connotation had to be removed from use. idate the ‘right’ discourse. For example, the October Thus, the word Estonia could not be used to mean Revolution as a beginning of a new era in the his- the country or nation without adding the Soviet So- tory of mankind, the working class as the most pro- cialist. Finally, the word Estonia in the meaning of gressive class in a society, the Soviet Union as a the country was replaced with the Republic (written stronghold of peace, etc. (see more: Pärl-Lõhmus with a capital R). It was also impossible to mention 1997). In addition, a network of pure historical fab- together the three colours: blue, black and white, rications and biased interpretations of historical because these were the colours of the flag of inde- facts were used for the same purpose. The interpre- pendent Estonia. tation of the World War II as the heroic Great Par- The word kodumaa (homeland) did not mean in tiotic War serves as an example. Speaking about Es- official language Estonia, but the Soviet Union as a tonia, the Soviet military take-over in summer 1940 whole. This shift of the meaning was deliberately

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Namnlöst-26 33 2005-08-16, 12:17 introduced after the end of WW II. Sometimes this ment or social crises. Our people are sure of their kind of violation of meanings and connotations led happy future”. (Nugis 1946) to quite strange results, as the following example A format of unquestionable manifestations was from a local newspaper demonstrates. “During the also continually used for persuasion, especially in fourth Five-Year Plan period, our homeland goes to- the 1950s. Statements like “intellectual giants Marx wards a happy future”. (’Our homeland’ here means and Lenin”, “Communism, the only progressive Estonia within the Soviet Union as the Five-Year world-view”, “the friendship of the Russian and Es- Plan was enacted in the Soviet Union as a whole. tonian nations as the safest guarantee for our (Esto- However, in the following description ‘our home nians’ – E.L.) development” were used like axioms country’ cannot be interpreted in the same way, but that never needed proof. ‘our farmers’ in the last sentence refers again to Es- In the development and use of the Soviet ideo- tonian farmers). logical discourse in Estonian language and media, In our home country, which extends from the three general stages can be distinguished. cold North to the warm and beautiful South, every 1. Adaptation and introduction of the new political kind of crop can be cultivated. In the Northern areas vocabulary and rhetoric in 1940 and from 1944 barley, oats and rye grow, in the Southern areas one to the late 1950s. can see the fields of wheat, and in the sub-tropical Caucasus, gardens of citrus and vineyards. /–/ To- 2. Emergence and development of an alternative, day, it has become possible for our farmers to grow formally apolitical discourse, used alongside the and sell their crop, and this inspires our farmers to ideological one. In the 1960s, a new generation work better than before. (Varblane 1946). of journalists, publicists and authors challenged Throughout the Soviet period, Estonian school- the constraints of the official ideology, and children began their first lesson of Estonian history started to use metaphorical language, allegories with reading in their text-book: “Our homeland is and allusions. the Soviet Union and her capital is Moscow”. Furthermore, an intentionally cultivated styl- Since kodumaa (homeland) lost its nationalist ized language became a definite way of express- shade of meaning, Estonians used isamaa (father- ing resistance to the ideological oppression (see land) instead, but this was, of course, ideologically more: Høyer, Lauk and Vihalemm 1993). After incorrect and not approved in official usage. the 1950s, fewer standards were imposed by au- Even the nationalist connotation of the words thorities concerning form of texts. An elaborate was often skilfully turned into an appropriate mean- system of legal device was developed and used ing. For example, Estonian intelligentsia was used when writing or speaking about ‘sensitive’ or only for speaking about the Soviet-time ‘progres- forbidden issues. Especially in cultural publica- sive’ intelligentsia. The equivalent in the pre-war tions, parody and other literary forms of multiple independent Estonia was labelled as petty-bourgeois meaning were used, where it was next to impos- intellectuals. sible to put one’s finger on anything that could Linguistic manipulation was also skilfully exer- be interpreted as impermissible. The message, cised by using ‘our’ – ‘the others’ confrontation. however, could easily been ‘picked up’ between The diversity of ways how this was done, deserves a the lines. The period was also characterized by special research. Hereby, I would claim that this an inner development of broadcast forms, as confrontation was used not only for formation nega- Pärl-Lõhmus (1997) points out. The more com- tive attitudes towards ‘them’, ‘the strangers’. Quite plicated radio genres became, the more difficult frequently, the ‘our – they’ contrast was used as a it became for controllers to catch the ‘violations’ comparison in order to emphasize how good ‘our’ of written and unwritten prescriptions. life is and how bad ‘theirs’ is. When this was made, Organizationally, the function of acting as usually ‘they’, the ‘others’, were even not men- censors was put on the editors of publications tioned, but the context clearly indicated who they and broadcasts. They were provided with lists of were: the working people in the capitalist countries. prohibited data and other instructions, and had to For example: “Our scientists, artists and other crea- keep an eye on the ‘right’ ideological line of tive people have the best working conditions”. their publications. Censors of Glavlit, in fact, (Rahva Hääl: 1945) “Our Soviet people are happy controlled the work of editors and made final that they live in a country without capitalists, land- decicions on permitting publication. They com- lords, exploiters. They do not experience unemploy- municated with authors only through the editors.

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Namnlöst-26 34 2005-08-16, 12:17 Numerous complaints from Glavlit to the Central lished entire lists of names of tractor drivers who Committee of CPE during 1960s and 1970s participated in the ‘socialist labour competition’. demonstrate that the editors often used this posi- The circular explained that as there were two drivers tion for passing texts that contained forbidden for every tractor, these lists made it possible to find items. Sometimes they succeeded, sometimes out the number of tractors in Estonia in general, not, and got punished. which was a state secret.5 The number of corrections of this type gradually 3. In the late 1980s, when the control and ideologi- decreased after editors themselves were made re- cal oppression eased, it became unnecessary to sponsible for removing these mistakes. The amount hide the message between lines. In the course of of complaints over ideological mistakes, in turn, in- deritualization of political language (Susiluoto creased. 1990), words gradually recovered their original Ideological-political corrections demonstrate the meanings. best the ways of safeguarding the ‘best Soviet real- ity’ and concern of the system for the ‘right’ think- ’Ministry of Truth’ in Action ing of citizens. On the other hand, they give evid- ence of the editors’ attempts to step over the permit- As said above, Glavlit acted as practical censor ted limits. mostly during the period of introduction of Soviet Everything that could undermine the picture of discourse into Estonian political language. This was happy and safe Soviet society or the belief in superi- the time of strict regulation of both content and ority of the Soviet system over capitalism was con- form of texts. Later on, especially since the late sidered absolutely inadmissible. Therefore, all facts 1960s, censorship concentrated more attention to of lack of goods or services were to be removed the content, trying to disclose ideological ‘mis- from the public texts. Watchfulness of controllers takes’. often went to extremities and acquired even comic Corrections made by censors in the manuscripts features. fall in general into two: In a secret complaint (13/5/1968) to the propa- ganda secretary of the Central Committee of the 1) those based on the censorship instructions and CPE about shortages in the ideological line of the regulations, and youth magazine Noorus (The Youth) the chief of 2) so-called political corrections based on the ideo- Glavlit gave some examples of the mistakes made logical line of the Communist Party. by Noorus. It was mentioned in a short story, prepared for In the reports of Glavlit to the Central Committee of publishing in Noorus: “The church was crammed the CP, following classification of the first type is with people /–/. They were dressed in Italian, Bel- presented: corrections dealing with a) military se- gian, Dutch and nylon coats and jackets.” As the crets, b) state secrets and c) economic secrets. In chief censor explained, the text indicated that the in- 1948, Glavlit reported about 282 corrections during terest of the people in services was so big that three months (Sept.-Nov.), 31 of them concerning churches in Estonia were overcrowded. In addition, military secrets, 115 state and economic secrets. For it led to the conclusion that the Soviet Union did not example, a censor was punished for passing an eco- produce coats and jackets, or that the Soviet ones nomic secret – permitting publication of a news were not good enough to use. As the letter also says, item about building the Tallinn-Leningrad road.3 In after having been called to the ‘consultation’ to the January 1949, 66 corrections were made, which in- Central Committee, the editor corrected these mis- cluded 11 military secrets. For example, censor re- takes.6 moved from Õhtuleht (Evening Paper) an item This example also indicates that it was not pos- about a performance of Leningrad Opera Theatre in sible to critisize the key- institutions of the system Tartu, in the Officers’ Club. The Officers’ Club in or the system as a whole. Nevertheless, disclosure Tartu indicated the presence of the Soviet Army in of the cases of bad work of single people or lower Estonia which was a military secret.4 rank institutions was allowed and even recom- The following is an example of a state secret. In mended. Such criticism was “pointed at particular his circular (19/5/1951) to the local censors the or concrete “deviations” in the system /–/ with the chief of the Estonian Glavlit called their attention to intent to improve the functioning of the system as a insufficient control over newsletters of machine and whole”. (Novosel 1995:14). For example, in autumn tractor hiring stations. The newsletters had pub- 1973, two articles were removed from the satirical

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Namnlöst-26 35 2005-08-16, 12:17 journal Pikker (Lightning) because they criticized Censors always interfered when the ‘holiness’ of the planned economy as such, but not single short- the ‘great leaders’ Lenin and Stalin was in danger. ages or bad discipline of workers, which hindered In a special secret report of Glavlit to the Central fulfilling the state economic plans.7 As Novosel also Committee of CPE, a very ‘serious’ political mis- points out, “under certain conditions, the usual fac- take, passed by pre-censorship, was described. tor – in concreto criticism – characterized by being During the People’s Court election campaign in oriented toward the individual “deviant” cases /–/ February 1949, a censor did not notice that there transforms itself into general criticism of the ideol- was a misprint in Stalin’s name in one of the leaf- ogy and the system”. (Novosel 1995:15) This phe- lets. After printing, the entire issue of 500 copies nomenon can be detected in the media of the most was confiscated from the printing plant and de- of former Communist countries during the last dec- stroyed.9 ade of the regime. A serious error was made by censorship in 1973, A case from 1946, concerning a local newspaper where Lenin’s portrait was printed on the back of Valga county, deserves special attention. This is cover of the youth magazine Noorus.10 an excellent example of hidden opposition and writ- All facts and interpretations that could be la- ing between lines, which was extremely rare in the belled anti-Soviet were also carefully removed. period of Stalinism, but later gradually spread quite Everything connected with Estonian émigrés and largely in Estonian journalism, especially in cultural their activities was considered especially dangerous publications. to the Soviet regime. It was allowed to speak about In connection with the announcement in the So- them only negatively or not at all. viet Union of the fourth Five-Year Plan period in In a secret letter to the propaganda secretary of 1946, newspaper Valgamaalane (The Native of CPE in 1973, the chief of Glavlit complained of Valga) published an article with a future vision cases where editors of publications had passed texts about Valga city in five years time, in 1950. with references to the émigrés’ works, even citing The food coupons and shortage of goods will be them as objective sources! In the Transactions of forgotten. There will be an abundance of all kinds of the Academy of Sciences a study on handicraftsmen goods in the shops. The rows of the ‘trade-women’, in Tallinn in the 17th century was published. The trying to sell second-hand stuff on the market- author mentioned in his article, and evaluated places, will have vanished. The quality of bread will highly, an analogous study of an Estonian historian have improved, and the people will speak jokingly in Sweden. The high censorship officer blamed the about the year 1946, when one could often find editor for political short-sightedness.11 pieces of straw, rats and rat-tails in the bread. /–/ In the reports about confiscation of printed mat- The brewery in Valga will have enough bottles and ter, sent to Estonia by mail, the most frequently every consumer will be able to get refreshments at mentioned reason of confiscation was the anti-So- any time. /–/ Local industry will produce several viet nature of foreign publications. Especially keen kinds of furniture, there will be no lack of raw mate- eye was kept on Estonian émigré publications that rials anymore. /–/ The fourth Five-Year Plan will were rightly considered the most anti-Soviet. In the lead us closer to our happy future, to Communism. 1970s, when the ‘iron curtain’ gradually became (Tamm 1946) more transparent, the flow of this kind of printed The article was passed by pre-publishing censor- matter grew remarkably. In a secret letter from ship. The case, however, was mentioned as a big po- Glavlit to the Central Committee in 1972, some data litical mistake afterwards, in the report of the con- about the confiscated literature were presented. For trollers from Moscow, and was one of the reasons of example, in 1970, 4 196 copies of various émigrés’ dismissing the then chief of the Estonian Glavlit.8 publications were sent to Estonia. 743 of them were Furthermore, some months later the same paper confiscated as anti-Communist and anti-Soviet. By published an article about the miserable life of the 1971, the total number had been increased to 6 163, working people in the capitalist countries after the and 1 261 copies had been confiscated. “These are WW II. Describing the situation in Greece, it was mainly materials that propagate hostile bourgeois- said: nationalist and anti-Soviet ideology. It is therefore, Although the shops are full of goods, the work- necessary to strengthen the control over incoming ing people in Greece live in need. Many of the printed matter”, the letter says.12 workers and farmers are starving. The quality of Positive mention of the Estonian independent re- bread is decreasing. The people must eat the bread public could also be treated as anti-Soviet attitude. which contains maize and soya. (Nugis 1946) According to the official interpretation, the years of

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Namnlöst-26 36 2005-08-16, 12:17 independence – the 1920s and 1930s – were a time 1990, when censorship was abolished, that research- of ‘bourgeois-fascist order’. Independent Estonia’s ers got free access to state and Party archives where Government was named a ‘gang of reactionary most of the censorship documents are stored. powerholders’. An explanation to a correction men- Although not all the documents of the Estonian tioned in a circular of Glavlit in 1948, was: “There censorship authorities are available in Estonia to- was no alternative for the workers in bourgeois Es- day, it has been possible to get a picture of the struc- tonia than forced work in the interests of capital- ture of the system and of basic documents that ists”.13 guided the censors’ work. Archives also disclose the German occupation during the WW II was also a total and repressive nature of Soviet censorship, and dangerous topic. In 1947, 10 200 copies of the cal- changes in the means of control in different years. endar for the year 1948 were printed in a Tallinn The documents also reflect to some extent how printing plant. After-publishing control discovered Soviet ideological discourse was adapted to and de- that the publishers had used the format of a calendar veloped in the Estonian language and media. Cen- issued during German occupation in 1944. “In the sors were keen to find ideological ‘mistakes’, and to calendar the weeks begin with Sunday and not with make sure that the ‘right’ facts and interpretations Monday as it is in the Soviet calendars. The Soviet would be published. In the initial period of the So- holidays are absent. /–/ Investigation has started to viet censorship the censors themselves were busy find the guilty persons”, says an ‘entirely secret’ let- with correcting texts, but from 1955 onwards the ter in Russian from the Minister of Security to the task of practising pre-censorship was laid on ed- Central Committee of CPE.14 A number of com- itors. Many of them, however, contributed to crea- plaints throughout the period of Soviet censorship tion of an alternative, seemingly apolitical dis- concern the references to the literature published course, which used ideologically ‘right’ phraseo- under German occupation. logy for conveying a different meaning between the The examples of documents and corrections, lines. given above, by no means cover all ideological ta- Documents in archives, however, cannot give the boos, dos and don’ts that were used to strengthen complete picture of how the Soviet power discourse the power of the Communist Party. Nevertheless, was created, developed and perpetuated in the Esto- they demonstrate clearly how closely the censorship nian public word. A large number of orders and in- and Party authorities co-operated. Further study of structions were given to editors and censors person- these documents should give a more detailed picture ally, often by telephone, and these cases have never of the changing censorship practice throughout the been fixed in documents. different periods of the Soviet rule in Estonia. Censorship archives contain neither manuscripts nor proofs with censors’ corrections. Since the texts were censored and edited before they were pre- Conclusions sented for control to Glavlit, the manuscripts stayed Censorship was used as a means of strengthening of on the tables of editors and were usually thrown Soviet power in Estonia for almost half a century. away. It is our good fortune that the archives of Es- The institution of censorship was strictly concealed, tonian Radio have preserved the original texts of the but the results of its activities largely influenced the broadcasts with corrections of editors-censors; form and content of the public word. It is only since study of them has started.

Notes Russian). Branch of the Estonian State Archive (ERA), F. 1, file 126, 22, pp. 18-19.) 1. Nikolai Karotamm (1901-1960) was the First 3. Glavliti ülema I. Kübara salajane kiri Teaduste Secretary of the Central Committee of the Akadeemia presidendile Eichfeldile 9. veebr. 1953. Communist Party of Estonia from 1944 to 1950. ERA Filiaal, f. 1, nim. 126, sü. 22, l. 24-26. (Secret 2. Glavliti ülema I. Kübara salajane venekeelne kiri letter of the Chief of the Glavlit I. Kübar to the Pre- EKP KK sekretärile sm. Lentsmanile 5. veebr. 1953. sident of the Academy of Sciences J. Eichfeld on ERA Filiaal, f. 1, nim. 126, sü. 22, l. 18-19. (Secret Feb. 9, 1953. Branch of the Estonian State Archive letter of the Chief of the Glavlit I. Kübar to the (ERA), F. 1, file 126, 22, pp. 24-26.) secretary of the CC CPE Lentsman, Feb. 5, 1953. (In

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Namnlöst-26 37 2005-08-16, 12:17 4. Glavliti ülema A. Adamsi salajane kiri EKP KK ERA f. R-17, nim. 3, sü. 90, l. 9. (Secret letter of the (ideoloogia)sekretärile L. Lentsmanile 23. maist Chief of the Glavlit A. Adams to the secretary of the 1966. ERA, Fond R-17, nim. 3, sü 62, l. 3. (Secret CC of the CPE V. Väljas on Oct. 15, 1973. ERA, letter of the chief of the Glavlit A. Adams to the F.R-17, file 3, 90, p. 9.) ideology secretary of the Central Committee of the 13. See footnote No 9. Communist Party of the Estonian SSR (CPE) L. 14. 1972. a. 21. juunil EKP KK sekretärile V. Väljasele Lentsman on May 23, 1966. ERA, F. R-17, file 3, saadetud salajane venekeelne kiri Glavliti ülem A. 62, p. 3.) Adams. ERA filiaal, R-17, nim. 3, sü 78, l. 37-39. 5. ENSV Kirjandus- ja Kirjastusasjade Peavalitsuse (Secret letter in Russian, sent from the Chief of the salajane informatsioonikiri nr. 3, 30. 12. 1948; ERA Glavlit A. Adams to the secretary of the CC of the filiaal, R-17, nim. 3, sü 17, l. 32-35. (Secret circular CPE V. Väljas on June 21, 1972. Branch of ERA, F. of the Chief Office of Literature and Publishing R-17, file 3, 78, pp. 37-39.) Affairs of the Estonian SSR (Glavlit). No 3, Dec. 30, 1948. Branch of ERA, F. R-17, file 3, 17, pp. 32- 35.) References 6. ENSV Kirjandus- ja Kirjastusasjade Peavalitsuse informatsioon EK(b)P KK Propaganda- ja Androunas, Elena. (1993) Soviet Media in Transition. agitatsiooniosakonnale 8. veebr. 1949. ERA Filiaal, Structural and Economic Alternatives. Westpoint, R-17, nim. 3, sü 11, l. 1-4. (Information of the Glav- Connecticut, London: Praeger. lit of the Estonian SSR to the Department of Propa- Galasinski, D., Jaworsky, A. (1997) The Linguistic ganda and Agitation of the Central Committee of the Construction of Reality in the Black Book of Polish CPE on Feb. 8, 1949. Branch of ERA, F.R-17, file 3, Censorship. Discourse & Society, 8(3), 341-357. 11, pp. 1-4.) Harré, R. (1985) Persuasion and Manipulation. In: T.A. 7. ENSV Kirjandus- ja Kirjastusasjade Peavalitsuse van Dijk (ed.) Discourse and Communication. New ülema I. Kübara salajane ringkiri nr. 3 ‘Kõigile Eesti Approaches to the Analysis of Mass Media NSV Kirjandus- ja Kirjastusasjade Peavalitsuse Discourse and Communication. Berlin, New York: rajoonide volinikele’. ERA Filiaal, F. R-17, nim. 3, Walter de Gruyter. sü 11, l. 13. (Secret circular of the Chief of the Glav- Hiedel, L. (1995) Loomingu Raamatukogu alaeast: lit of the Estonian SSR I. Kübar No 3 ‘To all the re- Märkmeid ja meenutusi. [Remarks and memoires of gional representatives of the Glavlit of the Estonian an editor of the Literary Series Loomingu SSR’. Branch of ERA, F. R-17, file 3, 11, p. 13.) Raamatukogu.] Vikerkaar 5/6, 138–149; 7, 80–85; 8. Eesti NSV Ministrite Nõukogu juures asuva 8, 67–75. Trükistes Riiklike Saladuste Kaitse Peavalitsuse Ilie, C. (1998) The Ideologic Remapping of Semantic juhataja A. Adamsi salajane kiri EKP KK propa- Roles on Totalitarian Discourse, or, How to Paint ganda ja agitatsiooni osakonna juhatajale V. Rannele white Roses Red. Discourse & Society, 9(1), 57-80. 13. mail 1968. ERA Filiaal, f. R-17, nim. 13, sü 62, Jakubowicz, K. (1995) Media as Agents of Change. In: l. 60–63. (Secret letter of the Chief of the Glavlit of D.L. Paletz; K. Jakubowicz; P. Novosel (eds.) the Estonian SSR A. Adams to the Head of the De- Glasnost and After. Media and Change in Central partment of Propaganda and Agitation of the CC of and Eastern Europe, Cresskill, New Jersey: the CPE V. Ranne on May 13, 1968. Branch of Hampton Press, Inc., 19–48. ERA, F. R-17, file 13, 62, pp. 60-63.) Jansen, S. C. (1991) Censorship. The Knot That Binds 9. Peavalitsuse juhataja A. Adamsi salajane kiri EKP Power and Knowledge. New York, Oxford: Oxford KK sekretärile V. Väljasele 15. oktoobrist 1973. University Press. ERA f. R-17, nim. 3, sü. 90, l. 8. (Secret letter of the Kriminaalkoodeks (1990) Eesti NSV Kriminaalkoodeks. Chief of the Glavlit A. Adams to the secretary of the [Penalty Code of the Estonian SSR.] Tallinn. CC of the CPE V. Väljas on Oct. 15, 1973. ERA, F. Liivaku,U. (1989) Eesti raamat isolatsioonis. [Estonian R-17, file 3, 90, p. 8.) Book in Isolation.] Keel ja Kirjandus 8, 458–467. 10. ERA Filiaal, f. 1, nim. 4, sü 38, l. 27. (Branch of Liivaku, U. (1995) Eesti raamatu lugu. [Story of Estonian ERA, F. 1, file 4, 38, p. 27). Book.] Tallinn: Monokkel. 11. ENSV Kirjandus- ja Kirjastusasjade Peavalitsuse Lotman, P. (1991) Tsensor Eesti raamatukogus. Uurimusi informatsioon EK(b)p KK Propaganda- ja Eesti raamatukogunduse ajaloost 3. (Koostanud P. agitatsiooniosakonnale 8. veebr. 1949. ERA Filiaal, Lotman). Eesti Rahvusraamatukogu toimetised 2. R-17, nim. 3, sü 11, l. 1-4. (Information of the Glav- Tallinn. [Censor in Estonian Library. Studies on the lit of the Estonian SSR to the Department of Propa- History of Estonian Libraries). ganda and Agitation of the Central Committee of the Lotman, P. (1995) Uurimusi tsensuurist. [Studies on CPE on Feb. 8, 1949. Branch of ERA, F.R-17, file 3, Censorship.] (Koostanud P. Lotman). Eesti 11, pp. 1-4.) Rahvusraamatukogu toimetised 4. Tallinn. 12. Peavalitsuse juhataja A. Adamsi salajane kiri EKP Maimik, P. (1994) Eesti ajakirjandus nõukogude KK sekretärile V. Väljasele 15. oktoobrist 1973. tsensuuri all. Eesti ajakirjanduse ajaloost IX.

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Namnlöst-26 38 2005-08-16, 12:17 [Estonian Press under the Soviet Censorship.] Tartu: Rahva Hääl (1945) Tallinna intelligentsi koosolek “Esto- Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus, 85–108. nia” teatrisaalis. [Meeting of the Intelligentsia of Maimik, P. (1996) Tõkked ajalehtede-ajakirjade Tallinn in the Estonia Theatre Hall.] Rahva Hääl, 6, trükkimise teel enne tsensuuri kaotamist Eestis. 9. 1. 1945. Eesti ajakirjanduse ajaloost X. [Obstacles on the Siniavsky, A. (1980) Samizdat and the Rebirth of Litera- Way of Publishing Newspapers and Magazines ture. Index on Censorship 9, 4 (Aug.), 8–13. before the Abolition of Censorship in Estonia.] Susiluoto, I. (1990) Deritualization of Political Language: Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus, 99–107. The Case of the Soviet Union. In: S. Hänninen, K. McNair, B. (1991) Glasnost, Perestroika and the Soviet Palonen (eds.). Texts, Contexts, Concepts. Studies Media. London and New York: Routledge. on Politics and Power in Language. Jyväskylä: The Novosel, P. (1995) The Iron Law of Communication. In: Finnish Political Science Association, 69-80. D.L. Paletz, K. Jakubowicz, P. Novosel (eds.) Tamm, L. (1946) Missugune peab olema meie kodulinn Glasnost and After. Media and Change in Central 1950. aastal. [What looks our hometown like in and Eastern Europé. Cresskill, New Jersey: 1950.] Valgamaalane, 37, March 27. Hampton Press, Inc., 9–18. Towards a Civic Society. The Baltic Media’s Long Road Nugis, A. (1946) Kapitalistlike maade töötajate elu pärast to Freedom. Perspectives on History, Ethnicity and sõda. [The Life of the Workers in Capitalist Journalism. In: S. Høyer, E. Lauk, P. Vihalemm Countries after the War.] Valgamaalane, 116, Sept. (eds.) Tartu: Baltic Association for Media Research 25. / Nota Baltica Ltd. Põhiseadus. (1988) Eesti Nõukogude Sotsialistliku Varblane, E. (1946) Meie läheme vastu ilusale tulevikule. Vabariigi konstitutsioon (põhiseadus). Constitution [We will meet a happy future.] Valgamaalane, 37, of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic.] Tallinn. March 27. Veskimägi, K.-O. (1996) Nõukogude Pärl-Lõhmus, M. (1997) Journalistic Editing in a Closed unelaadne elu. Tsensuur Eesti NSV-s ja tema Society. In: J. Koivisto, E. Lauk (eds.) Journalism at peremehed. [Dreamlike Soviet Life: Censorship And the Crossroads: Perspectives on Research. Tartu: Its Masters in the Estonian SSR.] Tallinn. Tartu University Press, 108-120.

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Nordiska medieforskare reflekterar: Public service-TV. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (Olle Findahl, Trine Syvertsen, Henrik Søndergaard) 75:- Cultural Cognition. New Perspectives in Audience Theory. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1998 (Editor: Birgitta Höijer) 170:- Children and Media. Image, Education, Participation. Yearbook 1999 from the UNESCO International Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (Editors: Cecilia von Feilitzen & Ulla Carlsson) 250:- Nordic Baltic Media Statistics 1998. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (Nordic Media Trends 4) 290:- MedieSverige 1999. Statistik och analys. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (under utgivning) 250:- Barn och ungdomar i det nya medielandskapet. Statistik och analys. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1998 (MedieNotiser 2/98) 160:- Nordicoms Mediebarometer 1998. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (MedieNotiser 1/99) 200:- TV i Norden, Europa och Världen. En statistisk översikt. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (MedieNotiser 2/99) 125:- Den svenska mediemarknaden 1999. Mediemarknad, mediebranscher och medieföretag. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (MedieNotiser 3/1999) 160:- Vad säger forskningen om medievåldets påverkan? Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1998 (Cecilia von Feilitzen) –

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Namnlöst-26 40 2005-08-16, 12:17 Film is Art

MARTTI SORAMÄKI

“Look Back in Anger” as a form of art equal to the other arts and, in par- ticular, expand the support of film production and The notion of film as art became widespread in Fin- make it a function of the state. The discussion in the land only after the Second World War, later than in 1970s was dominated by the committee on film most other European countries. Earlier the film was policy (1970-1974) and reactions to its proposals.4 understood primarily as an industry. Even if the As a whole, the development in the 1970s mani- “Finnish Hollywood” disappeared already at the be- fested itself in a significant expansion of the state’s ginning of the 60s, the position of film as an art film cultural policies. A kind of a highlight was form was finally acknowledged not until in the when two institutions based on the conception of 1970s.1 film as art were established. The administrative The conception of film as an industry is still Council of the Finnish Film Foundation (estab- prevalent in the United States. In Europe there has lished in 1969) was renewed on a wider basis in been a shift to thinking film primarily as an art form. 1976. Originally the administration was based on Only in recent years there has been a wish, in the co-operation of film entrepreneurs and the state. correspondence with EU policies, to emphasize with The change meant de facto that a new form of an art the information society in mind the significance of support organization was born, and that in a redistri- European movie production as an industry of tomor- bution of resources, the relative weight of the views row.2 of the cultural organizations grew essentially. An al- The development which in Finland led to the un- ternative to the renewal of the foundation was the derstanding of film as an art form, was not necessar- committee’s proposal to establish an institute for the ily fast, simple or without its crises. Even before the promotion of film, but as too radical and technically Second World War, there were individual intellec- too difficult to carry out, the idea lost to a more evo- tuals who considered film as an art of the director lutionary solution based on the Finnish Film Foun- (i.e., Roland af Hällström). A wider cultural discus- dation. Ultimately, they both had the same basic sion was launched not until the 1950s, and people goal: to promote film art. Another institutional solu- like Jörn Donner, Jerker A. Eriksson and Aito tion based on a conception of film as art was the es- Mäkinen participated in it. They were all engaged in tablishing of the national Film Archive in 1979. establishing the movie club Studio in 1952 which There is an extensive and good exposition on together with “Akateeminen Filmikerho” [Aca- these developments which sums things up from the demic Film Club] from the same year, was the first production viewpoint: herald of the new movie club movement and eventu- After the destruction of the production model ally, the Finnish Film Archive.3 characteristic to the studio system, there was a shift By the end of the 1960s and early 1970s, film in Finland to a cultural production model where the cultural organizations (The Finnish Film Archive, national film was seen as art.5 The Federation of Finnish Film Clubs, The Finnish Film Workers) had taken the film policy initiative. Their policies were aimed at getting film recognized “Drifting Clouds” The purpose of this article is to examine preliminar- Finnish Broadcasting Company, P.O. Box 100, ily what the victory of the art conception has meant FIN-00024 Yleisradio, martti.soramä[email protected] in Finland especially in terms of demand for domes-

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Namnlöst-25 41 2005-08-16, 12:18 tic films. The demand for films consists, of course, lier, the change in numbers of movie audiences. In- of many different factors, and the art point of view terestingly, there aren’t great changes in the form of is but one of them. These factors are not discussed the curve; it has merely moved lower, describing a here in any detail because, for simplicity’s sake, the diminishing demand on all levels. Because there viewpoint chosen covers changes in demand during were few domestic hit films to begin with (The the period when film (production) has been consid- curve takes a sharp turn downwards), after the de- ered as art. These decades are the 1980s and 1990s. mand has gone down, it is natural that nowadays In estimating the changes in demand I use a de- there are even less domestic hit films and that a mand curve model borrowed from Martin Dale. In great part of the films don’t get any audience at all the Dale model, the curve is formed on the basis of in the theaters (television is another matter). In the revenues which different films have received. For years 1992-1996 there were in all 50 feature films Finland, though, I use as basis the attendance num- produced in Finland. Half of these, 25 films, re- bers because this makes it easier to compare the de- ceived only 3% of the audience of all the domestic mand in two different decades.6 films. Reciprocally, the top five films (10% of all) At first I examine the changes in the demand as a received 53% of the audiences. These were: whole. Table 1 shows the changes in film attendance Kivenpyörittäjän kylä (1995), Uuno Turhapuro figures for years 1980-1998. Suomen tasavallan herra presidentti (1992), Kum- In the period in question, the demand for films meli Stories (1995), Uuno Turhapuron poika (1993) has decreased dramatically. There has been a drop and Vääpeli Körmy ja etelän hetelmät (1992). from over 9 million viewers a year (1980-1993) to a Comedies and farces have thus been the most popu- level of 5.5 million viewers per year (1992-1996), a lar films also in the 1990s but clearly on a lower decline of 40 percent. The viewer number of foreign level than in the 1980s. films has dropped from a yearly level of 8 million to The development for foreign films has been dif- the level of 5 million viewers; the decline here, too, ferent (Figure 2). The number of viewers for the is about 40 percent. The viewer figures for domestic most popular films have decreased only a little, and films has dropped from 1.5 million to below 0.5 surprisingly, the curve goes down more slowly in million, the worst year being 1996 (only 0.2 million the 1990s than in the 1980s. This means that films viewers). This means that there is a very sharp de- with an average audience has got more viewers in cline in attendance for domestic films, as much as the 1990s than in the 1980s. There is an explanation 70 percent, to a third of the level at the beginning of to this which I have given in one of my articles: the 1980s. Figure 1 shows the demand curves for domestic In analyzing the figures of the Finnish Film films in the 1980s and 1990s. The curves show from Foundation, one notices that while the really another angle the same phenomenon described ear- huge successes have disappeared with the

Table 1. The Development of Film Attendance in Finland 1980-1998 (millions; domestic films 1987 – thousands attendants)

Total Foreign Domestic

1980 9 925 8 398 1 527 1981 9 411 8 125 1 286 1982 9 055 7 588 1 467 1983 9 090 8 017 1 073 1984 7 600 6 113 1 487 1985 6 700 5 253 1 447 1986 6 300 4 867 1 433 1987 6 510 5 553 957 1988 6 690 5 934 756 1989 7 230 6 695 535 1990 6 190 5 336 854 1991 6 030 5 246 784 1992 5 400 4 811 589 1993 5 750 5 388 362 1994 5 610 5 380 230 1995 5 300 4 744 557 1996 5 490 5 287 203 1997 5 940 5 581 319 1998 6 400 5 760 640 estimates

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Namnlöst-25 42 2005-08-16, 12:18 Figur 1. The Demand for Domestic Films in the 1980s and 1990s

Viewers (thousands) 800

700

600

500

400

300

1980s 200

1990s 100

0 1 4 7 10131619222528313437404346495255 Films ranked in order of moviegoers

downfall of movie attendance, the viewer of the single film in movie theaters. A figures for the most successful films go down summary of the development during the last slower and more evenly in the material for the ten years is that fewer movies are shown in 1990s. This is explained mostly by a more smaller theaters for fewer people at a time but effective showing of the films in the 1990s for longer periods.7 when compared with the 1980s. The multi- plexification of movie theaters, the birth in The demand for domestic films, also for the suc- city centers of theaters with multiple screens, cesses, has fallen from the 80s to the 90s far more has in the 1990s provided a chance to adapt drastically than the demand for foreign films (see the supply of films to the demand in each gi- figures 3 and 4). In fact, in the 80s, the top of the ven situation, and thus prolong the life-span domestic films received more viewers than the top

Figur 2. The Demand for Foreign Films in the 1980s and 1990s

Viewers (thousands) 600

500

400

300

200 1990s

100 1980s

0 1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91 97 Films ranked in order of moviegoers

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Namnlöst-25 43 2005-08-16, 12:18 Figur 3. The Demand for Foreign and Domestic Films in the 1980s

Viewers (thousands) 800

700

600

500

400

300

200 Foreign

100 Domestic

0 1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91 97 Films ranked in order of moviegoers

Figur 4. The Demand for Foreign and Domestic Films in the 1990s

Viewers (thousands) 500

450

400

350

300

250

200 Foreign

150

100

50 Domestic 0 1 6 11162126316 414651566166717681869196 Films ranked in order of moviegoers

of the foreign films. Also on the middle level, when On the level of single films, the most successful foreign films now receive more viewers than before on a yearly basis in the 80s were sequels to the do- (the curve goes down slower), the middle level of mestic Turhapuro-series. Out of the five films re- domestic films receive less viewers than before. (the ceiving the most viewers, four are Turhapuro- level of the curve has gone down). The difference films.(The most successful of these is the military between the demand for domestic and foreign films farce Uuno Turhapuro armeijan leivissä 1984. Only has grown greatly, to the disadvantage of domestic E.T. The extraterrestrial, (1982) can with its third films. place break the onslaught of the Turhapuro-films. In

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Namnlöst-25 44 2005-08-16, 12:18 the 1990s the popularity of the Turhapuro-films has The analysis of the demand curves lets one sup- waned, and to the top five films as audience figures pose that after the art conception has taken over the go, belongs only one Turhapuro, and even that Finnish movie production and culture, the demand stems from the beginning of the decade, Uuno for domestic films has become dramatically weaker Turhapuro herra Helsingin herra (1991) which is in relation to the foreign demand of films dominated third in the ranking. It is symptomatic that out of the by industry-based American films. This have been five most popular films in the 1990s, three are the price to pay for seeing film as art. American with Jurassic Park (1993) leading. The others were Independence Day, 1996) and Renny Harlin’s Cliffhanger (1993). The non-American film “No Road Back” in the top five is an Australian film (Babe, 1995) on Does the industrial point of view, then, have a a fourth place. The figures for Forrest Gump (1994) chance in movie production in Finland (or in Eu- are divided between two years, and thus, because of rope) and if it has, to what extent? In my view, the this technicality, the most popular film of the 1990s chances for this are limited, despite the efforts and doesn’t have a high position in an analysis on a policies of the EU in promoting the cause. yearly level. The victory of the art-view has been so total, that How about differences within the various groups the infrastructure of the film business depends on it. of foreign films (Figure 5)? The market for foreign The aims of film training, the attitudes of creative films is dominated by films from the United States. workers, the cultural policy climate, the film support The European films are but a small part of the mar- organizations and the way their members are cho- ket, and the method used here doesn’t bring up for sen, the decentralized structure of production, all analysis more than under 30 European films. The conform to the art view. A financier (Suomen demand curve for European films resembles the one Yhdyspankki of that time) was needed to notify for Finnish films: attendance successes are few, and Finnkino, then in financial trouble, that in the be- the curve (audience figures for single films) sinks ginning of the 1990s one should not carry on with fast. The most successful European films are the film production because it isn’t profitable8 In Eu- British drama Sense and Sensibility, (1995), the rope, the situation is the same, only the scale is Dutch-Japanese children’s movie Comet in Moo- much bigger.9 When Pantti says, with reference to minland (1992), and the British Bond-movie Gol- Neale,10 that art film hasn’t usually challenged the den Eye (1995). basis of the film institution’s artistic, financial, ideo-

Figur 5. The Demand for American and European Films in the 1990s

Viewers (thousands) 500

450

400

350

300

250

200 American

150

100

50 European

0 1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91 97 Films ranked in order of moviegoers

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Namnlöst-25 45 2005-08-16, 12:18 logical or aesthetic basis, but instead creates for it- tionally is Polygram. Part of their films imitate a self a space inside of it, the talk is about American Hollywood-production; they are made in English, films. In Europe the art view won unequivocally. they are produced in the United States, and a sub- According to Dale: stantial part of the creative staff is American, and the films are aimed at the American market. Poly- There are two main types of European film – gram have been interested in buying also big Ameri- small scale subsidy-driven films (75%) and can production companies but has failed so far. In more ambitious market-driven films (25%) Finland too, one can find an example of this phe- backed by Europe’s media giants. For sub- nomenon, be it only on a level of the individual: sidy-driven films, which are crucial for the Renny Harlin, the only significant Finnish director/ discovery of new talent, most film-makers producer in Hollywood. have to prove that their project isn’t ‘commer- To the film companies there is another altern- cial’ in order to secure funding, and as a ative, be it in a much smaller scale: to produce films consequence they usually find it impossible for television. This a not a film policy but entre- to achieve any market impact.11 preneurial question because it entails moving into Undoubtedly, it is always possible to direct the re- another branch altogether. In its ways of expression, sources of the field a bit more carefully, more effect- serial nature and level of costs, tv-production differs ively, differently and more “commercially”, with essentially from the movie industry. emphasis on distribution, but a real change of direc- What are the consequences of these views for au- tion towards a structural transformation is just about diovisual policy? The most significant matter is that impossible both in Finland and in Europe. In prac- the European movie production (for feature films) tice, the audiovisual policies of the EU reinforce the can be built up to an industry only in a limited present structures in spite of publicly expressed sense. For this part the audiovisual policies of the great ambitions aiming at competitiveness with Hol- EU are unrealistic, and its long-term goal, the ability lywood. The reason to this can be stated pointedly of European movie producers to act successfully in in the following comparison: The whole budget of open markets, will not be attained. European pro- the EU’s program for promoting the audiovisual ducers can’t succeed even in their home markets field, Media II, for the current five-year period with public support covering about 2/3 of the pro- 1996-2000 is 310 million ecus. This amount is duction costs. Besides, the European production clearly less than 5% of the movie production invest- costs are only a fraction of the costs of its compet- ments for one year in the United States which are itor, Hollywood, and Hollywood doesn’t need pro- approximately 8.5 billion dollars. Similar invest- duction subsidies at all. In addition, there is a uni- ments of the EU countries are a bit over 2 billion fied market in the United States. In Europe the mar- dollars a year. The Finnish investments are 5 million ket is fragmented by different language areas.13 dollars annually.12 In Finland the scale is so small, the structure of the field so decentralized, and the film production so dependent on subsidies that the industrial angle is “Go West Young Man” not very realistic. The reason for the discussion What would the alternative have been if the art view about industrial aspects of film production is con- hadn’t won in Finland? I shall simplify. Finland nected with the audiovisual policies of the EU and would hardly have Aki Kaurismäki as the greatest their reflections on what are the consequences of international success of the film history of our coun- these views to audiovisual policy in both TV and try. (The success of Kaurismäki is clearly linked other audiovisual production. Finland as a model with film art and not with economical profitability). country in the EU, complies with the official line in The gradual fading of the Turhapuro-series, suc- this area, too. EU is also relevant to keep in mind cessfully continuing the national film comedy tradi- when applying for subsidies to the Finnish film pro- tion in the 1980s, could in the 1990s have been re- duction. In practice, the film policy measures – placed with better success than what we have seen. quite rightly – lean on strengthening the art film line The Finnish film would be thoroughly national and symbolized by Aki Kaurismäki – by acquiring more filled with farces. resources to the field and aiming at intensifying the To those who emphasize the industrial aspect of (art) production. film making there is however an alternative which Farces can be supported – more or less – but they has already been noticed by big European produc- do not solve the issue. A farce production living tion companies of which the most important interna- purely on state subsidies can hardly be regarded as a

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Namnlöst-25 46 2005-08-16, 12:18 constructive national alternative to non-profitable demand and this development as such serves to in- art production which at least is a success at foreign crease watching of movies. art festivals and constitutes a part of the country’s Will there be enough movies? How about the cultural exports. There are not enough resources to competition from the ever increasing alternative lei- allocate to all applicants and therefore subsidies re- sure-time services in peoples’ homes (the still ex- main selective. panding analogue tv, the Internet and its various fast-growing applications, the arrival of digital sat- ellite and terrestrial tv, the digital video DVD)? In “Monkey Business” the 1990s, the variety of alternative services was al- The distribution of films (import and exhibition of ready so great that the number of moviegoers de- the films) has always been based on entrepreneur- creased in Finland, and the trends in competing sup- ism in Finland. The present strategy is to emphasize ply are by no means on the wane at the turn of the the need for building more multiplex-theaters in the century, on the contrary. big cities to raise the levels of attendance. This It has been argued that European films could would make possible a more profitable and expand- take advantage and make use of the expanding pos- ing business. Especially in Helsinki there are grand- sibilities of film distribution.15 The prevalent art scale plans to build more multiplexes.14 Is this kind view of films in Europe and the demand curve for of a strategy realistic, and does it have any chance of European films in Finland (Figure 5) give a hint that being successful? chances to an essential growth in film demand with On the level of demand curves, the aim is to raise the help of European films are relatively limited. them to a higher level: single films should get big- ger audiences. It is clear that film theaters as multiplexes offer better conditions for satisfying the Translation: Markku Mustaranta

Notes problematic angle, see e.g. Ilkka Heiskanen: “Suo- malaiset 1950-luvun elokuvat, televisio ja kansall- 1. Kari Uusitalo, Suomen Hollywood on kuollut. isen todellisuuden hallinta” in Nykyajan sadut. Kotimaisen elokuvan ahdinkovuodet 1956-1963. Joukkoviestinnän kertomukset ja vastaanotto. [Mo- [Finnish Hollywood is dead. The troubled years dern fairy tales. The stories and reception of mass 1956-1963 of domestic film]. Hyvinkää: Suomen communication] Jyväskylä: Oy Gaudeamus & elokuvasäätiön julkaisusarja n:o 12, 1981. The view Yleisradio Oy 193-231. on the development of feature film to art in Finland 2. See, for instance, Commission of European Com- (and in Europe) is of course a simplification, munities, “Growth, Competitiveness, Employment. because in certain cases the film still offers a chance The Challenges and Ways Forward in to the 21st (or a chance is seen in it) for profitable business. In Century”. White Paper, Bulletin of European Com- the change discussed in this article, the question is, munities Supplement 6/1993, especially pp. however, what has been the prevailing view on film 103.105; European Commission, “Strategy Options and how this view has changed. For a more to Strengthen the European Programme Industry in

Postscript This article was written in summer 1996. Since then, cinema attendance in Finland has increased as the country has recovered from the economic recession and particularly due to the enormous success of the Ti- tanic in 1998. In the aftermath of the Titanic, Finnish films, too, have clearly pulled ever growing numbers of cinema-goers. The growth in 1999 is associated in particular with drama, while the popularity of comedy features has remained the same. In 1998, cinema attendance totalled about 6,4 million and Finnish films were seen by about 0,64 million people (Table 1). The European film, however, has met with greater difficulties. The best example of this, perhaps, is the fate of Polygram, the major European independent company sold by Philips to the Canadian company Seagram as part of a larger deal Seagram is the main owner of Universal in Hollywood. At the time of writ- ing it seems that Polygram will end up merging with Universal, as no buyer for Polygram has emerged in spite of Seagram’s continuing search.

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Namnlöst-25 47 2005-08-16, 12:18 the Context of the Audiovisual Policy of the Euro- chosen. (This means that the same film can, though pean Union”. Green Paper. Brussels 1994; Martti rarely, appear in figures for two consecutive years.) Soramäki & Kirsi-Marja Okkonen, Taloudellinen Of the total, the 100 most succesful films have been integraatio ja EU:n audiovisuaalinen politiikka. chosen and ranked in order of attendance, and the [Economic integration and the audiovisual policies demand curve has been drawn on the basis of this. of the EU] Helsinki: Yleisradio, keskushallinto All domestic films have been included for each year. 1996, esp. pp. 20-25. 7. Martti Soramäki, “Winner Take All – ilmiö elokuvan 3. Uusitalo op.cit., pp. 321-325; Tarmo Malmberg, alalla”, in Mediatieteen kysymyksiä. Kirjoituksia “Suomalainen elokuvakulttuuriaktivismi sodan jäl- modernista ja postmodernista kulttuurista, Lapin keen” [Finnish film cultural activism after the war], Yliopisto 1998 Tiede & Edistys 2/1997, p. 113. 8. “Finnkino nousemassa rajulla saneerauksella 4. Elokuvapoliittisen komitean II osamietintö (KM voitolliseksi” [Finnkino back to profitability after 1974: 26) Helsinki: Valtion painatuskeskus 1974; violent cost cuts] Helsingin Sanomat 3.8.1997. Elokuvapoliittisen komitean III osamietintö (KM 9. David Puttnam, The Undeclared War. The Struggle 1974: 121) Helsinki, Valtion painatuskeskus 1974. for Control of the World’s Film Industry. London: 5. Mervi Pantti, Kriisistä konsensukseen, Eloku- Harper Collins Publishers 1997, 327, pp. 344-345. vakulttuurin jälleenrakentaminen Suomessa 1961- 10. Mervi Pantti op. cit.; Steve Neale. “Art Cinema as 1976. [From crisis to consensus; the reconstruction an Institution”, Screen Vol. 22, No 1, 1981 of film culture in Finland in the years 1961-1976] 11. Martin Dale op. cit. pp. 118-129, quote from page Elokuva- ja televisiotiede, lisensiaattitutkielma Tu- 226. run yliopisto, maaliskuu 1997. Quote from page 97. 12. “Film Production and Distribution: A shifting ba- 6. Martin Dale, The Movie Game. The Film Business lance”. Screen Digest May 1997 (pp 105-112), esp. in Britain, Europe and America. London & Hern- p. 107. don: Martin Dale 1997. The demand curves have 13. Martin Dale op.cit. p. 36,123, 176: Film Production been drawn in the following way: all films of any gi- and Distribution. Ibid: “World Cinema Market: Start ven year are listed in a ranking order in the annual of the European Fightback”. Screen Digest August statistic database of the Finnish Film Archive (1980-) 1997 (pp. 177-197). according to attendance figures (100 films). For the 14. “Finnkino nousemassa...”; “Kaupungissa alkaa sake of uniformity, the objects of examination are taistelu elokuvayleisöstä” [Finnkino back...”; “A the years 1980-86 (“the 1980s”) and 1990-96 (“the battle over movie audiences begins in the city] Hel- 1990s”). For each year, the 50 most successful fo- singin Sanomat 30.8.1997. reign films in terms of moviegoers have been 15. “Finnkino nousemassa...” [Finnkino back...].

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Namnlöst-25 48 2005-08-16, 12:18 The Beijing Controversies Finnish News Coverage of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995

MINNA ASLAMA & ULLAMAIJA KIVIKURU

The reality of Women’s World Conference hits 1953; IPI, 1953; Schramm, 1960; Galtung & Ruge, you in the face at the counter of a Huairou 1965; Östgaard, 1965; Gerbner & Marvanyi, 1977; department store. Among thick and clumsy Galtung & Vincent, 1992; Hjarvard, 1995), but the Chinese sanitary pads one can find a few interest in the global or regional volume and projec- packages of Western tampons. (...) tion of foreign news, as well as in the selection cri- A couple of blocks away, the gathering teria exercized, has remained steady since the early of the world’s women is finally starting for 1950s. real. After weeks of arguing, the essential Flow studies represent a branch of research that issue of women’s rights can be brought for- has been frequently discussed and debated, because ward. (Anu Nousiainen: Anarchy and flow study data was used as ammunition in the Tampons, Helsingin Sanomat 1.9.1995) Great Media Debate about the new world communi- cation order (NWICO) in the 1970s and early In September 1995, the broadest news flow study to 1980s. Extra media data was eagerly sought espe- date, the Foreign News Flow Project collected its cially in the 1970s (Pietiläinen, 1998a:39). Studies research material. Participation in this project was were used to certify whether or not the picture of the exceptionally international: nearly 50 countries outside world given in the media was ”right”, justi- joined the research. For the first time in flow re- fied and truthful. search history, it was also agreed that there would be Academically, flow studies have rarely been an extensive qualitative section, for which one of challenging. Most but not all have been crudely the predetermined cases was the news coverage of quantitative and theoretically thin; the categoriza- the United Nations’ Fourth World Conference on tion of enormous volumes of data has attracted most Women. This article discusses the Finnish coverage of the attention. Obviously the theoretical frame of of the Conference within the framework of the flow reference frequently approaches the agenda setting, study tradition. though it is rarely made explicit. It is assumed that media coverage and images in people’s heads are How Foreign News Flows: interlinked. If a country, a regime, or an individual gets considerable media attention across borders, A Recent Round of a Long Tradition that country, regime, or individual is assumed to Flow studies represent one of the established fields have a greater chance to be notified, feared or ado- of study within international communication. The red by great masses of receivers. The same idea was methods, scope and angle have varied (e.g. Kayser, behind another, slightly older research tradition: the image studies. The best example of these is no Department of Communication, P.O. Box 54, doubt the nine-country study by William Buchanan FIN-00014 University of Helsinki and Hadley Cantril (1953) called How Nations See Swedish School of Social Sciences, P.O. Box 16, Each Other. FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Flow studies can be summarized roughly by stat- [email protected] ing that there seems to be several sources for imbal-

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Namnlöst-24 49 2005-08-16, 12:18 ance and bias in the foreign news flow, without ex- are professors Robert Stevenson from the Univer- ception in such a way that the main focus of news sity of North Carolina, United States and Annabelle remains on extremely few core countries, cities and Sreberny from the University of Leicester, United elite individuals. International news flow is a flow Kingdom. dominated by the strong ones. Industrialized coun- The new round of news flow research became tries and the so-called North for decades have re- considerably more extensive than the previous ones. ceived considerably more attention than the so- To date, roughly 50 countries have sent their data called South. There are also regional centres which from a two-week period in September 1995 to the attract attention far more than other countries pool of information, but some latecomers are still around them. All studies note the imbalance, but expected. The first book based on the material of the conclusions vary. Some authors think that core international study will be a quantitative analysis. It countries and individuals deserve their attention is already under preparation. The main criterium for simply because they are more influential; some oth- selecting media for scrutiny was the same as before. ers say that the image and reality do not fit well to- Only media with wide circulations were included. gether. The greatest surprise in the quantitative results Until the early 1990s, the most extensive flow of the new news flow study was that though the study was Foreign News in the Media, carried out in world has changed, changes in the news arena seem 29 countries in 1979 on the initiative of Unesco and to be rather small. The news business is still a big the IAMCR together (Sreberny-Mohammadi & al, guys’ business. There still are very few ”news su- 1985). In each country, the study included the media perpowers”. The greatest crisis areas shifted from with widest circulation. The outcome of the study – the Middle East to Bosnia and the former Soviet again presented as an admittedly crude simplifica- Union. But still, one’s own continent seemed to be tion – was that the selection of foreign news in the area focused on most frequently, and as a result, practically all countries followed the same pattern. the news flow between the South and the North is The main focus remained with the ’home region’, still badly unbalanced. The country receiving the countries nearby. The second projection was di- most negative coverage globally was Afganisthan, rected to either the United States or Western Eu- the most positively received was the Vatican. Con- rope. As subject areas, most attention was given to flicts still sell well globally, and so do business foreign and domestic politics, military issues and news and sports. In Europe, reporting on culture economy. Countries in Eastern Europe reported catches somewhat more attention than in most other more on culture and science and less on crime than parts of the world. In Eastern Europe, reporting on the rest of the countries. As gatekeepers, the role of conflicts concerning other Eastern European coun- the four big news agencies, Reuters, AP, UPI and tries was minimal, but the news was still not much AFP and the national news agencies was crucial; the softer, because politics and economic news domin- own staff covered 10-40 percent of the material. ated the arena. (Pietiläinen, 1998b:67-83) In the early 1990s, an idea of rerunning the 1979 The stronghold position of the big news agencies study came up in several researchers’ seminars. seems to be weakening somewhat. They still domin- With the political changes in Eastern Europe and ate the news material covering such countries and many developing countries, with the emergence of areas which are not of vital interest to the country new media and the use of new technology in news concerned; but the areas assessed as most essential transmission, the world seemed to have changed so are to a large extent covered by various types of cor- much that it was worth checking the news flow situ- respondent arrangements. (Pietiläinen, 1998b:67- ation. Eventhough the technical and substance chal- 83) lenges were known: research funding for compar- It should be emphasized, however, that the re- ative international comparison studies is now far sults are still preliminary. Far more interesting than harder to get than in the 1970s, the volume of global the crude global data will be the news perspectives, news flow had grown enormously in 20 years, and quantitative and qualitative, of various countries. in order to retain the comparison component, wide The great potential of the study is the fact that any international studies tend to end up with quite crude participating country is able to use the global data research designs. Nevertheless in the preparatory for its own elaborations. Also, a huge archive of pri- meetings and seminars, it was decided that this time mary media material is collected and translated to be qualitative methods and news sources should be em- at the disposal of all participants. phasized in the study. A series of monographs were The sample was selected in such a way that one planned to be published by the group, whose souls joint news item was ensured to appear in the mate-

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Namnlöst-24 50 2005-08-16, 12:18 rial globally: the United Nations Fourth World Con- Bosnia. Accordingly, one can say that the basic for- ference on Women in Beijing. It was organized dur- eign news interest does not seem to change much, ing the sample time period, in September 1995. The though some ”hot news” flash locations appear on participants were encouraged to name other central the arena for a short while. (Pietiläinen, 1998c:84- news items independently. The variation was re- 98) markable; there were not many globally shared is- The areas covered most frequently were sports, sues of concern. Bosnia was one such a crisis area culture and entertainment, international politics, the for Europe and the United States, but hardly any- economy and conflicts. The cradles of international where outside these regions. An interesting detail is politics and conflicts were located in Eastern Eu- that in September 1995 Bosnia caught far greater rope, internal problems were most frequently re- headlines in Western than Eastern Europe, though ported from Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, the problem area was in fact closer to most Eastern while the bastions of culture, entertainment and European countries. The French nuclear bomb tests sports seemed to be Western Europe and the United on the Mururoa area increased the attention given to States. More than two-thirds of the individuals re- Polynesia far beyond the average. Still another news ported about in foreign news were men, and roughly item getting much attention in the industrialized one-third belonged to the established elites. Indi- world was a car bomb attack in Lyon, France. viduals were mostly reported about in news cover- The idea with the case studies was to study the ing cultural issues. ”Ordinary people” were rarely particularities of the international reporting in vari- met in the foreign news in roles other than those of ous parts of the world, while the quantitative part targets in conflicts or accidents. (Pietiläinen, 1998c: characterized the ”wholesale” activities in interna- 84-98) tional news flow. A third dimension was the study of Almost every second news story (43%) in the news sources. Reports on the qualitative aspects of studied media in Finland was covered by a Finnish the international news flow are still under prepara- reporter or correspondent, and these stories were ex- tion. tensive by volume. Among the most popular news In the 1979 study, Finland closely followed the agencies, the Finnish STT/FNB was the most fre- West European model, with Western Europe as a quently used, but it in fact is a ”wholesale agent” for core area. However in Finland somewhat more at- international agencies, because it translates and ed- tention was given to Eastern Europe than in other its predominantly Reuters and AFP material. Some European countries. The countries which appeared media also subscribed directly to Reuters, which most frequently on the foreign news map were Fin- was the source in roughly one third of the items. land, the Soviet Union, the United States, Sweden, The variety of agency sources had become more Great Britain, West Germany and Cyprus. limited in 15 years, because the UPI and (Itar-)Tass The Finnish world map in 1995 was quite similar had disappeared almost totally from the arena. to the previous one, with only some slight differ- (Pietiläinen, 1998c:99) ences. The map was still very self-centred, because In Finland, the ”media events” of 1995 were the the country appearing most frequently in foreign Mururoa tests, Bosnia and the Beijing conference. news was Finland. Hence, a considerable proportion There was no such Finnish speciality as in May of foreign news in fact described the relations of 1995, when the pilot for the Foreign News Flow Finland with the rest of the world; this is a result study was carried out. When others reported on the that has been noticed in several national flow stud- Victory Day of World War II, the Finnish media ies earlier (e.g. Vehmas, 1964:68). Roughly every concentrated almost totally on the Finnish gold second foreign news item reported on European is- medal and victory of their arch rival Sweden, in the sues. Still the study caused a surprise regarding this Icehockey World Championship. The Finnish media aspect. The coverage of Europe had seemed to be studies in 1995 included the same media as in the growing continuously during the 1990s, while now 1979 study; the idea was to emphasize comparabil- the growth seemed to have stopped. News on Asia ity. The results on the Finnish media were recently revealed a considerable growth, news on Africa a published as a book (Kivikuru, Pietiläinen, 1998), clear decline, when figures of 1995 were compared including both quantitative and qualitative aspects to the 1979 study. The countries of the ”inner circle” of the study. of news in 1995, in the wide-circulation media in In the Finnish material, far more interest was in Finland, were Finland, the United States, Great Brit- fact directed in the qualitative case studies covering ain, Sweden, France, the EU, Russia, Germany and Bosnia, Mururoa and the Beijing Conference of

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Namnlöst-24 51 2005-08-16, 12:18 Women. In the following, one of the cases, namely tions led to a broader critique of China’s human the reporting on the Beijing Conference will be dis- rights situation and foreign politics in general. cussed more in detail. But what happened in China after all – according to the Finnish news coverage? The presumptions on the Beijing themes and actors were fullfilled quite The Qualitative Case of Beijing accurately, but surprises were found in the format of The United Nations Fourth World Conference on the coverage. In addition, the Beijing news in Fin- Women (FWCW) in Beijing, China (4.-15.9.1995) land was spiced with the simultaneous colourful de- and the related NGO Forum (30.8.-8.9.1995) were bate on ”imported” Filipino wives: a Finnish busi- chosen already in advance as one of the key themes nessman was found to be excercizing a barely legal of the Foreign News Flow qualitative analysis, since immigrant activity or a kind of a dating service by these events were expected to offer particularly in- introducing Filipino women to Finnish bachelors. teresting viewpoints to foreign news flow. The The most interesting turn of events, however, took FWCW and the Forum became a news item a year place after the FWCW and the NGO Forum, in the before the actual Conference and Forum took place; form of an attack by Finnish Conference delegates in addition, these events were thought to bring forth against the media. The fuss began with the above themes unusual to foreign news coverage in ad- cited column ”Anarchy and tampons” in the dressing equality and gender questions. Especially Helsingin Sanomat daily and circulated around the intriguing was the expectation that the Conference following arguments: The media should not have and NGO Forum would unmask disagreements be- talked about sanitary pads but equality; the media tween various nations and cultural regions. The pre- should not have emphasized the disagreements and supposition was that the most obvious debate would debates but concentrate on the outcomes and deci- take place around the role of the host country China sions of the FWCW and the Forum. – because of its questionable human rights record The Foreign News Flow research did not analyze and tense foreign relations. It was also speculated the entire Beijing coverage but focused in principle that the global role of the 50-year-old United Na- only on two research weeks (3.-9.9. and 17.- tions and the importance of such international 23.9.1995). However, the data collected amounts to events as the FWCW would be discussed. 92 stories in electronic media and the press, and can The mission of the Fourth World Conference on still depict the essence of the news coverage, as well Women was to agree upon a Platform of Action. The as, in the Finnish context, give possible explana- following items were drafted for this Platform prior tions for the minor media circus that followed. The to the actual meeting in Beijing: poverty, educa- data for this qualitative analysis of the electronic tional and health services, violence against women, media includes the main television news broadcasts impacts of wars and other armed conflicts on of the public service Finnish Broadcasting Com- women, economical structural changes and their im- pany (YLE) and the commercial channel MTV 3, as pact on women, distribution of power and women’s well as the main radio newscast of YLE. During the participation in decision-making, improvement of research period, Beijing was present in a total of the status of women, women’s human rights, women nine newscasts (YLE radio with four stories, YLE TV and the media, as well as the use of natural resour- with three stories and MTV3 with 2 stories). Since ces and other environmental questions. It was envi- the coverage on the FWCW and the Forum had al- sioned that the topic of women’s reproductive ready begun in the press much earlier than in the rights, in particular, would heat up emotions and electronic media, and continued quite some time af- challenge diplomatic relations. China as the host ter the research period, the data for the qualitative country managed to draw attention to its actions to- analysis was chosen to include all the Beijing stories wards the NGO Forum already beforehand. The or- from three newspapers published in Helsinki: the ganizers of the Forum had agreed with China on the biggest Finnish daily Helsingin Sanomat (”HS”, cir- right of participation for every willing NGO; how- culated nationwide), the popular nation-wide ever, doubtful discussions on the possibilities of evening paper Ilta=Sanomat (”IS”), and Kansan various organizations to have influence and partici- Uutiset (”KU” – ”People’s News”, a small news pa- pate in the Forum began already in early Spring per formerly closely affiliated with the Left Alliance 1995. Problems were thought to arise with the ac- Party). These papers published a total of 38 stories, cess of various NGOs to the site of the meeting and or 40% of the researched Beijing coverage: HS with in the distribution of their materials. These specula- 20, IS with six, and KU with 12 stories.

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Namnlöst-24 52 2005-08-16, 12:18 The basic observation evolving from the data is Hillary Clinton. The coverage of the NGO Forum, that the Fourth World Conference on Women re- then, often showed individual women ”experienc- ceived a wide coverage in every medium, and that ing” the situation, rather than bringing forth organ- the coverage, quite expectedly, concentrated on the izations working for particular issues. opening week of the FWCW. Television news fo- The nature of the various media also resulted in cused on the opening ceremonies, the radio fol- some differences in the coverage. The electronic lowed the events for a bit longer and more broadly, media concentrated, as expected, on the themes and but the Finnish press stirred up the debate before events of each news day. China, then, was the key and after the actual events. The controversy and me- actor of each news item. When describing the NGO dia criticism began with the infamous ”Anarchy” forum, for example, YLE’s TV and radio news gave column, which was published four days prior to the voice mostly to Western participants to reflect on beginning of the FWCW, and continued well after their expectations, experiences and the general at- the end of the Conference. The electronic media did mosphere, and in this context the news even dared not see this aftermath as news, but commented on it, to use the word ”feminism” when interviewing the for instance, in a television talk show, in a few radio American women’s activist Betty Friedan. However, programmes and in the Opinion Section of the HS no matter how much enthusiasm the participants newspaper – where the editor-in-chief of the YLE showed, China’s position as a host country was, in radio news delivered his defence statement about every story, the underlying common denominator the criticism on the Beijing coverage. and the most prominent one. The issues and purpose of the Forum were undeniably overshadowed by the Galas and Confrontations: Actors and disagreements with its host. Similarly, both YLE and MTV3 TV news showed the opening ceremonies of Themes of the Beijing Coverage the FWCW in great length, but remembered to com- And then to other topics. The disputed UN’s ment critically on the security arrangements by women’s conference has been opened in Bej- China and to illustrate this with pictures of soldiers ing with flashy ceremonies. The practical and security guards. work of the conference, however, is expected Also the press placed a great emphasis on the to be difficult. Conflicts between the view- practical arrangements of the Conference and the points of the Nordic and Islamic represent- NGO Forum, but actors and themes were more atives arose already during the opening day. broadly defined than in the skeleton-like short TV (YLE TV news lead on 4.9.1995) and radio news stories. Helsingin Sanomat, with its role as the ”Nation’s First Newspaper”, offered the The actors and themes in the Finnish news coverage widest coverage and addressed all the same issues as on Beijing matched the expectations – and more: the electronic media, but had already begun in early they seemed to follow a setting of a Medieval September 1995, to build up the drama around Chi- drama. There were spectacular festivities, there were na’s problematic position. In these background sto- wars between the true believers from the North and ries, readers were not prepared to understand the is- strangers from other cultural regions, there was the sues which would be taken up in the Conference and Dragon China and, on the other hand, the Fortress in related events, but rather the expectations for Europe protecting the views and demands of the drama and conflicts between China and participants Finnish representatives. Themes concerning the sta- were created. These preceeding stories gave the im- tus of women were introduced via conflicts between pression that the UN would take the meeting of differing cultures – let it be nations or interest 10.000 women to a fairytale or nightmare land, groups. The main characters in the conflicts were, where the abbreviation ”NGO” alone is a synonym on one hand, China versus the participants of the for anarchy. In all of its coverage, HS emphasized Fourth World Conference on Women and the NGO the disgreements between China and ”others”. The Forum. On the other hand, the Vatikan and the Is- official China, often the police as its representative, lamic countries were described to have formed an received criticism through quotes from the UN offi- ”unholy alliance” against the liberal Northern Eu- cials as well as from the celebrity participants, from rope and the Nordic countries in particular. When Bhutto and Clinton to Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma. describing the actors of the official FWCW, the The Chinese people, on the other hand, were de- news coverage concentrated on countries and their scribed in a more sympathetic light – interested but representatives, with the exception of the semi-po- a bit lost regarding the actual happenings of the litical celebrities, such as Winnie Mandela and FWCW and the forum. In sum, nations, officials/

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Namnlöst-24 53 2005-08-16, 12:18 representatives and celebrity individuals formed the press in its style and content, was most surprising in star group of actors. NGOs, for instance, were often that it took up the Beijing topic as much as it did. only in secondary and passive roles (typically ob- In the electronic media, the Beijing coverage did jects of criticism by China) and main actors only in not deviate from the normal time-restricted news two stories: one describing a sponsored telecon- format. Rather, associations to human interest jour- ference between women in Finland and NGO repre- nalism were found in the language and visualization sentative in China, another reporting on the status of of the news. The events tackling the status of the women’s movement in Namibia. women were not even described in a seemingly Compared to HS, the evening paper Ilta=Sano- ”neutral” manner; on the contrary, it was made very mat could be said to have followed its ”lighter” mis- clear who the good and bad characters in the stories sion and genre. Its coverage left mostly aside the were. For instance, the first MTV3 news item on main issues or even conflicts in Beijing, and fo- Beijing, on 3.9.95, presented towards the end of the cused almost solely on the actions of the (well- newscast, reported that Chinese police had ”had a known) Finnish representatives. The only other in- fight” with the NGO participants. The concrete formation worth of reporting was the heavy rain evidence of the fight was that the police had denied which disturbed the closing ceremonies of FWCW. access to Islamic demonstrators from Huairou to Kansan Uutiset, on the other hand, offered the most Beijing, and that some policemen had abused Cana- conventional and official kind of reporting on dian women who were handing out information on Bejing. It gave voice to individual participants of the Tibetian situation. the FWCW and the forum, but especially to the del- The other major conflict – between Northern Eu- egates of various countries. The official represent- rope and the Islamic countries – was also well de- atives were presented in a news-agency like manner: scribed and illustrated in the electronic media to ”Sweden”, ”the United States”, ”Guatemala” and provide elements for a clear standing on this issue. ”Ecuador” gave their opinions, agreed or disagreed. The views of the liberal Northeners were described Kansan Uutiset did not leave aside the conflicts be- very factually whereas the representatives of the tween the host and the participants, but rather gave Vatican-Islam alliance ”got furious” when disagree- much more room to the descriptions of disagree- ments ”were heating up emotions”. YLE TV news ments and compromises between the participants. It (4.9.95), for example, first showed a short interview was emphasized that issues related to the status of with a Finnish MP, who summarized women’s rights women are difficult because so many views exist on as human rights and gave an account of the common different political, cultural and religious levels. EU standing on women’s reproductive rights. Then Sudan’s male representative and Iran’s female del- Traditional News in a Supporting Role: egate were given their turn, with the journalist’s lead: ”The demand to bury cultural differences Style of the Beijing News makes Islamic countries furious.” Pictures of veiled The opening celebration was a spectacular women accompanied the interview with Sudan’s gala. Winnie Mandela, the wife of the pres- representative; when the Iranian delegate appeared ident of South Africa Nelson Mandela, was on the screen, the journalists commented: ”The late for the opening, which caused quite a member of the Iranian parliament is following the hassle (...) (Reporter Sinikka Arteva in YLE opinions [of the Sudanese delegate], and the inter- TV News 4.9.1995) preter wouldn’t even say the word ’sex’ aloud”. An- other evidence of this ”mixed style” of the Beijing The Foreign News Flow project’s expectations of news in the electronic media was the coverage of the the actors and themes of Beijing were accurate; opening of the World Conference. As in cultural re- however, a closer analysis of the data revealed a sur- ports, the news items emphasized how ”fabulous” prise concerning the style of the news coverage. the gala was, how full of ”fireworks of colour and Conventional news reporting with facts was over- music”, and how the opening ”didn’t leave anyone shadowed by features and human interest journal- untouched”. ism. On the scale of traditionalism, Kansan Uutiset In the press coverage, this cocktail of formats represented the conventional coverage, whereas the and styles was even more obvious. The profiles of unofficial main news sources, YLE, MTV3 and Helsingin Sanomat and Kansan Uutiset were not Helsingin Sanomat, mixed in a more popular ap- unexpected as such, but rather illustrated the ways proach. Ilta=Sanomat, although close to the tabloid in which a big and a small newspaper cover a ”ne-

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Namnlöst-24 54 2005-08-16, 12:18 cessity” topic – one that is not too exciting but The (Unbearable?) Lightness: Lessons rather distant, with links to world politics. ”Wom- Learned from the Beijing News en’s issues” provided an extra twist that gave these news items particular tones and colour, which influ- Journalism from the times of the Iron Curtain enced the extent and style of the coverage. seems to be the ideal of those Beijing Kansan Uutiset paid relatively much attention to Conference participants who criticized the the Beijing Conference, and the drama embedded in press and YLE TV news on the manner of the FWCW and the NGO Forum gave this news an covering the event. (...) additional importance. On the other hand, this small Already in advance the Conference was paper was very dependent on the news agencies’ doomed in the media as unsuccessful. This output; over 50% of its stories originated from accusation is very strange. Both the officials them. The Finnish News Agency STT/FNB proved preparing the Conference and the NGO indispensable to Kansan Uutiset, and the paper representatives informed beforehand that could influence its profile only by selecting the sto- there were great difficulties even to keep to ries offered, not adding to them. However, KU made the decisions of the Cairo Population efforts to create a ”presence” in Beijing in that it Conference. Many organizations boycotted publicized a report by a participant and a few inter- the Beijing Conference or were forced to stay views with an official Finnish representative after home because of the terrible arrangements. the Conference. (...) Helsingin Sanomat seemed to follow another, When a tightly-knit group works hard well-planned strategy: regardless of the follow-up towards a goal, everthing else tends to be left criticism HS received from the participants, the data aside. The group spirit grows and the joy of alone shows that HS seemed to disregard the success is great. There is nothing wrong with Beijing news item as being substantially important, that but one must keep a sense of reality and but seemed to rather consider it as a topic for ”in-re- understand that outsiders might not share the ality” features. The presence of the paper’s own same bliss. Some of the criticism seems para- journalist in China was emphasized – only someone noid. It is stupid to waste energy in a war on location can know that tampons are over priced against imagined repression when the in Huairou... (Anarchy and tampons, 1.9.95). HS achievements of the Conference should be also made the clearest distinction between the translated into action. (HS Editorial ”Childish FWCW and the NGO Forum, compared to any other Anger” 21.9.1995) medium: readers might not have been aware of the difference, but the style of HS reporting left no Did the Conference representatives have a real point questions in this respect. The NGO Forum, marginal in the criticism of the Beijing news coverage? As to the international power politics, was described in one of the participants stated (HS 21.9.95), did the colourful headlines (Anarchy and tampons 1.9.95, stories concentrate too much on veiled women and ”Chinese clean-up. Beijing is free of dust and impo- let the hot topic of the Filipino wives overshadow liteness. The Women’s Conference can begin”. the Conference? Or was the above cited HS editorial 3.9.95, ”Is Loimaa on the line? Is China following right in referring to the ”childish anger” of some us?” [article on the tele conference] 3.9.95). In con- Finnish Beijing participants? trast, the FWCW – where nations’ officials were ne- The analysis of the TV, radio and newspapers gotiating – was approached with a more respectful stories on Beijing, to say the least, shows that the tone (for instance: ”Hillary Clinton criticized Chi- opening of the Fourth World Conference on Women na’s human rights situation. The participants were (4.9.95) received ”good” coverage: the event was surprised at this strong standing” 6.9.96, Nordic reported in the press headlines and it was the first participants criticized China’s nuclear testing. Also foreign news item in the electronic media. On the Finns participated in a demonstration in Beijing” other hand, TV and radio concentrated on the two 8.9.95). In sum, HS started with light, ”on location” conflict topics: China versus participants and the columns, continued with a tabloid-like dramatiza- Nordic versus the Vatican – Islamic approach on the tion of conflicts, and ended up upset and irritated al- status of women. The news items described in this most a month later, responding in an editorial to the article did not touch upon other concrete political criticism made by the Conference participants on its and economical themes which were on the agenda coverage (21.9.95). of the Conference and the Forum. Neither did these

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Namnlöst-24 55 2005-08-16, 12:18 news stories debate about the role of the 50-year-old follows the traditional criticism of the negative cri- UN in global politics. The observations related to sis-based orientation of the news, the other suggests these themes and actors were, in fact, the essence of a general change in Finnish journalism. First of all, the criticism: Agreements and the consensus on the the analysis of the news on the FWCW and the Fo- Platform of Action were not discussed. rum tells about the role of international politics and In addition, the comparison between the news especially about the role of the UN in the media. coverage by Helsingin Sanomat and Kansan Uutiset The UN, although the organizer, did not become a may shed light on other aspects of the critical views. central actor in the Beijing news, but when there is a The different approaches of these papers on Beijing conflict situation where this organization is in- and on journalism in general became clear at the be- volved (for instance as in Bosnia during the Foreign ginning and end of the coverage. Both papers only News Study), it becomes newsworthy. The Media- surfaced the issue, but in different ways. KU re- Watch research illustrates the same tendency: one vealed its leftist history more strongly than usual, in third of the news items on one day, in 71 countries, that it emphasized solidarity, in this case, solidarity were about politics and catastrophies, whereas other towards women. HS, in turn, represented itself as international issues, such as UN related topics, the forerunner of a kind of new journalistic practice amounted to only one percent of the stories. Sec- – of ”live broadcast”, as this on-location feature re- ondly, there seems to be a change in expressive style portage is called within the paper. However, when going on in the Finnish media, and to which all the HS was criticized, it reacted strongly, as seen in the media analyzed here tried to respond in their own above cited editorial. From the viewpoint of the way. The coverage on the Beijing women’s confer- Beijing coverage, this editorial can also be inter- ences emphasized the fact that this change is ongo- preted as paternalistic – especially since simultane- ing, since it made the media focus on a theme out- ous with the coverage of China, HS published a se- side of the traditional mainstream news journalism. ries of stories on the Filipino wives in Finland (alto- The Beijing lesson to journalism and its critique gether 21 stories, of which 19 were published in is, in simple terms, the following: news journalism September-October 95). This parallel coverage, is undergoing a process of became lighter, and more than anything else, reveals the standing of HS ”more popular”. This process can first, or easiest, be on the status of women in general. seen in the coverage of unconventional topics, such On the whole, the Beijing news coverage in the as the Beijing’s women’s conferences. This kind of Finnish media deserves some thanks, since it gave popularization may provide more space for uncon- space and importance to women and women’s issues ventional themes in newscasts. On the other hand, it much more than (foreign) news usually tends to do. also takes a toll on the substance of these themes The quantitative account of the data from the two and/or emphasizes dramatic and controversial ele- research weeks shows that Beijing news followed ments, more suitable for human interest journalism. the usual foreign news pattern: nations or their rep- In other words: contrary to the criticism, was the resentatives accounted for almost half of the actors, lightness of the Beijing coverage in fact bearable? If private individuals for some 20%. In this case, how- the coverage would not have focused on controver- ever, half of the actors were female, less than 20% sies, would Beijing have been in the news agenda at were male, and the rest were ”indefinable” – organi- all? zations, nations, governments and so on. Not sur- The main Beijing lesson to news flow studies, prisingly, in the Beijing news ”women’s issues” however, is that qualitative approaches bring forth amounted to almost 70% of all the main topics, 5% aspects which would never have been traceable by of the topics concerned international politics and quantitative means. This does not suggest that quan- 5% addressed human rights as the main issue. These titative research would be outdated or useless. Al- figures are emphasized when comparing them to the though a cliché, it seems that these two approaches news research of the YLE (Sana 1995) and to an not only complement each other but are essential to analysis of a news day in 71 countries (MediaWatch a full understanding of the nature of the foreign 1995). During both the ”regular” constructed news- news and the complex structures that produce and week of YLE and the one particular newsday of distribute it. For example, a quantitative approach MediaWatch, women represented only some one was enough to show that even the crisis of Bosnia is fourth of the actors, and there were hadly any still a ”regional” one, without global dimensions, in ”women’s issues” to be found. that its coverage concentrated on Western Europe The lesson learned of the Beijing coverage high- and Northern America. On the other hand, the qua- lights two distinctive trends – one illustrates and litative analysis seems fruitful in detecting more

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Namnlöst-24 56 2005-08-16, 12:18 subtle features of journalism and its infrastructures. clearly less heavy than their traditions would lead to As described above, the qualitative approach was expect. able to link the style and the content of the Beijing At this stage, our analysis of the Beijing cover- coverage with the resources available for the par- age was still more a finger exercise than a system- ticular media. In addition, it detected the widely atic qualitative search into the depths of the texts speculated – if not yet researched – trend of the and contexts concerned. If taken one step further, popularization of news. This analysis showed and given the chance of having similar case studies glimpses beyond the slogans about tabloidization, in on various media in various countries for compari- that it depicted some differences between crude tab- son, the exercise would become intellectually thrill- loid journalism and ”light news”. Ilta=Sanomat, for ing. In short, a balanced quanti/quali approach in instance, did not deviate from its role as a tabloid- flow research might make the flow tradition far oriented evening paper – neither did the more ”seri- more challenging and demanding. So far, the flow ous” Finnish news media go into tabloid topics. Yet, study has predominantly sufficed for the provision the way the latter discussed the Beijing news was of data only – no doubt often very relevant data. With one step further towards the dimension of qualitative research, the flow data may create the potential to develop a complex network of questions on the essence of journalism.

References Pietiläinen, Jukka (1998b) Uutisvirtojen maailma [The world of news flows]. in Kivikuru, U.; Pietiläinen, J. Buchanan, William & Cantril, Hadley (1953) How Na- (eds.) Uutisia yli rajojen. Ulkomaanuutisten mai- tions See Each Other. Urbana. Ill.: University of Illi- sema Suomessa [News cross borders. The landscape nois Press. of foreign news in Finland].Tampere: University of Galtung, Johan & Ruge, Maria Holmboe (1965) The Helsinki, the Lahti Centre for Research and Training Structure of Foreign News. Journal of Peace Re- (64-83). search 1 (64-91) Pietiläinen, Jukka (1998c) Ulkomailta Suomeen: Galtung, Johan & Vincent, Richard (1992) Global Glas- määrällinen analyysi [From abroad to Finland: the nost. Cresskills: Hampton Press. quantitative analysis] in Kivikuru, U.; Pietiläinen, J. Gerbner, Georg & Marvanyi, Gyergy (1977) The Many (eds.) Uutisia yli rajojen. Ulkomaanuutisten maise- Worlds of the World’s Press. Journal of Commun- ma Suomessa [News cross borders. The landscape of ication 27:1 (52-66) foreign news in Finland]. Tampere: University of Hjarvard, Stig (1995) International TV-nyheder. En Helsinki, the Lahti Centre for Research and Training historisk analyse af det europaeiske system for (84-108). udveksling af TV-nyheter [International TV News. A Sana, Elina (ed.) (1995) Naiset, miehet ja uutiset Historical analysis of the European system for Ex- [Women, men and the news] Yleisradion tasa- change of TV news]. Århus: Akademisk Forlag. arvotoimikunnan julkaisuja A1:95. Helsinki: Finn- IPI (1953) The Flow of News. A Study by the Interna- ish Broadcasting Company. tional Press Institute. Zürich: IPI. Schramm, Wilbur (1960) One Day in the World’s Press. Kayser, Jacques (1953) One Week’s News. Comparative Fourteen Great Newspapers on a Day of Crisis. Study of 17 Major Dailies for a Seven-Day Period. Stanford:Stanford University Press. Paris: Unesco. Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle with Nordenstreng, K., Kivikuru, Ullamaija; Pietiläinen, Jukka (1998) Uutisia yli Stevenson, R. & Ugboajah, F. (1985) Foreign News rajojen. Ulkomaanuutisten maisema Suomessa in the Media. International Reporting in 29 Coun- [News cross borders. The landscape of foreign news tries. Reports and papers on Mass Communication in Finland].Tampere: University of Helsinki, the No 93. Paris:Unesco. Lahti Centre for Research and Training. Vehmas, Raino (1964) Sanomalehtiemme ulkomaanai- Pietiläinen, Jukka (1998a) Ulkomaanuutisten vaiheita ja neisto [Foreign news material in our newspapers]. tuloksia [Phases and results of foreign news re- University of Turku, Department of Sociology Se- search] in Kivikuru, U.; Pietiläinen, J. (eds.) Uutisia ries B 10. yli rajojen. Ulkomaanuutisten maisema Suomessa WomenWatch – Women’s Participation in the News [News cross borders. The landscape of foreign news (1995) Report of the MediaWatch Study. Toronto: in Finland]. Tampere: University of Helsinki, the MediaWatch. Lahti Centre for Research and Training (15-43). Östgaard, Einar (1965) Factors Influencing the Flow of News. Journal of Peace Research I (39-63).

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Namnlöst-24 57 2005-08-16, 12:18 58

Namnlöst-24 58 2005-08-16, 12:18 Radioforskning – en översikt1

CARIN ÅBERG, WENCHE VAGLE & IB POULSEN

Da medieforskningen for alvor kom i gang i løbet af ligt tilgængelige forskning, og det har betydet at 60’erne, blev den et langt stykke af vejen synonym studenterforskningen – hvor værdifuld den end er – med forskning i medieinstitutioner og i det dengang i det store og hele er udeladt. nye og fascinerende medie: tv. Der blev naturligvis Hvad vi har villet forsøge er at å umiddelbart også forsket i det andet store elektroniske medie, ra- overhovedet primært. Hvad angår rubriceringen, ud- dio, men langt fra så massivt og systematisk. At ka- springer den dels af den forskning vi rent faktisk ste sig ud i et forsøg på at give en oversigt over henviser til, dels af en etablerede grupperinger in- radioforskningen rejser således en række problemer. den for medieforskningen. Hvad vi har villet for- Først og fremmest naturligvis at finde den forskning søge er at tage et første skridt i forsøget på at ud- frem der faktisk eksisterer. Dernæst at afgrænse den brede kendskabet til den radioforskning som vi har – udadtil i forhold til institutions- og tv-forskning fundet frem til inden for vore respektive forsknings- og indadtil i forhold til mere essayistiske beskrivel- projekter om radio, især inden for den skandinavi- ser foretaget af radiojournalister og til den mere og ske, tyske og engelske litteratur. Der er i ganske fun- især mindre tilgængelige forskning der er foretaget damental forstand tale om ”work in progress” forhå- af studerende i talrige opgaver og specialer. bentlig til inspiration og gerne supplement. Vores Det foreliggende forsøg prætenderer på ingen rubricering gør ikke krav på at være absolut, og der- måde at dække området fuldstændigt. Hvad der er for dukker enkelte referencer op under flere kate- taget med, er i høj grad udtryk for vore egne forsk- gorier. ningsinteresser og vort eget arbejde med radio gen- nem årene. Dertil kommer hvad en række kolleger har henledt vores opmærksomhed på. Og i forhold Publikums- og bruksstudier til afgrænsningen har vi anlagt følgende kriterier, Forskningen kring radions publik omfattar kvantita- med skyldig hensyntagen til at kompromisíer aldrig tivt sett det största området och dess inriktning och helt kan undgås. Vi har forsøgt at lægge vægten på frågeställningar utgör ofta ett gott exempel på det egentlig forskning og har dermed begrænset referen- Lazarsfeld (1941) kallade administrativ forskning. cerne til de mere essayistiske fremstillinger. Vi har Något som senare kritiserats av Ang (1991), dvs desuden koncentreret os om radioen som medie og forskning syftande till att få kunskap om mediets har derfor heller ikke taget al den institutionsorien- publik och användning, i Angs terminologi ”att kon- terede forskning med hvor radioen også indgår. En- struera publiken”. I USA är denna inriktningen kon- delig har vi valgt at koncentrere os om den alminde- centrerad kring lyssnarmätningar från perspektivet ”lyckade programstrategier” medan publikforsk- ningen t ex i länder med dominerande public ser- JMK, Stockholms universitet, Box 27861, SE-115 93 vice-företag, förutom rena räckvidds- och andels- Stockholm, [email protected] mätningar, kretsar kring mera specifika använd- Institutt for medier og kommunikasjon, Universitetet i ningssätt, begriplighet och levnadsvanor (se t ex Ra- Oslo, Postboks 1093 Blindern, N-0317 Oslo, dio och tv möter publiken. En bok från publik- och [email protected] programforskningsavdelningen vid Sveriges Radio Institut for nordisk filologi, Københavns universitet, (1972) samt Brown 1983). En alternativ ansats inom Njalsgade 80, DK-2300 København, receptionsforskningen är Jonson (1991) där innehåll [email protected] i lyssnarbrev redovisas och diskuteras.

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Namnlöst-23 59 2005-08-16, 12:19 Tendensen under det senare 1980-talet och fram- & Stanton (red) 1944, 1949, Mendelsohn 1964, över tycks i allt högre grad ansluta sig till reklam- 1966, McFarland 1993, 1997, se även ett europeiskt institutens intressesfärer, dvs räckviddsmätningar bidrag i Hennion & Meadel 1986). I Kanada och mätningar av smakpreferenser hos vissa socio- återfinns ytterligare en riktning vilken i enskilda fall ekonomiskt och demografiskt definierade presum- behandlat radio, centrerad kring Murray R Schafer – tiva konsumentgrupper (se t ex bevekelsegrunderna radio som soundscape. I Storbritannien har på för det danska regnskaps-tänkandet och samman- senare tid åtminstone två ansatser till en semiotisk ställningen över 80-talets publikforskning i Finland analys av radio publicerats (Crisell 1986, Shingler skriven av Ruohomaa 1991). Något som kan tolkas & Weringa 1998). som en skärpning av sakernas tillstånd i samband I de nordiska länderna tycks radioforskningen, med den ökade avregleringen och kommersiali- förutom publikundersökningar, i Norge företrädes- seringen av radiomediet, helt i analogi med Angs vis ha handlat om språket i radio, i Danmark ha haft perspektiv. Ett ökat intresse för innehåll och lys- mer institutionella och politiska förtecken och i Fin- snarkategorier i relation till den USA-inspirerade land och Sverige till stor del handlat om relationen formaterade radion kan också märkas (se t ex Hed- mellan lyssnarna och produktionsinstitutionen. I man 1995, 1997) förbindelse med de olika public service-företagen I spänningsfältet mellan rena publikstudier och återfinns för övrigt en majoritet av den forskning mer beteendevetenskapliga ansatser finns ett flertal som företagits kring radio (för översikter se studier genom åren, i vissa fall med ett mer Søndergaard 1996, von Feilitzen 1997, Hujanen teoretiskt resonerande. Det handlar om radio som 1997, Langham & Chrichley 1989, Rolland 1996). propagandainstrument (se t ex Bergmeier & Lotz Några övriga exempel utgörs av institutionsforsk- 1997, Childs & Whitton 1942 och Hodge 1985); ning dvs frågor om reglering och organisering av lyssnande i jämförelse med läsning (se t ex Haugh programverksamheten och ägandeförhållanden 1952 och Warner & Henry 1948); och radio som (Brunnberg & Elgemyr 1987, Cederberg & Elgemyr underhållning, interpersonell kommunikation eller 1984, Hedman 1990, Hujanen & Jauert 1998, behovstillfredsställelse, dvs tidstypiska studier från Jankowski et al (red) 1992, Jauert & Prehn 1995, ”uses & gratification” perspektiv (se t ex Armstrong Lewis & Booth 1989, Lundby & Futsæter 1993, & Rubin 1989, Avery & McCain 1982, Bierig & Mortensen 1975, Poulsen 1995, Skogerbø 1996, Dimmick 1979, Eberhard 1962, Herzog 1941, 1944, Søndergaard 1994, 1995, Syvertsen 1992, se även Lazarsfeld 1940, Mendelsohn 1964, 1966, Tramer enskilda bidrag i Hultén et al 1996, t ex Kemppai- & Jeffres 1983, Winslow 1944). Andra teman utgörs nen & Soramäki 1996, Poulsen 1996, Søndergaard av olika studier kring effekter och användning, 1996). huvudsakligen koncentrerade till information, nyhe- ter och vuxenutbildning, reception, religion och minoritetspråksändningar (se t ex Andreasen 1985, Radiohistorie Höijer & Nowak (red) 1990, Eberhard 1962, Surlin Radiohistoriska texter utgör också en betydande del 1986). av forskningen kring radio, de flesta radiobolag har i någon mån sin historia skriven. Bland de lite mer Nasjonale retninger innen radio- övergripande framställningarna kan nämnas Bar- nouws två böcker om Förenta staternas radiohistoria forskningen (Barnouw 1966, 1968). En mindre känd bok om Detta hindrar inte att radioforskningen från samma tidig radio historia i USA är Douglas 1987. BBC övergripande perspektiv historiskt sett tycks ha har sin historia skriven i Briggs (1961-95) och från vissa mer nationella särdrag. Forskning kring radio- ett vidare och mer samhällshistoriskt perspektiv i drama och hörspel har sin huvudsakliga hemvist Scannell & Cardiff (1991). En historisk text från ett inom den tyskspråkiga radioforskningen, medan en något udda perspektiv utgörs av Shaun 1988, i annan riktning ursprungligen med radio som en vilken radions plats i vardagslivet diskuteras – radio betydande avdelning fokuserad kring det estetiska, även som apparat betraktad – och ytterligare ett återfinns inom elektronmusiken – musique concrète exempel kan utgöras av Briggs 1981. Norsk radio- – utgående från Pierre Schaefers experiment vid den historia och NRKs historia fram till 1981 finns franska radio. Radions betydelse som opinionsbil- framställd i Dahl (1975/99, 1978/99, 1991) och dande och underhållande källa, tillsammans med ut- Dahl & Bastiansen (1999). Sameradion behandlas i veckling av olika musikformat har adresserats Lindkjølen (1995), se även Simonson (1981). Lokal främst av forskare i Nordamerika (se t ex Lazarsfeld radiohistoria från Oslo återfinns i Hougen 1932.

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Namnlöst-23 60 2005-08-16, 12:19 Yleisradios historia är skriven av Salokangas Radioens estetikk og uttrykksformer (1996). En genomgång av utveckling av program och programformer görs i Nukari & Ruohomaa Sett i ett större perspektiv tycks forskning kring (1992, 1996). En rad jubileumsböcker från och om radions estetik och kommunikativa uttrycksformer Danmarks Radio utgör de väsentligaste bidragen till utgöra ett förbisett område. Går man tillräckligt radiohistorien i Danmark (Breidahl & Rée 1940, långt tillbaka kan man finna att den uppmärksamhet Christiansen 1950, Skovmand 1975, Jørgensen som radion väckte som nytt medium också gav an- 1984). Därtill kommer en rad monografier varav de ledning till några idag ännu tillgängliga skrifter där väsentligaste är Dahlerup (1968) Gerald (1926), radio som medium och uttrycksform står i centrum. Schmidt (1965). De estetiska formerna i radio I England framstår Pear (1931) som en av radio- beskrivs och diskuteras från ett historiskt perspektiv forskningens verkliga pionjärer i och med de studier i Nørgaard, F et al (red) (1975-78). I Sverige pågår han utförde kring lyssnares förmåga att enbart från ett företagshistoriskt projekt beskrivet i Cronholm olika röster bedöma olika demografiska och socio- (1996) vilket i skrivande stund resulterat i elva pub- ekonomiska variabler 1929–30, och hans framställ- likationer (varav nio förutom tv också handlar om ning av själva problematiken och de introspektiva radio: Abrahamsson 1999, Björnberg 1998, Elge- studier han gör är mycket intressanta att läsa så här myr 1996, Engblom 1998, Hänström 1997, Höijer drygt 65 år senare. Hans undersökningar upprepa- 1998, Sjögren 1997, Thurén 1997 och Wormbs des i Österrike av Herzog (1933) under ledning av 1997). En mer populärt hållen sammanfattande Lazarsfeld och i USA av Allport & Cantril (1935). volym av tre planerade inom samma projekt, är Tyska forskare, eller rättare sagt forskare inom Hadenuis (1998). Framhållas kan även Nordbergs det tyskspråkiga området i Europa, tycks som tidi- (1998) avhandling om folkbildningen och radion gare nämnts annars vara de enda som ägnat radio från ett idéhistoriskt perspktiv. som estetiskt medium något mer systematiskt in- Mer populära och illustrerade framställningar av tresse och därmed bildat vad man med lite god vilja radions historia i Sverige och Norge finns t ex i kan kalla en forskningstradition – hörspielsforsk- Persson (red) 1994 och Jønsson (red) 1993. Denna ningen. Ansatser från både litteraturteoretisk och typ av litteratur kring radio återfinns från ett flertal dramaturgisk utgångspunkt återkommer från radions länder där bidrag från Australien kan få utgöra barndom of framöver, där en av de frågor som ställs ytterligare ett utomnordiskt exempel: om tidig radio är huruvida radio är en uttrycksform per se eller ett och vardagsliv skriver Johnson (1981, 1988) och derivat av litteratur alternativt scenkonst (en sam- publikationer, både mer populärt och mer seriöst manställning finns i Kreckeis 1973, se även Jedele inriktade, är utgivna av Australian Broadcasting 1952, Metzger 1942, Paque 1936, Rohnert 1947). Corporation. I mer modern tid återfinns med början på 1960- Bland ej tidigare nämnd radioforskningen i USA talet ett förnyat intresse för hörspelet vilket i denna kan nämnas den summerande sammanställningen av framställning kan representeras av Cory (1974), ”läget” efter tio år med radio som författats av All- Bondebjerg (1990), Knilli (1959, 1960, 1970), port & Cantril (1935), där även några egna repliker Lewis (1981), Schwitzke (1963), Schöning (1970), av Pears (1931, se nedan) undersökningar företas – i och med en mer socialt präglad föregångare i Ma- övrigt ligger fokus på frågor av sociologisk, sam- letzke (1950). Speciellt intressant i detta samman- hällsekonomisk och socialpsykologisk art i förgrun- hang är kanske debatten mellan Knilli och Schwitz- den. En översikt över forskning runt amerikansk ra- ke kring hörspelet och dess status, där Knilli tar upp dio – historia, nätverk, radiodrama, radionyheter, Frankfurtskolans perspektiv på radio (se t ex radiomusik, radiokomedi och -varieté, radiosport Adorno 1941/1987), med ett nutida eko i Neumann- och kortvågsradio – återfinns i Greenfield 1989. Braun (1993) applicerat på musikönskeprogram. Flera studier av enskilda radiopersonligheter eller Ansatser till en historisk beskrivning av hörspels- programserier, företrädesvis från 1930- till 1950-tal, eller olika litterära traditioner i de nordiska länderna har företagits (se t ex Hilmes 1997, Brady 1989). En finns t ex i Hallingberg (1967) Hartenstein (1993), bok om nyhetsjournalistik i radio och tv ur ett Lundgren (1994). En mer metodologiskt hållen arti- historiskt perspektiv också med fokus på USA är kel om radiodokumentären är Bruun & Frandsen Bliss 1991 och en jämförande historisk studie av re- (1991). Bland den finska radiolitteraturen kan en guleringen av film och radio finns i Benjamin bok om radiodokumentärens uttrycksformer, ut- (1992). veckling och företrädare med internationella ut-

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Namnlöst-23 61 2005-08-16, 12:19 blickar nämnas (Salomaa 1989). I en likaså finsk an- ormatene er også behandlet innenfor andre pragma- tologi diskuteras radiodokumentärens estetik och tiske rammeverk enn CA (Schwitalla 1979, Jucker produktion (Karisto & Leppänän 1997). Frågor som 1986, Bucher 1994, Schlickau 1996). även tangeras i Nukari & Ruohomaa (1992, 1996). Et rammeverk som fortjener særskilt nevnelse er På senare tid återfinns inom det tyskspråkiga Erving Goffmans sosiologi, som er forankret i sym- området också radioforskning inom s k bolsk interaksjonisme. Hans essay ”Radio Talk” Publizistikforschung vars främsta intresse är riktat (1981) har vært en sentral spore for CA-retningens mot ägandeformer och de konsekvenser dessa får forskning omkring kringkastingssamtaler. för utbud och publik från ett mer statsvetenskapligt Nyhetssendinger er den programtypen som er perspektiv. I samband med detta har också radiopro- mest utfyllende beskrevet. I tillegg til CA-forsknin- grammens form och tablåläggning uppmärksammats gen, finnes det en del undersøkelser basert på andre (se t ex Bucher et al 1995, Schönbach & Goertz ”tidsriktige” bindestrekslingvistiske og kjerneling- 1995) samt publiksegmenteringen i samband där- vistiske disipliner. Kritisk teori har inspirert en del med (se t ex Weiß & Hasebrink 1995). Även Alm & studier (Mortensen 1972, Roeh & Nir 1990, Roeh Salminen (red) (1992) samt Salminen (1989) kan 1993). Innen anvendt språkvitenskap i Norden, räknas in i detta sammanhang. finnes en gruppe studier av kringkastingsspråk som hovedsakelig er stilistisk-syntaktisk orientert (Bull & Hagland 1976, Jörgensen & Svensson 1977, Radiospråk Svensson 1981, 1989, 1993, Jonsson 1982, Lind- Forskningen omkring medienes budskap, uttrykk og blad 1985, 1989, 1990). Både i nordisk og interna- tekster har de siste par tiår sett en voksende inte- sjonal sammenheng har lingvistisk og psykolingvi- resse for bruken av verbalspråket. Det meste av stisk forståelighetsforskning avstedkommet en denne forskningen dreier seg imidlertid om det rekke studier omkring nyhetsspråkets forståelighet trykte ord, særlig om pressens nyhetsdiskurs. Innen (Platzack 1977, 1980a, 1980b, Einarsson & Plat- de to internasjonale, trendsettende retninger på om- zack 1983, Höijer 1979, Höijer & Findahl 1984, rådet, kritisk lingvistikk (representert ved Fowler Vinje & Østbye (red) 1981, Poulsen 1988, 1992, 1991 og Fairclough 1995) og kognitiv tekstseman- Lutz & Wodak 1987, Wodak 1993, Hardt-Mautner tikk (representert ved van Dijk 1988a, 1988b), 1992, 1993). Internasjonalt har sosiolingvistikken nevnes kringkastingsmedienes nyhetsformater (og avfødt en del forskning, som mer eller mindre øvrige formater) bare i stedvise sidebemerkninger. uttrykt tar opp etermedienes eksplisitte og implisitte Enkelte av de generelle titlene inneholder noe mer språknormerende funksjon (Böhm m fl 1972, Bell stoff om kringkastingsspråket (Bell 1991, 1995, 1982, 1983, 1984, Leitner 1983b, Rabie 1991). En- Burger 1990, 1991). I oversikten som følger refere- delig kommer en gruppe undersøkelser av etersprå- rer vi ikke til arbeider som utelukkende behandler kets, særlig nyhetsspråkets, prosodi (Clemmer & språk i TV, men tar for oss dem som angår radio, Carrocci 1984, Gustafson 1991, Nevalainen 1992, isolert sett eller i kombinasjon med TV. Moss 1988, Panese 1996, Strangert 1991). Når det gjelder forskning som spesifikt tar for I tillegg til nyhetssendingene, er det tre særegne seg verbalspråket i kringkastingsmediene, finnes det kringkastingssjangere som – med sin utnyttelse av ett stort og produktivt paradigme – nemlig den radiomediets egenartede kommunikasjonssituasjon angloamerikanske konversasjonsanalyseretningen og ekspressive potensiale – har fanget forskeres in- (”conversation analysis”, CA). CA-tradisjonen har teresse: innringingsformatet (”phone-in”), plate- sine røtter i en bestemt amerikansk sosiologisk ret- prate-formatet (”DJ-talk”) og snakkeprogrammet ning, etnometodologien. En liste over CA- studiene (”talk-show”/”talk radio”). Nå avgrenser som oftest av ”flerstemmeformatene” i radio og TV (særlig i enkeltstudiene sitt gjenstandsområde til et bestemt nyhetsdekningen) ville alene dekke et titalls sider. programkonsept innen en bestemt kultur (til en be- Her nevnes derfor bare de mest framtredende for- stemt tid), og de nevnte formatene kan kombineres skere, representert ved et lite utvalg arbeider innenfor samme programkonsept. Det lar seg defor (Greatbatch 1988, 1992, Heritage 1985, Heritage et ikke gjøre å sortere enkeltstudiene i grupper med al 1988, Heritage & Greatbatch 1991, Clayman vanntette skott. En mulig grovsortering ser slik ut: 1991, Hutchby 1991, 1996a, 1996b, for ytterligere referanser, se http://www.pscw.uva.nl/emca/index. 1) Studier av innringingsformatet (Higgins & Moss htm). På nordisk område finnes Londen et al 1991 1982, 1984, Leitner 1983a, Cameron & Hills og Londen 1996. De ”flerstemte” kringkastingsf- 1990, Liddicoat m fl 1992, Mayringer 1993). På

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Namnlöst-23 62 2005-08-16, 12:19 nordisk område finnes Mårtenssons forskning adresseras (se även Åberg 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999). omkring radioens hverdagslige småprat (1989, Ett försök och en skiss till en fenomenologisk 1998). analys av radio finns i Nyre (1997, 1998). Andra mer kulturorienterade bidrag från 1930-talet och 2) Studier av ”plateprate-formatet” (Montgomery framåt finns samlade i Strauss (1993). 1986, 1991, Brand & Scannell 1991). I forlen- I övrigt återfinns bland de mer teoretiskt oriente- gelsen av Montgomerys artikler har vi på nordisk rade skrifterna mest tankegångar och hypoteser ba- område nylig fått en empirisk undersøkelse av serade på egna erfarenheter hos skilda radiomedar- ”radioprat og radioprateren” ut fra et ny-retorisk betare (Dahlerup 1968, Franzén 1991, Helén 1950, perspektiv (Åbrink 1998). Jerring 1946, Kirkvaag 1953, Klæbo 1954, 1983, 3) studier av snakkeprogrammet (Avery et al 1978, McWhinnie 1959, Meyer (red) 1992, Schwartz Bierig & Dimmick 1979, Troesser 1983, Tolson 1973, Sieveking 1934, Øksnevad 1946). En rik flora 1991, Armstrong & Rubin 1989, Gaik 1992, av journalistiskt inriktade handböcker förekommer Munson 1993, Hutchby 1991, 1996a & 1996b). (se t ex Boyd 1994, Crook 1998, Farmann & Under dette punktet hører Vagles forskning om- Kramhøft 1989, Hilliard (red) 1974, Häusermann & kring registervariasjon innen magasinformatet i Käppeli 1986, Lundin 1983, Torsvik (red) 1984). norsk radio midt på 1980-tallet (1990a, 1990b, 1991, 1992). Kulturanalytisk och inomdisciplinär Den historiske dimensjonen – utviklingen av kring- radioforskning kastningsregistere og sjangere – er forholdsvis lite Ytterligare en grupp av litteratur kring radio kan utforsket. Det finnes et par artikler i Biere & Henne urskiljas, vilken balanserar på gränsen till de övriga red (1993) som fokuserer på radiospråkets utvik- men där mediet ändå mer explicit står i fokus. ling, og dessuten noen enkeltstående studier og Ansatserna skiljer sig åt men den gemensamma observasjoner av odde karakter (Cardiff 1980, kärnan består av att radio ses som ett medium om- Jonsson 1989, Nordberg 1991, 1998, Poulsen 1991, gärdat av speciella villkor – ett perspektiv som ger Bruck 1993, Vagle 1997), men ut over dette reflek- författarens egen vinkling ett särdrag. Bland dessa terer radiospråkforskningen tilstanden innen ”språk- kan nämnas Weiß (1994) socialpsykologiska studier bruksstudiene” for øvrig – nemlig lav bevissthet kring betydelsen av radion som ”sällskap” och Alm omkring sjangernes historisitet og evolusjon. & Salminen 1992 om musik som ett medel i kampen I den offentlige nordiske diskurs er det språk- om lyssnarna i ett förändrat kulturklimat. røktsinteressen og språkpolitiske spørsmål som har Inom det tyskspråkiga området kan man också dominert diskusjonen omkring språket i eter- ana ett stigande intresse för form/innehållsanalyser i mediene (Dahlsted 1970, Vinje 1972, 1974, 1987, kombination med strukturella drag i olika lyssnings- Lund 1979, Molde 1980, Lomheim 1987, Jonsson praktiker, (se t ex Bucher et al 1995, Drengberg & Lindblad (red) 1980, Jonsson 1987, Jonsson (red) 1993, jfr även Publizistikforschung ovan). Dessa 1989, Alsnes (red) 1995). Nevnes i denne har åtminstone tre paralleller i Norden: Alasuutari sammenheng kan også de normgivende skriftene (1993), Steeg Larsen (1995) och Åberg (1996) samt som kringkastingsinstitusjonenes opplæringsav- en variant med fokus på mer kulturellt inriktade delinger og andre pedagogiske instanser har utar- analyser av radiomusik av Salminen (1989). Bland beidet til bruk for radiojournalister (Svergies Radio andra analyser av musik och/eller musikprogram i 1949, NRK 1950, 1959, 1983, Vinje 1984, Hansen radio kan nämnas Eckhart (1986), Münch (1995) & Lund 1996, Kristinsson 1998, Språkbrevet 1981-, och studier av musikindustri i relation till radiout- Tausen 1996, Vestad 1998). bud och ungdomskultur, t ex Bennet (red) 1993, ett temanummer av Media Culture and Society (nr 3 1986), Barnard (1988) samt Malm & Wallis (1992). Radioteori och erfaringslitteratur En i särklass estetiskt inriktad skrift kan också Mer rent teoretiska bidrag till radioforskningen nämnas t ex Kahn & Whitehead (red) (1992). tycks dock vara sällsynta. Brecht (1966) har, trots Olika inomdisciplinära ansatser där radio endast den lovande titeln, endast historiskt interesse. Två utgör ett medium eller en uttrycksform i relation till anspråk på omfattande radioteorier som dock bör disciplinens annars mer vanligt förekommande nämnas är Arnheims Radio (1936) och Crisells mediala former förekommer också (se t ex Burger Understanding radio (1986) där frågor kring radio 1990, Drakakis (red) 1981, Paget 1990, Salminen som kommunikativt och estetiskt medium direkt 1991, Schwitalla 1993, Strangert 1991), Några an-

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Namnlöst-23 63 2005-08-16, 12:19 satser med könsskiljande inriktning kan också näm- Journal of the Sociology of Language (vol 40, nas: Karin Nordbergs avhandling om radion som 1983), Medien Journal (nr 1 1993) European Jour- folkbildare (Nordberg 1998, se även Baehr & nal of Communication (nr 2, 1988) og Nordicom- Michèle 1984, Rouse 1979); en artikel om ideala Sverige 1989. “Broadcast talk” er temaet for et röster, i vilken radio användes som referens och för- spesialnummer av Media, Culture and Society (nr 4, klarande faktor (Valentine & Saint Damian 1988) 1986), samt for et spesialnummer av Text (nr 2, samt om obcenitet i radio (Carlin 1976). 1997). Radiohistorie et tema for nok et nummer av Media Culture and Society (nr 1, 1988). Fyra tidskrifter där radioforskning frekventivt Tidsskrifter publiceras är Journal of Radio Studies, Media Cul- Radio som medium står också i centrum för ett ture and Society, Media Perspektiven samt Rund- specialnummer av tidsskriften MedieKultur (nr 15, funk und Fernsehen. I övrigt förekommer spridda 1991), med artiklar som spänner över radiohistoria, artiklar relativt osystematiskt i tidskrifter inom det public service-radio i kris, musik, språk, radiomon- medie- och kommunikationsvetenskapliga fältet, ett tage och lyssnarundersökningar, liksom ett special- exempel utöver de ovan nämnda kan utgöras av nummer från Nordicom som redovisar radioforsk- Journal of Communication (nr 1 1976). ningen i de nordiska länderna (Carlsson (red) 1997). Från denna sammanställning framgår att radio Likaså återfinns i Norsk Medietidskrift nr 1, 1998, addresserats från åtskilliga perspektiv och med olika artiklar om radio. En liknande sammanställning utgångspunkter, företrädesvis skiljer sig undersök- kring radiomediet från huvudsakligen ett nordame- ningar där radio endast utgör ett passande objekt för rikanskt perspektiv återfinns i Media Studies Jour- applicering av ett speciellt perspektiv, från dem där nal (nr 3, 1993) och Communication Research radio står i centrum. För den som vill fortsätta inom Trends (1997, nr 4). Noen spesialnummer om den detta forskningsområde finns det alltså åtskilligt att tekstanalytiske retningen innen medieforskningen läsa om än kanske inte samlat på ett och samma inneholder stoff om radiotekster: International ställe.

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Namnlöst-23 71 2005-08-16, 12:19 Valentine, C A & B Saint Damian (1988) Gender and Åberg, C (1997) To the Question of Sounds in Radio Culture as Determinants of the ‘Ideal Voice’ Semio- Analysis. I Carlsson (red) Radio Research in Den- tica vol 71. mark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. Göteborg: Weiß, R (1994) Unterhaltung mit dem elektronischen Nordicom. Dauergast. Zum Unterhaltungserleben mit dem Hör- Åberg, C (1998) Ljuden och analysen. Norsk Medie- funk. I Bosshart & Hoffmann-Reim (red) Medienlust tidskrift no 1. und Mediennutz. Unterhaltung als öffentliche Kom- Åberg, C (1999) Radio, æsthetics and the ’popular’. On munikation. München: Ölschläger. radio stations competion over ’the audience’. Weiß, R & Hasebrink, U (1995) Hörertypen und ihr Working papers 1999:2. Stockholm: Institutionen Medienalltag. Berlin: Vistas. för journalistik, medier och kommunikation, Stock- Vestad, J P (1998) Ord og uttrykk i norsk radiojourna- holms universitet. listikk. Høgskulen i Volda. Åbrink, H. (1988) ’Gomorron, Stockholm’ Radioprat som Vinje, F-E & H Østby (red) (1981) Vanskelige ord i nyhet- stil, genre och samtal med lyssnaren. Acta ene (VON): en ordkunnskapsundersøkelse. Upub- Universitatis Tamperensis 632. Tampere: Tammer- lisert forskningrapport. Oslo. fors universitet. Vinje, F-E & H Østby (1972) Språkbruken i radio og Øksnevad, T (1946) Det lå i luften. Oslo: Aschehoug. fjernsyn. Samtiden 1972 (5). Vinje, F-E & H Østby (1974) Språket i kringkastinga. I Språk i Norden: Skrifter utgivna av svenska språk- nämden. Stockholm Tidskrifter, samt specialnummer Vinje, F-E & H Østby (1984) Talespråk i etermedier. där radio förekommer (Upublisert hefte fra NRK’s opplæringsavdeling). Vinje, F-E & H Østby (1987) Språket i radio og fjernsyn. Communication Research Trends vol 17 no 4, 1997. Ra- I Johnsen (red) Vårt eget språk. vol I. Oslo: dio. Aschehoug. European Journal of Communication vol 3 no 2, 1988. Winslow, Ch N (1944) Sympathetic Pennies: A Radio Special issue: The Analysis of News Texts. Case Study. Journal for Abnormal and Social International Journal of the Sociology of Language vol Psychology (39). 40 1983. Special issue: Language and Mass Media. Wodak, R (1993) Radio Nachrichten. Information und Journal of Communication vol 40 no 1 1990. Spesial- Vorurteil. Medien Journal no 1. nummer om ”local radio”. Wormbs, N (1997) Genom tråd och eter. Stockholm: Stif- Journal of Radio Studies telsen Etermedierna i Sverige. Media Culture and Society vol 8 no 3 1986. Special issue: Wright, J W & L A Hosman (1986) Listener Perceptions Popular Music. of Radio News. Journalism Quarterly vol 63. Media, Culture and Society vol 8 no 4 1986. Special Åberg, C (1994) Sinnen och medier. I Carlsson et al (red), issue: Broadcast Talk. Kommunikationens korsningar. Göteborg: Nordi- Media, Culture and Society vol 10 no 1 1988. Special com. issue: Radio History. Åberg, C (1996) Mångfald=kvalitet?. En diskussion av Media, Culture & Society vol 16 no 4 1994. Spesial- mångfald och kvalitet från lyssnarperspektiv. nummer om mediehistorie (deriblant radiohistorie) Arbetstexter 1996:3. Stockholm: Institutionen för MedieKultur 1991 no 15 Tema: radio. journalistik, medier och kommunikation, Stock- Medien Journal no 1 1993. Spesialnummer om ”Radio- holms universitet. sprache”. Media Perspektiven Media Studies Journal Radio the Forgotten Medium? no 3, 1993. Nordicom-Sverige no 3-4 1989. Språket i massmedierna. Nordicom Review no 1 1997. Radio Research in Den- mark, Norway, Finland and Sweden. Norsk Medietidskrift vol 5 no 1 1998. Lyd i medierne. (Några artiklar om radio). Rundfunk und Fernsehen. Text (vol 17 no 2 1997). Special issue: Broadcast talk.

Webadress

http://www.pscw.uva.nl/emca/index.htm

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Namnlöst-23 72 2005-08-16, 12:19 A general description of a research program

Global Media Cultures A Research Programme on the Role of Media in Cultural Globalization

STIG HJARVARD

The objective of the research programme is to un- advance a comprehensive understanding and cri- dertake an extensive and focused analysis of the tique of globalization both as a concept and a socio- ways in which media cultures take part in processes cultural phenomenon. of globalization, including how they challenge ex- The media have an important impact on cultural isting cultures and create new and alternative sym- globalization in two mutually interdependent ways: bolic and cultural communities. The research pro- Firstly, the media provide an extensive transnational gramme will address these questions through a transmission of cultural products and, secondly, theoretical discussion and reexamination of existing they contribute to the formation of communicative international research and through a series of indi- networks and social structures. The rapidly growing vidual empirical studies. The programme is cross- supply of media products from an international me- disciplinary in nature, and involves a series of me- dia culture presents a challenge to existing local and dia. Thus, theories and methodologies draw upon national cultures. The sheer volume of the supply, both humanistic and social science disciplines and a as well as the vast technological infrastructure and multiplicity of media cultures is examined: televi- financial capital that pushes this supply forward, sion, Internet, advertising, news, sports etc. have a considerable impact on local patterns of cul- The point of departure is the crucial role played tural consumption and possibilities for sustaining an by media in particular electronic and audiovisual independent cultural production. Global media cul- media, in the cultural, political, economic and social tures create a continuous cultural exchange, in processes that together constitute the process of which crucial aspects such as identity, nationality, globalization. By globalization is meant a develop- religion, behavioural norms and way of life are con- ment through which the constraints of geography on tinuously questioned and challenged. These cultural social and cultural structures are reduced, an in- encounters often involve the meeting of cultures creased social and cultural interconnectivity across with a different socio-economic base, typically a time and space is created, and a heightened con- transnational and commercial cultural industry on sciousness is developed about this secession of so- one side and a national, publicly regulated cultural cial and cultural interaction from geographical con- industry on the other side. straints. Globalization, however, is neither an unam- Due to their very structure, global media pro- biguous concept, nor does it refer to a single and mote a restructuring of cultural and social commun- specific socio-cultural phenomenon. Similarly, ities. Just as media such as the press, and later radio globalization is not a historically new phenomenon and tv have been very important institutions for the that is only confined to the 20th century. Conse- formation of national communities, global media quently, one aim of the research programme is to support the creation of new communities. The Internet, for example, not only facilitates commun- ication across the globe, but also supports the Department of Film & Media Studies, University of formation of new social communities in which Copenhagen, Njalsgade 80, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, members can interact with each other. And satellite [email protected] tv and radio allow immigrants to be in close contact

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Namnlöst-21 73 2005-08-16, 12:19 with their homeland’s language and culture while enisation and differentiation, and this duality will be they gradually accommodate to a new cultural envi- a central feature in the analysis of cultural globaliza- ronment. The common point of departure for the re- tion. search programme and its individual projects is the 2) Socialisation and the formation of cultural assumption that a series of international media con- identity. The media have increasingly become an in- stitutes a global cultural supply in itself and serves dependent institution for socialisation and the de- as an independent agency for cultural and social velopment of cultural identity. With a rapidly expan- globalization, in which cultural communities are ding international communication flow bringing continuously restructured and redefined. media representations of foreign cultures into local cultural environments, the premises of cultural metabolism have changed and cultural reflexivity Thematic Areas has increased at the level of the individual. On the The research programme is organized around a set one hand, global media cultures represent a cultural of thematic areas of particular relevance to the pro- otherness, at times a threat to cultural tradition and cesses of cultural globalization. These thematic ar- autonomy. On the other hand, global media cultures eas will each be taken up in one or more of the often contribute to a development of local cultures, subprojects and concern: 1) the experience of mo- bringing them into contact and on a par with the so- dernity, in particular time/space categories, 2) cial reality of a globalized modernity. The research socialisation and the formation of cultural identity, programme will pay particular attention to the ways 3) mediated communities and action, and 4) demo- in which the media contribute to the differentiation cracy and political culture. These thematic areas in- of this continuous exchange between local and glo- volve cultural globalization at both: a) the general bal culture and to its consequences for socialisation cultural and societal level; b) the institutional level, and the formation of cultural identity. c) the social group level, and d) the individual level. 3) Mediated communities and action. The media 1) The experience of modernity in a global cul- and the communication technologies in general ture. A key element in the analysis of the experience have facilitated the formation of collective com- of modernity as both a general form of mentality munities. They have also made possible commun- and a mode of aesthetic production, is the loosening icative and social action across time and space. of time and space from the bonds of locality and Concomitant to globalization we also see the forma- tradition. In the globalized reality of high moder- tion of communities that are almost exclusively nity, the disassociation of cultural and social activity established by means of media cultures (for instance from local constraints has radical consequences: al- music fan clubs, Internet chat groups etc.). This in- most all of those institutions that during the 19th and creased ”medialization” of cultural communities has 20th century have ensured a modern structuring of an impact on how interaction takes place in such cultural and social experience, typically at a local or communities; in particular, interactions take on a national level, have either been significantly influ- more abstract and symbolic character as compared enced by globalization or have been challenged by to those taking place in social situations with non- other transnational institutions. The family, the na- mediated interpersonal encounters. The notion of tional educational system, the arts, the political sys- social action changes character as well. Through the tem, the mode of industrial production etc. have all media and the communication technologies, social been influenced by the transnational networks and action increasingly takes place on a global scale; po- institutions that have emerged in the wake of glob- litical action is carried out through the international alization. news media, and economic action is taken through At the same time, the very processes of globali- various interactive exchange services, for instance zation have made it apparant that in spite of the ex- Reuter’s financial services and similar organiza- istence of globalized cultures, including a global tions. Mediated action also takes place in the cul- media market, the experience of modernity is not a tural field, but the concept of mediated cultural ac- unified phenomenon. The experience of modernity tions and communities must be investigated further. among the well-educated and economic elite living The research programme will examine the mediated in industrialised regions of the world is literally character of cultural communities, and in particular worlds apart from the ways modernisation processes scrutinise and develop the concept of social action are experienced by immigrants in the same regions when applied to mediated social encounters. of the world or by people living in the third world. 4) Democracy and political culture. An import- The media play a significant role for both homog- ant consequence of globalization is the growth of

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Namnlöst-21 74 2005-08-16, 12:19 multicultural societies, in which people of different and the humanities will be examined. Secondly, to cultural backgrounds (ethnic, religious etc.) must present an elaborated theoretical account of the role coexist. Although the individual cultural groups of media in cultural globalization. Thirdly, to under- may maintain their own language, culture, and tradi- take two empirical case studies regarding trans- tion, the different groups in a multicultural society national news coverage and advertising in order to are obliged to deal with their mutual, collective illustrate and challenge theoretical models of globa- problems in a common political/public sphere. This lization on the basis of empirical evidence. has, in some cases, aggravated the contradiction be- The four thematic areas will be of central con- tween a universal (and Western) conception of cern for the theoretical analysis and discussion. In democracy, civil rights and duties, on the one hand, addition to this, newer work on socio-cultural de- and a culturally specific perception of people’s right pendency and dominance will be considered in or- to participate and the procedures of government, on der to discuss and develop both older critical and the other. As, e.g., Jürgen Habermas has argued, the Marxist theories of dependency and newer ”revi- growth of multicultural societies makes it pertinent sionist” and neo-liberal theories of pluralism. The to analyse and discuss the relationship between uni- role of media as reembedding mechanisms of mo- versal ideals of democracy and forms of political dernity will be related to newer studies of commun- culture and culturally specific political norms and icative characteristics of audiovisual media. Finally, values. the theoretical discussion will consider the theme of Due to increased socio-geographic interconnect- mediated communities and action through a discus- edness, globalization entails a new stratification of sion of the relationship between action and knowl- the political and cultural spheres with the establish- edge. The hypothesis is that globalization encour- ment of local, regional and transnational public ages a partial decoupling of social action from sym- spheres adjacent to the national public sphere. There bolic knowledge. are several ways to respond to this challenge to the The two empirical case studies focus on the news autonomy of the national public sphere. One is to coverage of an international conflict and trans- expand the principles of the national public sphere national advertising campaigns that clearly the- to a global level, thus creating global political and matise intercultural relations and conflicts. Com- cultural spheres based on the national model. An- mon to the two case studies is that they are both other is to take the very differentiation of political used to illustrate and discuss questions about trans- and cultural spheres as the point of departure and cultural communication and representation, includ- accept that political and cultural deliberation takes ing how culturally specific values inform the pres- place in a more complex, multi-layered set of public entation and understanding of global events, and spheres, in which no single sphere has either univer- how the media’s affiliations to either national or sal coverage or absolute supremacy. The research transnational cultures affect their representation of programme will consider the impact of globalization other cultures. In both case studies, the methodo- on democracy and political culture at a theoretical logical starting point is discourse analysis. level and as an analytical theme in several of the subprojects. Interactive Worlds: Theories, Models, and Methods for Studying the Internet Subprojects of the Research Programme Responsible: Klaus Bruhn Jensen, Dr. Phil. In addition to its general activities, the research pro- University of Copenhagen gramme consists of seven subprojects. Each subproject Building on the computer as a common platform, a is conducted by a member of the research group. variety of new information technologies (IT) – nota- bly the Internet – have made possible communica- tion and action across time and space in a form and Mediated Communities and Discourses in on a scale that is without historical precedent. This Global Cultures project conducts a theoretical as well as empirical Responsible: Stig Hjarvard, Ph.D. investigation of how communication via the Internet University of Copenhagen may contribute to a globalization both of the supply This subproject has three aims: Firstly, to provide a and of the uses of media across nation-states and critical presentation and discussion of existing theo- cultures. retical approaches to the processes of globalization. Earlier research on IT media has delivered many Both research and theories from the social sciences grand perspectives, but fewer systematic analyses,

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Namnlöst-21 75 2005-08-16, 12:19 although publications both internationally and in lysis will be aimed at the genre’s significance in the Denmark have provided constituents for an under- globalization processes. The talk show is usually as- standing of the computer as a medium. The theoret- sociated with American television, where it has ex- ical portion of the project first performs a reexamin- isted since the childhood of television. During the ation and assessment of previous contributions to 1980s, however, the genre has spread considerably theorizing and modeling the Internet, and next at- due to technological as well as economical circum- tempts an integration of three research traditions stances, and last but not least due to its audience ap- into an interdiscplinary approach. First, classical so- peal. In terms of the history of programming, the in- ciology (especially, Weber, Simmel, and Schütz) has fluence of American television on European televi- thrown light on the reorganization of the forms of sion has been substantial. Both nationally produced culture and consciousness under modernity, particu- and American talk shows are interesting in this re- larly the reorganization of time and space via new gard, because the genre plays a more and more im- institutions and media. Second, three decades of re- portant role in the programme supply in Europe. search on literacy has produced important insights The relatively limited research on the talk show into the relationship between oral and literate cul- has been focused on typologies within a national tures, with implications for digital culture. Third, context, and American media and cultural research media and communication research has developed dominate the existing literature. From a European models as a means of describing and conceptualiz- point of view, this means that the genre’s signifi- ing the processes of communication associated with cance in the interplay and negotiations between a different media. Such models of ‘old’ media have global and a local context has not been assessed. explanatory value, as well, for ‘new’ computer me- The general thesis is that the fundamentally glo- dia, while, simultaneously, the computer offers an bal character of the television medium and the talk instrument of research which may model and simu- show will influence the producer’s as well as the late its own specificity. viewers’ expectations of the genre. The project will The empirical portion of the project consists in focus on two questions, which are related to the four two case studies about the social uses of the Internet thematic areas of the research program. Firstly, the in different contexts. The objects of analysis will be question is to what extent the different adaptations two organizations, respectively a pre-existing inter- of the genre’s fundamental characteristics and of its national organization that has come to rely on the relation to the viewers entails a homogenisation of Internet as one of several windows on the world, content and expression across cultural and national and an organization which was constituted in and of differences. Or whether it should be considered as a the Internet. Among the key research issues will be differentiation, in which cultural, sociological and the flows of communication to, from, and within institutional differences can be observed in specific these organizations, not least the participation of aesthetic and thematic practices. Secondly, the ques- their members from more or less distant locations. tion is whether the fundamental purpose of the talk The users’ experience of, engagement with, and as- show, which is to establish a sense of having com- sessment of their virtual organization is of special pany and of community, can create mediated com- interest for an understanding of how the Internet munity experiences of a political and social charac- may support new forms of social interaction. In con- ter for the viewers regardless of local, national and junction with more elaborate models of the Internet, cultural differences. the empirical findings may help to develop a typo- The methodical approach is a comparative tex- logy of the various forms of ‘interactivity’ that IT tual analysis of the audience discussion talk show in media facilitate between their users and an increas- the USA, Great Britain and Denmark. Furthermore, ingly diverse set of possible worlds. qualitative audience research will be done on Dan- ish audience groups’s reception of national as well as imported audience discussion talk shows. The Talk Show: A Popular Cultural Genre in the Global and Local Television Culture Responsible: Hanne Bruun, Ph.D. The Global Sports Community Seen from Aarhus University a Danish Perspective The objective of this project is to analyse one of Responsible: Kirsten Frandsen, Ph.D. television’s important genres: The talk show. The Aarhus University genre will be examined in the light of an increas- This project is a reception study focusing on Danish ingly international television culture, and the ana- television viewers’ experience of the coverage of

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Namnlöst-21 76 2005-08-16, 12:19 the Olympic Games in Sidney in the year 2000. dia uses towards international, national and local Former research, mainly based on textual analysis, media and media texts? What are their thoughts on has shown that national media’s representations of the meaning of international, national, and local me- international sports games often are rooted in na- dia? How is the meeting of internationally and lo- tional and culturally specific symbolic frames. cally produced media texts revealed in the youthful Both sports events and media events have been media cultures and, hence, how does it penetrate the conceived of as ritualistic and ceremonial events children’s and young people’s thoughts and norms that in symbolic forms represent and confirm crucial in general? Do the children’s and young people’s and shared cultural values in modern society. The media uses indicate increasing homogeneity or are aim of this project is to analyse this from an audi- the international, national and local aspects of their ence perspective and gain a more substantial and media uses integrated in new patterns of under- specific understanding of how this is actually standing and experiences, that reflect homogeneity experienced by the television viewers at a big inter- as well as diversity? How do internationally pro- national sports event. duced media texts affect the constitution and devel- Right from the beginning, the Olympic Games of opment of youthful, cultural identities? Can an in- 1896 were meant to be an ideological tool for inter- ternational orientation towards transnational media national integration. At the same time, they were and media products be distinguished in general and meant to unify individuals and society through a if so, does it indicate a homogeneous, transnational particular ritualistic manifestation of national sym- youth culture? bols. Today, the Olympic movement is globally or- The project is primarily a reception study, that ganized and the games are global with respect to finds its point of departure in a mapping of the participation. Through television transmissions, the children’s and young people’s practical media uses Olympic Games become a global media event with- and preferences for certain media (TV, computers, in which the inherent ideology of both sports and music and literature), genres and actual media texts. the games is also distributed. The first part of the project is empirically based on From a text analytic perspective it has been ar- qualitative and quantitative analyses of data from an gued that media events, due to the immediacy of the existing study of children’s and young people’s me- transmissions, have a unique ability to create a feel- dia uses (”Children, Young People and the Chang- ing of solidarity among the media audiences despite ing Media Environment”), and on national studies the separation in space. This project seeks to find and data. The following part analyses children’s and out whether such integrating power implies an abil- young people’s thoughts on the meaning of global ity to cross cultural borders as well. and local aspects of their media uses in relation to By means of both quantitative and qualitative aesthetic and thematic traits in certain media texts, methodologies developed within audience research, representing the children’s and young people’s pref- the project will seek to answer crucial questions erences as described in the first part of the project. about the role of televised sports with respect to the This part of the project will be based primarily on creation of a local cultural identity in a society char- new qualitative interviews, but shall also draw on acterised by globalization. recent analyses. The project also discusses whether access to various international, national and local media Global and Local Aspects of Young products is reflected in the children’s and young Danes’ Media Cultures people’s preferences and practical media uses. Responsible: Gitte Stald, mag.art. Hence, a minor part of the project regards the media University of Copenhagen market and institutions, including marketing strate- This project has two overall focuses: children and gies and patterns of distribution of media products young people of today belong to a generation of with special reference to the preferred media texts multimedia users who look at the world, at each mentioned above. other and themselves through their experiences Finally, the project includes a comparative di- from media. Older children and young people make mension. The aim of this part is to compare the up a group, that more than others, turns towards in- meaning of global and local aspects of children’s ternational media and media texts, and yet they are and young people’s media uses in Denmark and also locally oriented. The aim of the project is to three European countries: Britain, France and Swe- discuss the following general questions: to what de- den. The comparison will primarily be based on em- gree do children and young people direct their me- pirical data and analysis from the international,

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Namnlöst-21 77 2005-08-16, 12:19 comparative project, mentioned above, and on re- creasing internalisation and of the way in which cent national studies in the four countries. The national and imported programmes are sched- project includes the comparative aspect in order to uled, the purpose being to describe the impact of contrast the reflection of global and local trends in internationalisation on programme policy. Danish children’s and young people’s media uses. 4) Media culture: The interplay between transi- The comparative aspects should also help to reveal tional television programmes and the national possible common traits in a European, transnational context of television reception will be analysed youth cultural discourse. in order to look at the cultural consequences of increasing internationalisation. Globalization of Television Responsible: Henrik Søndergaard, Ph.D. Mediated Identities and Cultural Change University of Copenhagen among Ethnic Minorities The aim of the research project is to analyse differ- ent dimensions of the current process of internation- Responsible: Thomas Tufte, Ph.D. alisation of television in order to investigate its im- University of Copenhagen pact on the cultural role of television. One of the Contrary to many other European countries, local questions is whether internationalisation leads to multicultural societies in Denmark are rather young, homogenisation and commercialisation of the tele- developing in the late 1960s and onwards. On a na- vision culture or whether it gives way to more diver- tional level, refugees, non-Western European immi- sity, thus stimulating cultural differentiation. Atten- grants and their descendants taken together consti- tion will be given to television’s communicative tute less than 5% of the population in Denmark. structure, especially its function as a meeting place These ethnic groups are, however, concentrated in a for otherwise separate areas and genres, which limited number of Danish municipalities where they makes possible diffusions between national and in- contribute to the formation of significant multi- ternational culture. ethnic societies. Two thirds of the ethnic minorities The internationalisation of television is often living in Denmark are located in the greater metro- considered to be a question of programme imports politan area in and around Copenhagen. and is mainly understood as a consequence of the This project focuses on these “new Danes” and development of satellite broadcasting. However, their process of integration into the Danish society. this represents an overly narrow perspective, be- Through an anthropological and, in particularly me- cause it underestimates the impact of the growing dia ethnographical study among ethnic minorities tendency among national broadcasters to adapt for- from a selected neighbourhood in Copenhagen, the eign programme formats and new tendencies toward project will focus on the relation between cultural transnational co-operation between broadcasters, homogenisation and cultural heterogenisation. The which also blur the boundaries between “national” purpose is to uncover patterns and strategies of me- and “international”. Foreign cultural influence now dia and cultural consumption among the selected occurs within programmes that constitute the na- groups in order to focus the analysis on their prob- tional dimension of programming, and thus new re- lems of integration and the grounds upon which search strategies are needed. The investigation will their integration process into the Danish society is focus on four different areas: based. Media ethnography allows an approach to everyday life whereby media and cultural consump- 1) Institutions: Co-operation and joint ventures be- tion can be linked to broader social questions. tween national and international actors will be The following questions will initially guide the analysed in order to describe current economical study: Which mediated communities or fellowships strategies and strategies of programme policy. exist among the ethnic minorities, and what is the relation between these fellowships vis-à-vis the so- 2) Programme production: The impact of new cial and cultural networks and fellowships that oth- forms of standardised production and more mar- erwise exist in the neighbourhood? Upon which ket-oriented methods of programme creation will socio-cultural grounds are the fellowships consti- be analysed. tuted (ethnicity, religion, education, age, gender, 3) Programme output and scheduling: An analysis etc)? Which strategies and patterns of media and of developments in programme output due to in- cultural consumption indicate progress in integra-

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Namnlöst-21 78 2005-08-16, 12:19 tion into the Danish society? What major challenges ticipant observation, media diaries, qualitative inter- do the ethnic minorities pose to the dominant cul- views and questionnaires; the latter will be distrib- tural discourses in the Danish society as such, and uted among a larger number of persons in the neigh- in the local neighbourhood in particular? bourhood. The analyses will include both gender The project will focus its case study on qualit- and generational perspectives. The families will all ative fieldwork among a small number of families, be ethnic minorities belonging to the most signifi- their everyday life and media use. The fieldwork cant ethnic groups in the neighbourhood. will last approximately one year and comprise par-

Addresses and participants

Main address Global Media Cultures Henrik Søndergaard, Ph.D. Department of Film & Media Studies e-mail: [email protected] University of Copenhagen Phone - office: +45 35 32 81 28 Njalsgade 80 Phone - home: +45 38 19 06 29 DK-2300 Copenhagen S Thomas Tufte, Ph.D. Denmark e-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.global.media.ku.dk Phone - office: +45 35 32 81 17 Phone: +45 35 32 88 11 Phone - home: +45 39 66 22 36 Fax: +45 35 32 88 10 Stig Hjarvard, Ph.D. * * * Head of Research Programme e-mail: [email protected] Participants from Aarhus University Phone - office: +45 35 32 81 13 Department of Information & Media Science Phone - home: +45 43 43 78 78 University of Aarhus Rikke Rasmussen, secretary Niels Juelsgade 84 Phone: +45 35 32 91 88 DK-8200 Aarhus N e-mail: [email protected] Denmark Phone: +45 89 42 19 56 Fax: +45 89 42 19 52 * * * Hanne Bruun, Ph.D. Participants from University of Copenhagen e-mail: [email protected] Klaus Bruhn Jensen, Dr. Phil. Phone - office: +45 89 42 19 70 e-mail: [email protected] Phone - home: +45 86 89 19 17 Phone - office: +45 35 32 81 04 Kirsten Frandsen, Ph.D. Phone - home: +45 38 28 05 64 e-mail: [email protected] Gitte Stald, mag.art. Phone - office: +45 89 42 19 74 e-mail: [email protected] Phone - home: +45 86 29 83 05 Phone - office: +45 35 32 91 81 Phone - home: +45 35 38 88 72

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Namnlöst-21 80 2005-08-16, 12:19 A general description of a research program

Media Societies Around the Baltic Sea Cultures and Communications in Transition

JAN EKECRANTZ, TOM OLSSON (research directors), STAFFAN ERICSON & PATRIK ÅKER

The roles of the mass media in times of social and archies. Third, these media do themselves construct cultural change is a moot issue in contemporary social, cultural and political worlds. Social and communications research. Not least the transitions other realities are not only represented in the media, of East Europe and the Baltic have triggered off a they are also constructed by the media. Society is lot of critical reflection concerning the received mediated. Fourth, the texts and general activities of models and concepts within the fields of media re- the media interact with other parts of society, lead- search and social transition theory. Thus, the trans- ing to a society, an institutional order, affected by formation of Eastern Europe has hastened reassess- and to some degree formed by the media construc- ments in international media research. Culture has tions (as, for instance, modern politics). These as- come into focus generally in social theory for in- pects call for documentation and studies of the me- stance as a constitutive force in the modern world dia output, its contents and forms, in both quantitat- system, and in the last decade or so various con- ive and qualitative terms. structionist perspectives have come to the fore- ground, implying that the media do more than re- Communications flect the world around them. and Cultures in Transition It is reasonable to assume that the social and politi- “Media Societies” cal changes in the Baltic and East European coun- A number of interrelated themes can be derived tries and the transnationalization of the media from different interpretations of the expression “me- sphere to a certain extent are interdependent pro- dia societies”. First, it refers to the fact that the me- cesses. Democracy movements relied on nationally dia as institutions and technologies are heavily im- and, not least, internationally televised events and, plicated in modern societies. In that simple sense later, Western commercial systems and program out- they are “media societies”. This calls for docu- put have had a strong direct and indirect impact in mentation and studies of the media systems as part these countries. The media and the media contents of society’s infrastructure, and their economic, legal are parts of historical realities and, on occasions, and professional bases. Second, the media constitute they also influenced the turn of events. a society in a somewhat more restricted sense, but Due to recent reorientations the field has come to with a wide impact – as elite culture or subculture of share research agendas with a mix of other specific professional and other groups. Thus, also (sub)fields, such as studies in political communi- journalistic and media production needs to be stud- cation, cultural identity formation, aspects of ied, including professional ideologies and self-per- modernity, popular culture, globalization theory, ception, the elite experts and popular talk show etc. The transformations in the last decade, of both hosts and other “media intellectuals” – their differ- Nordic and Post-Communist societies pose a chal- ent roles, modes of public address and internal hier- lenge to the social sciences. The contexts of global communication problematize such central concepts University College of Södertörn, P.O. Box 4101, as ‘modernity’ and ‘identity’ and the constitution of SE-141 04 Huddinge, ekejan@jmk,su,se intellectual and cultural fields. Within media studies

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Namnlöst-20 81 2005-08-16, 12:20 one has studied society as ‘imagined community’, poral and spatial parameters of transition and mod- agenda-setting in the public spheres, the discursive ernization. construction of social problems, identities and re- lations, and many other problem areas where in- ter-disciplinary approaches are much in need in or- Networks der to further the understanding of complex new re- The programme gathers researchers and network alities. partners from different academic sites, but has, apart from SH, three centres: University of Tampere, The Swedish School of Social Science (SSKH) and its Themes and Projects Research Institute (FISS) at the University of Hel- The objective of the research programme concerns sinki, and the University of Tartu. The following re- the role of the media, as political and cultural searchers from these three universities took part in agents, in reflecting, impeding or contributing to so- the planning of the programme: cial changes in the Baltic Sea region. The research University of Tampere: professor Kaarle Nor- objective is twofold: we are undertaking compar- densteng, researcher Juha Koivisto, PhD-student ative analyses of the transformations of the public Jukka Pietiläinen and associate professor Risto spheres and cultures in the countries involved, and Kunelius. studies of the roles of the media in processes of University of Helsinki: professor Ullamaija intercultural communication between the countries Kivikuru, director Tom Sandlund, associate profes- and regions, as it has developed historically. sor Tom Moring and professor Charles Husband, The programme consists of four major projects, University of Bradford and international reader at each one of them addressing one or more themes. the SSKH. The first two projects, (1) Journalistic and Media University of Tartu: Professor Marju Lauristin, Cultures and (2) Media Imagery, deal with journal- senior researcher Peeter Vihalemm and associate ism as a national culture and the general approach is professor Epp Lauk. comparative. Because of language and market con- Estonian Institute of Humanities, Tallinn: Dr ditions journalism has traditionally been very Mikko Lagerspetz, strongly tied to the national political culture and the We envisage extensive co-operation with exist- national frame remains the only viable one for most ing and planned research projects in these locations. comparative research purposes. Within these two At this stage the plans of co-operation have materi- projects studies are made of the role of media intel- alised in two cases: In Tartu two research projects, lectuals in the different countries, news of the Other, Construction of societal changes in Estonian media gender constructions and visualizations of the 1985-2000 (Lauristin and Vihalemm) and Changes Other. in journalistic culture during the post-Communist The broader field of media and communication transition (Lauk), are designed to match the Söder- studies is the frame for the two projects on com- törn programme. There will also be direct coopera- munication and transitional timespaces: (3) Cross- tion and coordination with projects in Tampere and Border Communication and (4) Discourses of Tran- Helsinki. sition. A recent phenomenon is the diversification of media markets and audiences, implying that na- tional borders are crossed not only by international Research projects or global media, but also by national and regional I Journalistic and Media Cultures ones. One study will focus on TV as a transnational field, others on the construction and representation (Tom Olsson) of transnational minorities. The fourth project repre- Comparative subprojects combine to give a coherent sents contextualized discourse analyses, bringing picture of significant traits of modern media prac- together and broadening the scope of the other tices. These practices look different in different so- projects. The foci are on constructions of social cieties, and they develop in different directions be- problems and cultural identities in a global context cause of variable societal conditions in the respect- and on narratives of change and difference, the tem- ive countries.

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Namnlöst-20 82 2005-08-16, 12:20 Media Intellectuals We are. The construction of the Other is an import- (Tom Olsson) Start: July 1998 ant element in the mobilisation and sustenance of collective identities, however identity, be it per- The expression “media intellectuals” refers to a sonal, national or regional, is never static but con- multi-dimensional phenomenon in the public stantly redefined and redefended in different histor- sphere. Historically the media have been a vehicle ical periods. The aim of the project is to look at the for intellectuals, as well as offering them a set of construction of the Other. How are national and roles and modes of expression. Today’s TV talk international notions of community represented show hosts and the “chronicles” in dailies and through changing images of the Other? How are magazines play a seminal role in the public sphere. they Others and how are they like Us? What types of The practices of the media intellectual are linked to kinship and distancing mechanisms are invoked? the creation of a “persona”, a media “personality”. Studies will be made of the production, over The star quality of media intellectuals suggests an time, of mutual images between the countries; these approach which focuses on the individuals express- concern the dominant or mainstream news media ing cultural and societal criticism in the media, as (“social faction”), gender constructions and visual- well as on the genres where this criticism appears. izations of the Other. One aim is to explore the varieties of personae and genres in different media, another the interplay Social faction: News of the Other between different kinds of media intellectuals. More (Kristina Riegert) Start: April 1999 important is their role as interpreters of the zeitgeist Political cultures and the journalistic construction and public sentiments, thereby tying the public to of the Other are studied through the hegemonic, mu- the media. They also form a society by themselves tual images in the major news media, in historical articulating different social and cultural interests and comparative perspectives. How are peoples and (Vox Pop vs. Elite etc). groups of other countries represented in the major One study offers concrete examples of the text- news media of the respective countries? Among the ual performances of politics in the Swedish press issues studied will be the local uses of international between 1925 and 1995 (later to be supplemented news texts and video footage in news about the Bal- by studies of other nations in the Baltic Sea area). tic states, the representation of “we” vs. “them, “na- This study depicts a recast of power among media tion” and “nationalism”, and territorial and non-ter- intellectuals. In 1925 liberal editors made an at- ritorial concepts of space and place. tempt to carve out a niche for themselves as inde- pendent media intellectuals, but counter-discourses Gender construction in representations were clearly visible in the press, amongst them the of the Other journalism of the watcher, a critical urban observer. (Anna Roosvall) Start: Feb. 1999 In the liberal version of the watcher the name of the When people of another nationality are presented in game was detachment and irony, in the conservative the Swedish news discourse, they are normally rep- version the name of the game was populist appeal. resenting the Other. However, there may be a differ- Today as the conservative and liberal versions have ence in the degree of otherness, a difference that is merged into one, the watcher has a dominant posi- not only a question of nationality, but also of gender tion, a pundit operating in a media demimonde. (as the construction of masculinity and the male Another study deals with the reactions to fall of norm are built upon the exclusion of femininity/ the Berlin wall in November 1989. In such a mo- women as the Other). Thus: what happens to indi- ment of turmoil roles were changed in the media so- viduals and groups (in the media texts) when they ciety and new stars entered the field challenging the are both of another nationality and of another sex? old pundits and setting new agendas for the public Is there a “double otherness” and how does it oper- talk. ate in media texts about the Other? What role do the media play in legitimating new gender ideologies (or reinforcing traditional ones)? In which public II Media Imagery (Patrik Åker) spheres are men and women represented, and how? In common academic parlance, identity is said to be constituted through categories of similarity and dif- Visualizing the Other ference. It is through the distinction between Us and (Patrik Åker) Start: Jan. 1999 Them and the relations between these two groups, Different studies will focus on pictures of the coun- that We not only define Them, we also identify who tries around the Baltic Sea. After 1989 the raise of

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Namnlöst-20 83 2005-08-16, 12:20 national identities in these countries have to co-exist menting the ideals of either “large scale” or “re- with the introduction of the concepts as “the Euro- stricted” cultural production. pean House” and the significance of the globaliza- Ericson plans a study for the programme of the tion process. Therefore it is not satisfactory to entrance and “trajectory” of a new actor within the speak solely of looking at the Other in relation to Swedish field of television: ZTV. In its first five national identities. The visualization of the Other years of existence (roughly corresponding with the can in another sense be seen as assumptions of spe- phase of deregulation for Swedish television), ZTV, cific European and global thoughts and values that represented a “position-taking” within the Swedish are naturalized. This stress the need to examine rep- field, based on distinctions against already estab- resentations in different media and compare for ex- lished forms of televisual production and qualities ample widespread western newsmagazines with lo- (differing from the positions of national public ser- cal papers. It also rises questions about pictures as vice as well as international, large-scale and com- sources in the process of constructing history. What mercial, media industries). other pictures do different representations evoke Beginning in 1998, Z-TV has also launched an and how can they be understood in relation to local, attempt to establish production and transmission on national, European, and global identities? location in Estonia, Latvia and Lithunia. A study of this process will not only provide an opportunity to III Cross-Border Communication study the strategies by which a fairly small, com- mercial television company today may expand in a (Staffan Ericson) new, international market. It may also demonstrate The project deals with different aspects of cross-na- how cultural differences between two local contexts tional communication: the different functions of (Sweden and the Baltic states), and structural differ- transnationally oriented media, such as commercial ences between two local “fields”, may influence television in different national contexts, as well as such strategies and their success. The empirical the establishment of new, transnational communica- comparisons of this case study may also be related tions structures, such as Cross-border minority me- to more general questions in television theory: if dia and the Internet. and how the model of cultural fields may be em- ployed in transnational contexts, if and how televi- TV as transnational field sion is to be conceptualized as a global/local form (Staffan Ericson) Start: July 1999 of communication. From its moment of introduction, television has been organized within a national context, and regu- IV Discourses of Transition lated by an ideology of public responsibility. During the last 20 years, however, various technological (Jan Ekecrantz) and political changes have drastically altered the These studies are intended to pull several strings to- landscape of television; its regional boundaries, its gether in the larger research programme and relate modes of production, its generic patterns, the con- the major issues to some contemporary research stitution of its audiences. Such changes also mean agendas, not explicitly present in the other projects, that new models for describing television become such as theories of globalization and modernization. relevant. The global (media) system bears upon postcom- One possibility – suggested by the breakdown of munist developments in two ways, at least. First, it monopolies, the scattering of audiences, the clashes played a role in the chain of events around 1989 – of strategies among producer’s competing for com- and for interpretations in the ‘international com- mercial gains and/or cultural legitimacy – would be munity’ of subsequent transformations. Second, the to view the production of television more according events of, and after, 1989 have produced cultural to the general logic of cultural fields, as these have and ideological changes in the rest of the world. The been described by Pierre Bourdieu: specific spaces studies under this heading thus attempt to trace cul- of possible positions, structured by objective rela- tural and political transformations in both Post-Sov- tions and distributions of capital (political, eco- iet and Western societies, in particular as they relate nomical, cultural) between social agents (producers, to each other, due to the international media context. audiences, legislators, critics, etc), and by hierar- The empirical focus is on discourses of transition chies of genres (news, entertainment, etc) represent- in a range of public fora and on the interdiscursive ing opposing values (ratings, quality, etc) imple- relations that pertain between them, but the project

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Namnlöst-20 84 2005-08-16, 12:20 also draws on the other projects and their analyses across borders – which can be seen as the hallmark of public textual systems, e.g. global, national and of the reportage genre as such, a genre in the social local news, both supporting and, at times, threaten- fiction/faction borderland. In these reportage analy- ing structures of power in late modernity. Among is- ses the focus is on strategies of concretization sues to be highlighted are the international contexts (metaphors etc.) and contextualization, the con- of national and local public discourse, the penetra- structions of the cultural categories of time and tion of “European” identity formation, narratives of space, chronotopes, the textualization/visualization change and difference, and the uses of history. In of permanence and change, of cultural spaces, por- specific, this comparative study will try to assess the trayals of majorities/minorities, and of the meeting impact of globalization and europeanization on pub- of micro and macro worlds, typical of the reportage lic or elite discourses in the various national con- genre. In this context travel narratives and their texts. What is at stake is, inter alia, a potential con- documentation of contacts and interaction across tradiction between, on the one hand, cultural divers- borders and the Baltic Sea is a particularly interest- ity resulting from globalization, and, on the other, ing subgenre. The focus is also on forms which the need for identity-building resulting from the serve as alternatives and/or commentaries to the post-communist transformation and the national output of “mainstream” news. strivings for EU and Nato membership. How is this contradiction expressed in various national fora? * * * This study will, basically, draw on materials col- lected within the larger research programme (editor- In 1999 three introductory studies will be completed ials, feature materials, etc.) but also on other docu- and (Finnish and Russian) materials collected for mentation, such as public records and reports. In- comparative purposes. The three studies concern cluded is Western research literature on Post-Soviet global system and modernity theory, international developments, with a focus on culture and media. research on Post-Soviet media, and Swedish and Further, a study will be made of reportage and international reportage journalism on Russia 1989- documentary as counter-discourses, based on quali- 1999. tative analyses of texts producing images of realities

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Namnlöst-20 86 2005-08-16, 12:20 Nya utbildnings- och forskningsinstitutioner/program

Ny journalistuddannelse i Danmark

ANKER BRINK LUND & JØRN HENRIK PETERSEN

Den 1. september 1998 begyndte 72 håbefulde stu- provinsaviserne som den væsentligste drivkraft. De derende deres uddannelse ved det nyoprettede Insti- første forsøg på at supplere den håndværksmæssige tut for Journalistik på Syddansk Universitet, skoling i branchen med en mere teoretisk indlæring Odense. Samme dag kunne 25 andre kalde sig jour- daterer sig i dansk sammenhæng til 1904, hvor mål- naliststuderende ved Institut for Kommunikation på gruppen var yngre journalister, som ”ved et Hoved- Roskilde Universitetscenter. Derved blev en mindre stadsophold paa 3 Ugers Tid skulde have Lejlighed revolution fuldbyrdet: Et af de sidste monopoler i til at høre Foredrag og deltage i Diskussioner”. den danske medieverden var blevet brudt. I praksis viste det sig dog vanskeligt at realisere I praksis har Danmarks Journalisthøjskole i År- et sådant projekt. Afholdelsen af det første større hus dog aldrig været ene om at uddanne arbejdskraft journalistkursus måtte vente til 1923, hvor 46 jour- til de danske medier. Presse, radio og tv har altid re- nalister ved Handelshøjskolen i København i en pe- krutteret folk fra universiteter og højere læreanstal- riode på to måneder fulgte forelæsninger i verdens- ter. Det nye er, at der nu i et akademisk miljø etable- historie, filosofi (”Aandsretninger”), retsvæsen, er- res målrettede uddannelser, der direkte sigter mod hvervsliv og dansk politik. Desuden indgik 42 timer journalistisk virksomhed. Tidligere har en sådan om praktisk journalistik. ”akademisering af faget” været direkte modarbejdet I den efterfølgende periode lod Provins-Jour- af den danske mediebranche. Da Roskilde Universi- nalistforreningen afholde nogle 6-7 dages kurser, tetscenter således i 1978 begyndte sin kommuni- mens Socialdemokratisk Presseforening iværksatte kationsuddannelse, fik initiativtagerne eksplicit for- egne journalistkurser på Arbejderhøjskolen i Ros- bud mod at uddanne journalister, hvilket dog ikke kilde. I 1934 suppleredes disse fagforeningsaktivi- siden har hindret, at cand.comm.’ere har fundet teter med et nordisk initiativ, hvor danske journ- journalistisk beskæftigelse. alister kunne komme på et kursus, der også omfat- I det følgende beskrives den historiske baggrund tede kolleger fra Sverige, Norge og Finland. Senere for etableringen af den nye journalistuddannelse ved er dette samarbejde videreført i form af Nordisk Syddansk Universitet, Odense. Det følges op af en Journalistkursus med base i Århus. introduktion til de ideer, der har været styrende for Allerede i 1926 var der fortalere for oprettelse af opbygningen af den journalistiske grunduddannelse. en permanent dansk journalisthøjskole med tilknyt- Derpå præsenteres bacheloruddannelsens struktur. ning til det nyoprettede universitet i Århus. I Sep- Der afsluttes med en overvejelse om den påtænkte tember 1946 kunne visionen realiseres: Det første master- og/eller kandidatuddannelse. kursushold på 27 deltagere mødte op til et kursus- forløb på tre måneder. Redaktør Franz von Jessen holdt åbningstalen og sagde bl.a. ”Man skal ikke Den historiske baggrund straks fra Starten spænde Buen for højt; det journa- Journalistik er en godt 300 år gammel faglighed i listiske Arbejde byder paa Haandværk, meget stadig forandring. I Danmark har uddannelsen til Haandværk. Hvad der derfor i første Række er Brug dette virke traditionelt hvilet på en mesterlære med for mere en en ideel Instilling, er Vilje og Lyst til det daglige Arbejde. Først naar den Ting er i Orden, kan Syddansk Universitet, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, man – alt efter Mulighederne – arbejde for sine [email protected] Idealer”. (Citeret efter Nielsen, 1996:10)

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Namnlöst-32 87 2005-08-16, 12:16 Dermed var ambitionsniveauet lagt. Det var Tværtimod blev de to universiteter bedt om at holde håndværk forst, så håndværk og derefter noget andet kortene tæt ind til kroppen. og mere ”alt efter Mulighederne”. I Odense nedsatte rektor et udvalg med repræ- Først efter etableringen af Danmarks Journalist- sentanter for det humanistiske og det samfundsvi- højskole (DJH) i 1962 blev den teoretiske og denskabelige fakultet med professor dr.phil. Jørn almendannende undervisning gjort obligatorisk for Henrik Petersen som formand. Han havde tidligere journalistelever. Efter den daværende ordning måtte været formand for bestyrelsen for Fyns Stiftstidende den, der ønskede at uddanne sig til journalist, selv og som bestyrelsesformand forestået opbygningen skaffe sig en elevplads på en redaktion. Elevtiden af TV 2 Danmark. var tre år , hvoraf opholdet på Danmarks Journalist- Dette udvalg afgav i maj 1997 en rapport til un- skole udgjorde tre til seks måneder. dervisningsministeren. Ministeren meddelte kort ef- Danmarks Journalisthøjskole blev oprettet som ter, at han havde besluttet, at der skulle oprettes en selvejende institution, hvorved båndene til Aar- journalistuddannelser både ved Odense Universitet hus Universitet blev kappet. Dog blev der ved lov af og Roskilde Universitetscenter. Det gav anledning 4. februar 1970 etableret et Institut for Presseforsk- til knubbede ord fra brancheorganisationerne, der ning, der skulle sikre et forskningsmæssigt grundlag var utilfredse med at have været holdt udenfor; men for journalistuddannelsen i nært samarbejde både de understregede samtidigt, at de fandt ideen med med DJH og universitetet. Samtidig blev rammerne nye journalistuddannelser god. for den nuværende DJH-uddannelse fastlagt som På Odense Universitet nedsatte arbejdsgruppen fire år fordelt med et semesters forskole, to semestre nu en lang række udvalg med medlemmer fra grup- på 1. del, en praktikperiode på 18 måneder samt en pen og udefra kommende journalister. Disse udvalg 2. del på to semestre. udarbejdede detaljerede oplæg vedrørende de en- Journalisthøjskolens status som selvejende insti- kelte fags opbygning og indhold. Deres ideer blev tution blev begrundet i ønsket om at bevare en tæt lagt til grund for udarbejdelsen af bekendtgørelsen tilknytning til pressens organisationer, herunder vig- m.v. for den nye uddannelse. tigheden af et tæt samarbejde om de 18 måneders I foråret 1998 optog Odense Universitet de før- praktik. Undervisningsministeriet og Planlægnings- ste studerende, der skulle begynde studiet rådet for de højere Uddannelser forsøgte siden at 1. september. Optagelsen foregik i en treleddet ændre denne status med henblik på at integrere proces. Rakettens første trin var, at ansøgerne skulle journalistuddannelsen i det offentligt finansierede skrive en motiveret begrundelse for ønsket om at undervisningssystem, hvilket skete ved kgl. resolu- blive journalist. Ansøgningerne blev gennemgået af tion af den 9. oktober 1974. Samtidigt blev de første 9 grupper hver bestående af en udefra kommende planer for en alternativ medieuddannelse ved Ros- journalist og en universitetsmedarbejder. Hvis be- kilde Universitetscenter udformet. grundelsen emmede af motivation, glød og engage- Forhandlingsforløbet om en medieuddannelse ment, gik ansøgeren videre til en optagelsesprøve. ved Roskilde Universitetscenter viste, ar den i Den omfattede en sprogtest, en referatopgave, en pressekredse herskede stor skepsis for en ”akademi- billedlæsning, en bearbejdelse af engelske nyheds- sering” af journalisterhvervet. Omvendt har der i telegrammer og en paratvidenhedsprøve. De bedste den offentlige debat jævnligt været fremsat kritik af af deltagerne gik videre til tredje trin, hvor de i en DJHs status som eneudbyder af formaliseret jour- samtale mødte en universitetsmedarbejder og en nalistuddannelse. Således holdt økonomiminister journalist fra den virkelige virkelighed. Marianne Jelved i 1996 en tale ved et møde i Dan- Første trin er uden tidspres og med mulighed for ske Dagblades Forening. Hun brød sig ikke om, at brug af allehånde tekniske hjælpemidler. Andet led der kun blev uddannet journalister et sted. Denne hviler på stærkt tidspres og anvendelse af pen og pa- observation blev noteret af rektor ved Odense Uni- pir. Endelig er tredje etape præget af mundtlighed. versitet, Henrik Tvarnø. Han tog senere sagen op Det betyder, at alle de ‘instrumenter’, journalisten med undervisningsminister Ole Vig Jensen. Resulta- skal spille på, har været med i symfoniens tre satser. tet blev en opfordring til Odense Universitet og Efterfølgende analyser af forløbet har overbevist Roskilde Universitetscenter om at udarbejde skitser om, at det var en god måde at optage studerende på. til en journalistuddannelse. Derfor følges samme procedure ved optagelsen i Underligt nok fulgte ministeren ikke den danske 1999. tradition for inddragelse af pressens organisationer.

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Namnlöst-32 88 2005-08-16, 12:16 Ideerne bag uddannelsens opbygning ser, hvor der tematisk behandles udvalgte elementer, som ellers indgår som dele af sammenhængende Den nye journalistuddannelse bygger på syv grund- fag. Tværtimod er der lagt vægt på, at intet kursus- læggende synspunkter. Det første af disse hviler på forløb har en kortere varighed end et semester. Sig- ”den journalistiske trekant”. Journalister skal være tet er at flytte ”aha-forståelsen” til en reel indsigt, udstyret med kunnen, indsigt og forståelse. Journa- der er aflejret i rygmarven. listik er en professionsuddannelse, der skal tilveje- Et fjerde grundsynspunkt har været, at dagen i bringe de grundlæggende håndværksmæssige forud- dag ikke kan forstås uden indsigt i dagen i går. Der- sætninger for at virke som professionel. En konkret for spiller en historisk dimension en rolle, så det praktisk (og teoretisk) kunnen er en forudsætning journalistiske arbejde med aktuelle problemer kan for, at de studerende senere vil kunne begå sig på spejles i ”de lange linjer”. redaktionerne; men det er samtidig vigtigt, at jour- For det femte er det forsøgt at placere de enkelte nalisten ved, hvad han eller hun har med at gøre. fag på en sådan måde, at de dels understøtter indlæ- Derfor er det nødvendigt med en basal indsigt i de ringen af det håndværksmæssige og dels følger i en fag, som behandler de temaer, der typisk er genstand ”logisk” rækkefølge, der muliggør en vedvarende for journalistisk arbejde. Endelig er det af stor be- progression. Det har desuden været sigtet at lade fa- tydning, at journalisten er sig sin og professionens gene indrette, så de understøtter hinanden. Herved rolle og funktion i samfundet bevidst, herunder at forsøger man at åbne den studerendes øjne for, at vedkommende forstår den ansvarlighed i forhold til virkeligheden ikke er fragmenteret svarende til fage- samfundet, som knytter sig til journalistens arbejde. nes opdeling, men at den netop forstås, når de en- kelte fags bidrag ”spiller sammen”. Det journalistiske håndværk En sjette pointe har at gøre med, at forståelsen af (Den journalistiske kunnen) journalistikkens funktion og rolle, herunder den journalistiske etik, ikke opfattes som en særlig afsondret kasse. Forståelseselementet, der naturlig- vis dyrkes i særdeleshed i mediesociologien, er søgt indplaceret i og integreret med samtlige fag. For det syvende er uddannelsen pædagogisk søgt tilrettelagt, så læreren indtager gartnerens og ikke pottemagerens rolle. Undervisningen skal stimulere den studerende til selvlæring med underviseren som coach. Det er ikke pottemageren, der skal forme den studerende.

Forudsætningsfagerne Journalistens funktion og (Den journalistiske indsigt) rolle i samfundet (Den journalistiske förståelse) Fra principper til virkelighed Det følger af ideerne, at sprog og mere tekniske Et andet hovedsynspunkt er, at begrebet ”det journa- journalistiske værktøjer indgår i et tæt samspil med listiske håndværk” ikke må opfattes snævert. Hånd- det journalistiske håndværk. I dette samspil udvik- værket kan ikke løsrives fra ”værktøjet”. Det væ- les den journalistiske kunnen. Den journalistiske sentligste værktøj er i sagens natur sproget, hvilket indsigt erhverves ved arbejdet med en forsknings- har betydet, at moderne dansk sprog med særligt baseret viden på de felter, der er en forudsætning for henblik på journalistik i uddannelsen kører som et at udøve håndværket. Refleksioner over forholdet parallelt spor til undervisningen i håndværket. Des- mellem medierne og samfundet, herunder journali- uden er der indplaceret en ”undervisningsblok”, der stikkens historie, ligger som fundament under den vedrører de mere tekniske værktøjer såsom EDB, journalistiske kunnen og indsigt. Herved sikres den informationssøgning, kildekritik, dokumentation og journalistiske forståelse. Da uddannelsens karakter samfundsvidenskabelig metode. Endelig er der af professionsuddannelse er tillagt stor betydning, snævre relationer til mediesociologien, som i høj ligger tyngden i det samlede forløb på håndværket. grad er det område, hvor der specifikt fokuseres på Der fokuseres på: journalistikkens rolle og funktion. For det tredje er der taget udgangspunkt i, at vir- • Håndværksmæssig kunnen kelig tilegnelse af indsigt kræver modning. Derfor • Det journalistiske fags viden, metoder og teoreti- anvendes der kun i meget ringe grad kortvarige kur- ske grundlag

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Namnlöst-32 89 2005-08-16, 12:16 • Kendskab til journalistikkens funktion, tradition Placeringen af uddannelsen ved Universitetet be- og rolle i samfundet samt mediehistorien tyder • Sprogets funktion i dagligdag og fiktion • at fagene er forankret i Universitetets forskning • Informationssøgning, dokumentation og kilde- • at Universitetet og dets medarbejdere bruges kritik som vidensbank • EDB samt kvantitativ og kvalitativ metode. • at der udvikles en selvstændig forskning i den Et godt stykke håndværk, en beherskelse af sproget journalistiske praksis og en grundlæggende indsigt i informationssøgning • at den journalistiske praksis forankres på et so- m.v. gør det ikke alene. En alment orienteret journa- lidt teoretisk fundament list skal være fortrolig med det samfund, han eller • at den studerende udvikler evnen til løbende at hun fungerer i. Derfor arbejdes der i uddannelsen tilegne sig ny viden med en række samfundsvidenskabelige fagområder: • at der trækkes på Universitetets omfattende in- • Økonomi ternationale netværk. • Sociologisk analyse af institutioner og netværk i Bredden og dybden sikres gennem den 3 ½ årige dansk kultur grunduddannelse, • Politik og forvaltning lokalt, regionalt, nationalt • som sammenknytter fag og håndværk og internationalt • som giver den studerende dybtgående kendskab • Retssystemets grundlæggende egenskaber og til samfundet og de sociale funktioner medieret • som sikrer kendskab til litteratur, kultur og histo- • Virksomheder, forbrug og marked riens lange linjer • Offentligheds- og demokratiteori. • som integrerer det lokale, det regionale, det na- Hertil kommer udvikling af evnen til at kunne ind- tionale og det internationale placere et aktuelt samfundsmæssigt problem i det • som ser det store i det små og det små i det store historiske forløb. Evnen til at kunne spejle samtiden • som indarbejder sproget som skarpslebet instru- i ”de lange linjer”. Derfor indgår ment og kulturbærende faktor • Moderne dansk historie • som omsætter teori til praktisk virkelighed og • Europæisk civilisationshistorie. forstår virkeligheden gennem teorien. Den ”humanistiske dimension” udbygges yderligere Kunnen, indsigt og forståelse i samklang. En jour- ved drøftelser af nalistuddannelse med højt til loftet, vidde i formen og prægnans i udtrykket. • Kulturanalyse og kulturjournalistik Specialiseringen udvikles gennem den master- • Fiktion og fakta i ord og billede og kandidatuddannelse, der endnu kun som løse Alle ”fagene” indgår i et snævert samspil, der ska- skitser befinder sig i en skrivebordsskuffe: cand. ber sammenhæng fagene imellem og sammenhæng public. (candidatus/ta publicitatis). Og oven på den mellem fag og håndværk. Herved knyttes uddannel- kommer endelig muligheden for en forskningsmæs- sen til virkelighedens verden. sig fordybelse i et ph.d. forløb. Strukturen ser derfor således ud:

Studiestrukturen

ph.d. uddannelsen ph.d. uddannelsens 6 semestre

kandidatuddannelsen 8. – 11. semester kandidatuddannelsen 4 semestre

7. semester bacheloruddannelsens afslutningssemester

bacheloruddannelsen 5. – 6. semester bacheloruddannelsens praktikforløb

1. – 4. semester bacheloruddannelsens grundforløb

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Namnlöst-32 90 2005-08-16, 12:16 Bacheloruddannelsen Grundforløbet er præget af obligatoriske fag, men der er rige muligheder for gennem valg af em- Bacheloruddannelsen giver en almen journalistisk ner for opgaver, projekter o.s.v. at tone uddannelsen kompetence. En bachelor i journalistik er journalist. efter den enkeltes egne interesser. Opbygningen og indholdet er vist i omstående figur.

Grunduddannelsen i journalistik:

1. semester 2. semester 3. semester 4. semester 5. semester 6. semester 7. semester

Det journalistiske håndværk: Bachelorprojekt

skrevne medier skrevne medier radio/tv radio/tv

Journalistisk Sprog og Kommunikation

Det journalistiske værktøj:

EDB Samf.vid. Økonomi Virksomhed, metode Marked og Forbrug Informations- Dokumentation søgning og kildekritik

Sociologi Mediesociologi PRAKTIK

Dansk politik og forvaltning Moderne dansk Aktuelle sam- historie fundsproblemer

International Europæisk politik og civilisations- organisation historie

Retssystemet Multimedier i grundtræk og medieret

Kulturanalyse Fakta og fiktion og kultur- – i sprog og journalistik billeder

grunduddannelsens struktur pr. d. 1. september 1999

Den røde tråd i hele uddannelsesforløbet er Det delsestyper med tyngden lagt på nyheder. Opmærk- journalistiske håndværk, hvor der arbejdes med den somheden er i 4. semester koncentreret om tv- journalistiske kunnen i traditionel forstand. I 1. se- journalistikkens genrer og arbejdsmetoder med vægt mester introduceres de studerende til journalistiske på produktion af nyhedsindslag, indslag til aktua- arbejdsmetoder, der er fælles for trykte og elektroni- litetsmagasiner og live-interviewer, ligesom der ar- ske medier: beskrive, koncentrere, referere, citere, bejdes med analytisk efterkritik. vinkle, formulere spørgsmål, ideudvikle, se og ud- Journalistisk sprog og Kommunikation forløber vikle nyheder, finde og fortælle den gode historie. 2. over hele grunduddannelsen parallelt med håndvær- semester er koncentreret om de trykte medier med ket. I 1. og 2. semester fokuseres der på skrivepro- vægt på nyhed, baggrund, profil, portræt, reportage, cesser, mens mundtligheden står i centrum på 3. og feature, spørgeteknik, kildevalg m.v. 3. semester gi- 4. semester. Formålet med undervisningen er, at den ver en solid indføring i radiomediets potentialer studerende lærer at skrive og tale et levende, korrekt som moderne massemedium og i forskellige udsen- og virkningsfuldt dansk, at benytte sproget i de jour-

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Namnlöst-32 91 2005-08-16, 12:16 nalistiske genrer på en forståelig, præcis og interes- behandlingen af særdanske og almeneuropæiske sevækkende måde, at analysere egen og andres jour- træk i det danske samfund. nalistiske sprogbrug og udøve konstruktiv efter- Retskilderne og retssystemets struktur er af stor kritik. betydning for det journalistiske arbejde. Derfor er Sproget er journalistens uundværlige værktøj; Retssystemet i grundtræk og Medieret placeret i 2. men han eller hun har i samme grad brug for mere semester, så det korresponderer med den hånd- teknisk betonede instrumenter. De indlæres i en værksmæssige undervisning. Der lægges i dette som ”blok”, der integrerer EDB, informationssøgning, i de øvrige fag afgørende vægt på de områder, som dokumentation, kildekritik og samfundsvidenskabe- er af særlig betydning for journalistens daglige ar- lig metode. I Det Journalistiske Værktøj arbejdes bejde. der i 1. semester parallelt med EDB og informati- I 3. semester arbejdes der med Kulturanalyse og onssøgning, mens 2. semester tilsvarende er en Kulturjournalistik. Formålet er at give de stude- parallelundervisning i kritisk læsning af hhv. tekster rende indsigt i og viden om kulturanalyse med hen- og tal. Det er en fremtidsrettet undervisning, der blik på at sikre dem redskaber, der kan kvalificere ikke kun beskæftiger sig med kendte søgemaskiner, og perspektivere kulturjournalistikken. Vægten er men indlærer den grundlæggede søgeteori. lagt på øvelser i at identificere og formidle kultur- Endelig kan man til denne gruppe af snævert stof i bredeste forstand på en interessant og forny- sammenhængende fag også henføre Mediesociologi. ende måde. Placeringen i tredje semester betyder, at Her udvikles den kritiske indsigt i, hvordan journa- det er et af de fag, hvor de studerende får lejlighed listiske budskaber, reklame og offentlige kampagner til at fastholde og videreudvikle arbejdet med de produceres og påvirker forskellige befolkningsgrup- skrevne medier, som det kendes fra håndværkets 2. per. Der gives et overblik over den danske og den semester. Der er en sammenhæng mellem dette fag internationale mediehistoriske udvikling, herunder og Fakta og fiktion – i sprog og billeder, hvor der de journalistiske genrers historie. Endelig introdu- arbejdes med samspillet mellem fiktionens og jour- cerer faget til forskellige typer af historisk og socio- nalistikkens udtryksmidler og fremstillingsformer. logisk medieforskning og disses metodiske og Faget omfatter samspillet mellem fiktion og journa- videnskabsteoretiske grundlag. Dette fag, der forlø- listik i den skrevne presse, pressefotografiets histo- ber over 2. – 4. semester ligger i forlængelse af So- riske samspil med kunstfotografiet og maleriet samt ciologi for Journalister, der udvikler forståelsen af tv-reportagen og dokumentarismens samspil med samfundets mest grundlæggende institutioner og fiktionsfilmen. skærper den sociologiske fantasi. Grunduddannelsens sidste to fag omhandler det Over 1. – 3. semester drøftes Dansk politik og økonomiske system. I Økonomi arbejdes der med de forvaltning/International politik og organisation. overordnede økonomiske sammenhænge, de økono- Dette sammenhængende bånd skal ses i snæver for- misk-politiske instrumenter og det samfundsøkono- bindelse med, at der i forlængelse af drøftelsen af de miske balanceproblem. Der lægges vægt på den of- danske politiske forhold foretages en gennemgang fentlige sektors rolle og funktion, herunder især på af Moderne dansk historie, som – i forlængelse af social- og arbejdsmarkedspolitikken, der spiller en arbejdet med den internationale politik – følges op stor rolle i den journalistiske hverdag. I Virksomhed, af en gennemgang af hovedtræk i Den europæiske Marked og Forbrug drejes perspektivet mere i ret- Civilisationshistorie. Dansk politik og forvaltning ning af de enkelte beslutningstagere. Faget beskæf- beskæftiger sig med det danske politiske og admini- tiger sig med ledelse og organisation, finansielle strative systems opbygning og funktion, med politi- forhold, konkurrencevilkår og forbugerens rolle i ske processer og beslutninger strækkende sig fra det samfundet. individuelle over det lokale, regionale, nationale til På uddannelsens 5. og 6. semester er der indlagt det europæiske niveau. I International politik og or- et praktikforløb af 12 måneders varighed. Der vil i ganisation forskydes interessen for alvor i retning af samarbejde med Danske Dagblades Forening og den store, internationale scene, men med tyngde- Dansk Journalistforbund blive indgået en praktik- punktet lagt på forhold af særlig dansk udenrigs- og aftale, så de studerende i praktikperioden er lønnede sikkerhedspolitisk interesse. De to fag, der dækker medarbejdere på trykte medier, radio- og tv-statio- historiedimensionen, sikrer, at der ikke uddannes ner eller på private og offentlige informationskon- historieløse journalister, men fagfolk der er i stand torer. til at se de aktuelle begivenheder som led i en histo- Praktikken skal videreudvikle den studerendes risk proces, se ”her-og-nu-problematikken” spejlet i forståelse af, indsigt i og evne til at udøve journali- historiens lange linjer. Samtidigt skærpes blikket for stiske, professionelle rutiner. Gennem praktikken

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Namnlöst-32 92 2005-08-16, 12:16 opnår den studerende erfaringer med redaktionelle uddannelsen som en åben Master of Journalism og organisatoriske processer inden for massemedi- (MAJ): erne under kyndig vejledning fra de uddannede på • Det nuværende lønniveau for journalister bety- arbejdspladsen. der, at de fleste bachelorer kan gå ud i erhverv og Der har i særdeleshed fra de elektroniske medier opnå en løn, der ligger højere, end den akademi- været skepsis over for en 12 måneders praktik. Det kere iøvrigt oppebærer. Det motiverer næppe de overvejes derfor i øjeblikket, om man skal søge bedste nyuddannede BA’ere i journalistik til at praktikperioden forlænget til 18 måneder. vælge to ekstra år på de vilkår, der bydes via Sta- Det syvende og afsluttende semester på bache- tens Uddannelsesstøtte; loruddannelsen er koncentreret om Bachelorpro- jektet eller svendestykket. Det skal dokumentere den • MAJ-løsningen vil give mulighed for at udnytte studerendes evne til selvstændigt at indkredse og af- ledig lokalekapacitet ved Odense Universitet om grænse en journalistisk væsentlig, relevant og inte- aftenen og i weekender og hjemler desuden ressant problemstilling, til at gennemføre den for- grundlag for supplerende brugerbetaling, som i nødne research, til at udøve den fornødne kildekritik henhold til journalisternes overenskomst kan ud- og dokumentation, til at præstere en professionel redes af de studerendes arbejdsgivere og for free- vinkling af historien samt omsætte det frembragte lancere af arbejdsløshedskassen. Medlemmer af stof i et hensigtsmæssigt og målrettet journalistisk Dansk Journalistforbund har en gunstig overens- produkt – både hvad angår form og indhold. komst i relation til betalt uddannelse; På dette afslutningssemester indgår desuden Ak- • En enquete blandt nuværende medlemmer af tuelle samfundsproblemer. Der arbejdes med te- Dansk Journalistforbrund viser, at flertallet af maer, der aktuelt optræder på den samfundsmæssige medlemmerne er motiverede for længerevarende dagsorden. De bearbejdes på grundlag af den ind- videreuddannelse, især hvis det kan ske, uden at sigt, der er opnået gennem uddannelsens fire første de skal træde ud af arbejdsmarkedet. For øjeblik- semestre og den viden om det journalistiske arbejde ket er Danmarks Journalisthøjskole ene om at til- i praksis, der er realiseret i praktikperioden. Der vil byde noget sådant i form af en etårig diplom- derfor være rig mulighed for at integrere den hånd- uddannelse. værksmæssige kunnen med indsigten i de fag, der er forudsætning for at udøve journalistikken, ligesom Masteruddannelsen i journalistik vil desuden give journalistikkens samfundsmæssige funktion og rolle grundlag for gennemførelse af undervisningsbaseret vil kunne belyses med konkrete eksempler. forskning. Efter det mønster, som ved Syddansk Endelig er der på sidste semester indlagt et for- Universitet kendes fra Master of Public Manage- løb, der skal introducere til Multimedieproblema- ment (MPM), kunne forløbet tilrettelægges, så jour- tikken. nalister med nogle års praktisk erhvervserfaring Efter afsluttet bacheloruddannelse er den stude- kunne tilbydes kompetencegivende undervisning på rende kvalificeret til varetagelse af traditionelle stil- hverdagsaftener og i weekender suppleret med en linger i dagspresse, radio, tv, nyhedsbureauer, fag- sommerskole (internat) og projektarbejde i egen or- og ugepresse samt informationstjenester i offentlige ganisation under forskningsbaseret vejledning. og private virksomheder. Konkret kunne man tænke sig MAJ udformet som et to-årigt forløb med lige dele journalistiske fag (sprog, håndværk, research og mediekundskab) Efter- og videreuddannelse og studier ved andre uddannelser på Universitetet I henhold til bekendtgørelsen om de journalistiske (f.eks. sprog, økonomi, politologi, virksomhedsle- uddannelser ved Odense Universitet kan der ved In- delse, kulturanalyse). Desuden skal de MAJ-stude- stitut for Journalistik oprettes en kandidat- rende under vejledning udforme en selvstændig uddannelse (cand.public.) med særligt henblik på specialeopgave, der enten kan være mediespecifik ”at videreudvikle den studerendes kompence til at eller specialiseret på f.eks. redaktionel ledelse, fag- bestride mere specialiserede journalistiske funktio- lig formidling eller lokaljournalistik. ner i et mediemønster i udvikling”. Udbud af en masteruddannelse i journalistik Et udvalg nedsat ved Institut for Journalistik udelukker ikke, at der også etableres en egentlig overvejer i øjeblikket, hvordan videreuddannelsen kandidatuddannelse i journalistik ved Syddansk mest hensigtsmæssigt kan iværksættes, herunder de Universitet. Med Franz von Jessens ord ønsker vi argumenter der måtte tale for at udforme kandidat- dog ikke ”straks fra Starten at spænde Buen for

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Namnlöst-32 93 2005-08-16, 12:16 højt”, men forestiller os MAJ suppleret med akade- værkere. Der skal også arbejdet systematisk med re- miske sidefag med henblik på erhvervelse af search, idéudvikling og sociologisk fantasi. cand.public titlen. Desuden vil Institut for Journali- Det vil vi først og fremmest gøre ved at tilbyde stik tilbyde ph.d.-forløb – gerne i tæt samarbejde forskningsbaseret uddannelse, men også ved at ind- med andre nordiske og europæiske journalist- drage aktive journalister i undervisningsbaseret uddannelser, så de begrænsede ressourcer kan ud- forskning. Til dette formål er der kun begrænset nyttes optimalt. hjælp at hente i det etablerede danske forsknings- Hertil kommer, at Institut for Journalistik har miljø, der nok har tradition for mediekritik i et mod- indledt et samarbejde med Den journalistiske Efter- tager-perspektiv, men sjældent konsekvent har ans- uddannelse (DjE), der tilbyder fagets udøvere i aktiv kuet journalistik ud fra et anvendelsesorienteret af- tjeneste opdatering af færdigheder, almen og speci- sender-synspunkt. Til gengæld har vi i den forbin- fik baggrundsviden og derved sætter journalister i delse hentet megen inspiration fra Norge, Sverige stand til bedre at imødekomme ændrede kvalifi- og Finland. kationsbehov i det moderne samfund. Vi vil gerne udbygge de nordiske kontakter både på forsknings- og undervisningsområdet. Med det for øje planlægger vi en rundrejse til potentielle Nordiske perspektiver samarbejdspartnere i Norden. Derfor vil vi gerne i Journalistuddannelsen ved Syddansk Universitet, kontakt med kolleger, der ligger på linje med vore Odense, er Danmarks anden, men ambitionen er at idéer – eller eventuelt måtte have konstruktive for- blive ”second to none”. slag eller kritiske bemærkninger, der kan inspirere Som det fremgår af det forudgående står det os til justeringer af planerne. journalistiske håndværk i centrum for bestræbel- Institut for Journalistik kan kontaktes på serne. Men skal kvaliteten i kildearbejde, informa- internetadressen www.journalism.sdu.dk. Her findes tionssøgningen og den praktiske udformning af også en præsentation af instituttets medarbejdere og journalistiske produkter højnes, har dansk nyheds- eksempler på de studerendes arbejder. formidling ikke kun brug for standardiserede hånd-

Anvendt litteratur Betænkning nr. 1295 om journalistisk efter- og videreuddannelse, Statens Information, 1995. Bekendtgørelse nr. 611 af 18.8.1998 om de journalistiske Nielsen, Richard G.: Pionererne fra 1946. Dansk uddannelser ved Odense Universitet. Pressemuseum, 1996. Betænkning nr. 851 om Danmarks Journalisthøjskole, Statens Trykningskontor, 1978.

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Namnlöst-32 94 2005-08-16, 12:16 Nya utbildnings- och forskningsinstitutioner/program

Tverrfaglig informatikk Nye horisonter for medie- og kommunikasjonsfaget

KNUT LUNDBY

For ti år siden var jeg med å telle opp antall disipli- å etablere et nytt studietilbud. Ledelsen er særlig ner ved nordiske universiteter som bidro til det nye opptatt av å skape et attraktivt tilbud for studenter medie- og kommunikasjonsfaget. Vi talte 21 disipli- som ikke vil være interessert i å studere informatikk ner, hvis jeg ikke husker feil. Medier og kommuni- spesielt, men som vil nyttiggjøre seg informatikk- kasjon er et tverrfaglig område. Men videre tverr- unnskap ved anvendelse av sine respektive fag på faglige horisonter venter – med de utfordringer det ulike områder i samfunnet. innebærer. Ved Universitetet i Oslo har nå en arbeids- gruppe, der jeg selv satt med, foreslått å opprette et Anbefalinger grunnfag i ’tverrfaglig informatikk’. Her kan et En enstemmig arbeidsgruppe foreslår at det oppret- halvt års innledende studium av informatikk kombi- tes et grunnfag i tverrfaglig informatikk først og neres med ett eller to tverrfaglige emner, enten fra fremst beregnet på studenter i jus, humaniora, sam- Det juridiske, Det historisk-filosofiske, Det sam- funnsvitenskap eller pedagogikk. Grunnfaget base- funnsvitenskapelige eller Det utdanningsvitenskape- res på en grunnleggende informatikkdel på 15 vekt- lige fakultet. tall og en fag- eller fakultetsspesifikk del på 5 vekt- Det nye faget kan gi bakgrunn for studier i tall, alternativt 10 vekttallinformatikk og to fag- medievitenskap eller supplere mediefaget, særlig i spesifikke 5 vekttalls enheter. Tilsammen utgjør arbeid med ’nye medier’. Institutt for medier og begge alternativer ett års fullt studium. kommunikasjon (IMK) har grunnfagspraksis og Arbeidsgruppen ønsker ikke å sette spesielle hovedfagskurs i nye medier, men dette omfatter ikke opptakskrav for studiet, men antar at studentene kan opplæring i informatikk. Mange mediestudenter få større utbytte av informatikkundervisningen med ville dra nytte av noe informatikkunnskap. Det er noe basiskunnskap fra et annet fag. Disse studen- ikke foreslått at medier og kommunikasjon direkte tene vil ta deler av informatikkundervisningen sam- samorganiseres med det foreslåtte tilbudet i ’tverr- men med “ordinære“ informatikkstudenter, og ar- faglig informatikk’, som nå vurderes ved Universi- beidsgruppen ser positivt på den tverrfaglige ut- tetet i Oslo. vekslingen dette kan medføre. Samtidig må det leg- ges opp til at disse studentene opplever tilhørighet til eget fakultet. Bakgrunn Fakultetene gis full faglig styring over hver sine Universitetets ledelse registrerer en økende etter- deler av tilbudet. Det foreslås etablert et samar- spørsel etter IT-kunnskaper hos sine kandidater fra beidsforum for utveksling av faglige synspunkter på de humanistiske og samfunnsvitenskapelige studier. tvers av fakultetsstrukturen der både informatikk- Det er særlig i kontakt med arbeidslivets organisa- delen og de fagspesifikke delene av utdanningstil- sjoner at slik kunnskap etterlyses. budet ses i sammenheng. På bakgrunn av disse signalene satte universi- tetsledelsen i gang et utredningsarbeid med sikte på Behov for IT-kompetanse InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo, Postboks 1161 Blindern, For å være egnet for mange faggrupper, være nyttig N-0317 Oslo, [email protected] i forhold til mange anvendelser, og for å holde et

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Namnlöst-19 95 2005-08-16, 12:20 forsvarlig akademisk nivå, må en IT-rettet grunnut- ter å strukturere informasjon, og for å inkludere in- danning inneholde sentrale informatiske emner, formasjon av mange typer: tekst, tall, grafikk, lyd, framholder arbeidsgruppen. Blant tradisjonelle in- film. formatiske emner peker programmering, modelle- ring, databaser og systemarbeid seg ut som spesielt aktuelle. Behov for tverrfaglig kompetanse For de aktuelle studentgruppene er det trolig For det juridiske, historisk-filosofiske, samfunnsvi- sjelden noe behov for selv å lære programmering på tenskapelige eller utdanningsvitenskapelige fakultet et avansert nivå. I møte med yrkeslivet vil studen- kan det ikke være noen oppgave kun å gi en allmenn tene imidlertid møte datamaskinprogrammer i de utdanning innen informatiske emner. En nødvendig verktøy de benytter for å utføre arbeidsoppgaver. del av begrunnelsen for igangsetting av en IT-rettet Noen vil også delta i beslutningsprosesser som en- grunnutdanning ved disse fakultetene er en ambi- der opp med at forståelser og beslutninger nedfelles sjon om å formidle kunnskap som kan bygge bro i datamaskinprogrammer. Uansett hvor involverte mellom fakultetenes fagområder og IT-faglige em- studentene vil bli i konkret programmeringsarbeid, ner. En slik tverrfaglig kompetanse gjelder særlig to er det sterkt ønskelig at flest mulig har en kunnskap hovedområder: om programmering som setter dem i stand til å for- For det første kompetanse som gjelder sammen- stå og vurdere funksjonsmåten til verktøy de anven- hengen mellom teknologien selv og teknologiens der. anvendelser og virkninger. Modellering omfatter teknikker for å analysere Bruk av informasjonsteknologi foranlediger for og beskrive et saksområde, og er sentralt i arbeidet eksempel spørsmål innen pedagogikken i forhold til med å (videre-)utvikle informasjonssystemer. Det er internettbasert fjernundervisning og bruk av PC i viktig å kunne forstå og analysere de begrensninger skolen. Innen språkfag skaper «språkteknologi» og og muligheter som ligger innbakt i modelleringstek- muligheter for maskinell oversettelse nye utfordrin- nikker og –språk. Teknikker og språk uttrykker van- ger og diskusjoner. Nye medier aktualiserer også ligvis et spesifikt syn på verden, og evne til å identi- spørsmål om fortellerteknikker og dramaturgi når fisere dette samt foreslå alternative syn er viktig. De mediene digitaliseres og konvergerer. Innen sam- fleste arbeidstakere vil oppleve at IT de bruker i ar- funnsfagene foranledige teknologien en rekke beidet sitt endres, og kunnskap om modellering vil spørsmål om endringer i makt- og myndighetsfor- være viktig for å forstå og kunne være med på å på- hold, sosiale prosesser og strukturer, på både makro virke teknologiske endringer. og mikronivå. Modellering er en viktig del av systemarbeidet, For det andre kan IKT peke i retning av pro- dvs. det arbeid som inngår i utviklingen av et infor- blemstillinger knyttet til metodiske spørsmål. masjonssystem. Systemarbeid foregår vanligvis som IKT kan brukes i flere faser av en forsknings- en flerfaglig virksomhet, der samordning av ulike prosess, i litteraturstudier og som støtte i kvalitative interesser / kunnskap og samspill mellom ulike rol- og særlig i kvantitative analyser. Det kan diskuteres ler er viktig. Sentralt står også spørsmål om organi- om tilgang på teknologi til bruk i kvantitative forsk- sering og deltakelse, f.eks. spørsmål om forholdet ningsdesign (særlig statistisk analyse), har medført mellom prosjekt- og linjeorganisasjonen, bruker- en økning av denne typen forskning og kanskje også medvirkning m.v. bidratt til å tillegge kvantitative studier merverdi på I tillegg ser arbeidsgruppen at det kan være be- bekostning av kvalitative forskningsdesign. I littera- hov for utdanning i viktige tekniske infrastrukturer turstudier vil særlig søk og innhenting av informa- som databaser og nettverk. Databaser er nevnt som sjon på Internett sette større krav til kildekritikk. et viktig eksempel på en elektronisk organisert sam- Arbeidsgruppen understreker at de to nevnte ling informasjon. Informasjonen kan være formali- emnegruppene ikke må presenteres i et vakuum, sert eller foreligge som lite strukturert prosatekst. men plasseres i en allmenn, faglig sammenheng. Dagens IT gir i økende grad mulighet for andre må- Selv om undervisningen bør være rettet mot eller ha

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Namnlöst-19 96 2005-08-16, 12:20 sitt utspring i «moderne» teknologiske forhold, må stitutt eller senter) som skal tillegges ansvaret for den derfor gis et solid feste i «tradisjonell» og godt faglig innhold og gjennomføring av de fagspesifikke befestet kunnskap. emnene. Alle studenter med studierett ved ett av de fire aktuelle fakultetene bør ha anledning til å søke opptak på grunnfag i tverrfaglig informatikk. Prosjektorientert Arbeidsgruppen vil anbefale at den foreslåtte Arbeidsgruppen har arbeidet ut fra ønsket om at et grunnfagstypen blir betegnet tverrfaglig informa- nytt tverrfaglige informatikkstudium ved UiO skal tikk. Selv om det formelt kun foreslås ett fag, bør være attraktivt for store/brede studentgrupper. Med undervisningen få navn som viser tilhørigheten til en slik målsetning må det gjøres kompromisser mel- det enkelte fakultet som har ansvaret for de fag- lom fordypning og bredde. spesifikke vekttallene. Arbeidsgruppen tror navne- Arbeidsgruppen ønsker at studiet skal baseres på valget kan ha betydning for mulighetene til å skape undervisningsformer som oppmuntrer til selvstendig gode og integrerte studentmiljøer og gi faglig identi- arbeid (f.eks. prosjektarbeid), der studentene øves i tet. Navnene bør angi et bestemt (og ikke for vidt) å uttrykke seg skriftlig (essay, rapport). Prosjektar- fagområde, samtidig som det bør gi signal om fakul- beid er en mye brukt arbeidsform i systemutvikling. tetstilhørighet . Arbeidsgruppen har ikke forslag til Den tverrfaglige delen av studiet forutsetter veiled- navn på variantene, men vil likevel nevne mulighe- ning fra fagpersoner ved de involverte fakultetene. ten av å benevne den samfunnsvitenskapelige vari- Studiet må organiseres slik at studentene kan føle anten samfunnsinformatikk grunnfag. Tilbudet ved tilhørighet med den valgte tverrfaglige innretningen. Det utdanningsvitenskapelige fakultet kan kanskje kalles læringsinformatikk grunnfag. Arbeidsgruppen foreslår at det nye grunnfagstil- Organisering budet gjennomføres etter en flerfaglig undervis- Grunnfaget foreslås organisert som ett undervis- ningsmodell. I dette ligger det for det første en am- ningstilbud med fagspesifikke varianter knyttet opp bisjon om i stor grad å benytte allerede eksisterende mot fakultetene. Arbeidsgruppen anbefaler at det undervisningstilbud. ved hvert av fakultetene pekes ut en grunnenhet (in-

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Namnlöst-19 97 2005-08-16, 12:20 98

Namnlöst-19 98 2005-08-16, 12:20 Nya utbildnings- och forskningsinstitutioner/program

InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo Tverrfaglighet om nye medier og kommunikasjonsteknologi

KNUT LUNDBY

InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo er et nytt senter ger og vedtak i universitetets styre. Det første året for tverrfaglige studier i nye medier og kommunika- ble tre tidligere produksjonsenheter ved universite- sjonsteknologi. Senteret er del av en tendens man tet overført til senteret. Disse har i hovedsak drevet kan se ved flere universiteter i Norden, der medie- videoproduksjon. I tidlig planfase var det på tale å vitenskap viser seg som egnet springbrett inn i nye opprette et felles mediesenter for Universitetet i enheter, som opprettes for å møte de sammensatte Oslo, som skulle være i stand til å yte forskjellige utfordringer fra nye medier, informasjons- og kom- formidlingstjenester. Den utredningen som til slutt munikasjonsteknologi. Ved Universitetet i Oslo ble fikk gjennomslag i Universitetets organer, fastslo at både faglig og administrativ leder av det nye sente- senteret primært skal være innrettet mot forskning ret hentet fra Institutt for medier og kommunika- og at formidlingskompetansen i senteret bør kunne sjon. spille sammen med forskningen om nye medier og kommunikasjonsteknologi. Navnet Navnet er inspirert av InterMedia-satsingen som Organisering Center for IT-forskning gjør i Danmark. Der deltar InterMedia er en felles satsing ved Universitetet i bl.a. medieforskninsmiljøene i Aalborg og Aarhus Oslo. Senteret skal bidra til samarbeid i forskning tungt. Betegnelsen ‘intermedia’ er ikke unik. Sente- og utdanning om nye medier og kommunikasjons- ret i Oslo har sitt særkjenne ved universitetet det er teknologi mellom forskjellige fagmiljøer ved uni- knyttet til, slik det fullstendige navnet uttrykker: versitetet. Seks av de åtte fakultetene er representert InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo. i senterets styre, og også de to siste er involvert i ak- Det er vanskelig å gi betegnende navn til et tiviteten. Det utdanningsvitenskapelige fakultet er tverrfaglig senter i et felt som beveger seg så raskt valgt som vertsfakultet for InterMedia for å gi sente- som tilfellet er med interaktive multimedier og ret en entydig administrativ forankring ved universi- kommunikasjonsteknologi. ‘InterMedia’ gir rom for tetet. slike endringer. Navnet viser til interaktive medier, Senteret skal ha åpen utveksling med universite- til Internett som arena, til formidlingen i nye medier, tets omverden. Derfor er det eksterne medlemmer i og til den interdisiplinaritet eller tverrfaglighet som styret fra tilgrensende forsknings- og kunnskaps- skal prege forskningen i senteret. institusjoner. InterMedias budsjett er dels basert på en grunnbevilgning fra universitetet, dels på inntje- ning. Arbeidsformen er prosjektorientert med sikte Bakgrunn på å utnytte både den teoretiske forskningskom- InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo ble planlagt som petansen og den praktiske formidlingskompetansen et senter for multimedieforskning. Bak opprettelsen som er organisert inn i senteret. 1.1.1998 lå et lengre forarbeid, med flere utrednin- Ressursene for InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo er begrenset i forhold til de omfattende utfordrin- InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo, Postboks 1161 Blindern, gene i IKT-feltet. Senteret får en kjernestab av vi- N-0317 Oslo, [email protected] tenskapelig ansatte med bakgrunn i ulike fag, samt

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Namnlöst-18 99 2005-08-16, 12:21 en stab med produksjonskompetanse og administra- Målsetting tivt personale. Fullt utbygd er senteret tenkt å ha omkring 50 arbeidsplasser for fast og midlertidig Senteret skal være ”en drivkraft innad på universite- ansatte, forskere fra andre miljøer som sitter i sente- tet og utad mot samfunn og næringsliv” i møte med ret, samt hovedfags- og doktorgradsstudenter som de store utfordringene som digitaliseringen og sam- arbeider på prosjekter i InterMedia. mensmeltingen av data-, tele, og medieteknologi Senteret skal inn i nye lokaler i byggetrinn 2 i reiser. InterMedia skal befatte seg med teknolo- Forskningsparken i Gaustadbekkdalen i Oslo, der giske, kulturelle, sosiale, pedagogiske, etiske og ju- det også blir prosjektrom, kontorer og spesialrom ridiske sider ved disse endringene, med vekt på for virksomheten. Innflytting kan trolig skje ved års- grenseflatene mellom fagene. skiftet 2000/2001. Inntil videre er senteret spredt på Tilnærmingen er tverrfaglig. InterMedia skal bi- fire forskjellige steder i universitetsområdet. dra til samarbeid mellom universitetets grunnen- heter. Senteret gir Universitetet i Oslo et instrument til samspill med offentlige og private virksomheter Utfordringene både i Norge og i andre land. InterMedia søker ak- Etableringen av senteret bygger på en analyse der tivt samarbeid med eksterne partnere, ut fra sin ba- vekt legges på disse forhold, i stikkord: sis i den vitenskapelige bredde og forståelse ved universitetet. • informasjons- og kommunikasjonsteknologi (IKT) er grunnleggende i dagens samfunn og krever stadig nyskapende teknologisk innsats Arbeidsformer • det skjer en sammensmelting av data-, tele-, me- InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo vil arbeide gjen- die- og informasjonteknologi, men det er uklart nom prosjekter. I forsknings- og utviklingsarbeid vil hvor dyp konvergensen er en typisk prosjektgruppe kunne være sammensatt av: • den sosiale differensieringen som følger konver- gensen i teknologi, griper inn i hele samfunns- • et anvendermiljø (f.eks. et fagmiljø ved Univer- byggverket sitetet med et spesifikt behov i sin undervisning • teknologien formes i stor grad av mennesker og eller bestemte bedrifter), maktinteresser • ett eller flere kompetansemiljøer ved Universite- • forskere i teknologi- og anvenderområdene tar tet (eventuelt eksterne miljøer), henholdsvis teknologien eller anvendelsene for • medarbeidere ved InterMedia (vitenskapelig an- gitt, i stedet for å gå i inngrep med hverandre satte, IT- eller produksjonspersonale), og gjerne • fornuftig utvikling av nye anvendelser fordrer • team av hovedfagsstudenter eller stipendiater (f. nært samspill mellom teknologiforskningen og eks. i informatikk, medievitenskap eller pedago- andre fagmiljøer, industrien og brukerne gikk som arbeider på tvers av sine egne fag). • interaktive multimedier og digitale nett gir nye Studenters og stipendiaters deltakelse i prosjekter, uttrykks- og samhandlingsformer, men står i inngår i forskningen ved senteret samtidig som dette vekselforhold til kjente sosiale og symbolske er en del av deres utdanning. mønstre Arbeidsformen i senteret kan gjerne være • IKT gir nye skjevheter og kunnskapskløfter mel- eksperimenterende og utnytte spesialrom, utstyr og lom dem som har tilgang og kompetanse og dem produksjonserfaring, ikke bare i formidling, men som ikke har, som det krever stor innsats å mot- også i utdanning og forskning. Dette gir produk- virke sjonsmiljøet nye utfordringer. Mangeårige erfarin- ger med produksjon av fagprogrammer for video og • omstillingen stiller nye krav til kunnskaps- fjernsyn, gir grunnlag for en konstruktiv og innova- forvaltning og læringsformer tiv utvikling av forståelse og bruk av interaktive • universitetet er av de institusjoner som utsettes multimedier. Her ligger det pedagogiske og for- for sterkest krav til forandring tellertekniske utfordringer som produksjonsmiljøet

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Namnlöst-18 100 2005-08-16, 12:21 har gode forutsetninger for å fylle, i et gjensidig opphavsrett); politiske og økonomisk valg og samarbeid med forskere og studenter i senteret. rammevilkår; og endringer i kunnskapkrav og kunnskapsforståelse i samfunnet. ‘Kommunikasjon: teknologi og kultur’ InterMedia får ansvar for å videreføre og videre- Tverrfaglige utdanningssamarbeid om utvikle nettverket som er bygget opp gjennom Uni- IKT versitetet i Oslos ’innsatsområde’ om ‘Kommunika- sjon: Teknologi og kultur’. KTK dekker hele Inter- Med basis i forskningen og i KTK-nettverket skal Medias faglige bredde og kan holde forsknings- senteret bidra til å utvikle tverrfaglige utdanningstil- messig oppmerksomhet og knytte tverrforbindelser bud om IKT, i samarbeid med fakulteter og institut- innenfor hele senterets arbeidsområde. ter ved Universitetet i Oslo. Dette kan være både i grunnutdanning og i etter- og videreutdanning. Sen- teret skal ikke drive egen undervisning. Den under- Forskning om nettbasert læring visning ansatte ved senteret går inn i, skal gis i ut- Med bakgrunn i denne bredden, fokuserer danningstilbud ved universitetets grunnenheter. InterMedia@Universitetet i Oslo forskning om nett- basert læring. I ‘nettbasert læring’ tas interaktive multimedier og digitale nett i bruk i læringspro- Utvikling av nettbaserte læringstilbud sesser, i vekselspill med andre former for sosial in- InterMedia kan bistå i utvikling av nettbaserte teraksjon. Nettbasert læring er interaktive lære- læringstilbud ved Universitetet i Oslo, både om IKT prosesser med digitale læremidler og lærings- og i andre fag. Omfanget av InterMedias engasje- ressurser i digitale nett. Fokus er på læring og ikke ment på dette feltet bestemmes av i hvor stor grad på undervisning, dvs. et aktivt kommunikasjonsper- senteret får oppdrag og ressurser fra Universitetet i spektiv med vekt på hvordan mennesker og virk- Oslo sentralt, fra fakulteter eller grunnenheter. Sen- somheter tilegner seg og forvalter kunnskap ved teret skal ikke påta seg ordinær drift av nettbaserte bruk av nye medier. læringstilbud, men kan delta i utvikling og evalu- Det norske samfunnet står overfor en formidabel ering av dem. omstilling og nyskaping for å mestrekunnskapsfor- NRKs planlegger en interaktiv kunnskapskanal valtningen i ‘informasjonssamfunnet’. Nettbasert der digital kringkasting samkjøres med Internett, læring blir sentralt. For InterMedia gjelder utford- trolig med oppstart i 2000. Samarbeid mellom NRK ringen først og fremst nettbasert læring i høyere ut- og Universitetet i Oslo (enten direkte eller gjennom danning og i universitetets samspill med arbeidsli- felles universitets- og høgskoleorganer) om under- vet, men også nettbasert læring i skolen. Inter- visningstilbud i denne kanalen, er av interesse for Medias forskning på feltet omfatter også utvikling InterMedia. og evaluering. InterMedias forskning om nettbasert læring skal være kritisk og utforske de større sammenhenger Forskningsformidling med digitale som omstillingen inngår i. Forskningen i senteret medier skal støtte nyskapingen i arbeids- og næringsliv, og reise spørsmål om hvordan svake grupper kan få del InterMedia skal ved sin forskning og integrerte i interaktiv læring og digitale læremidler. Inter- medieproduksjon bidra til å heve kvaliteten på for- Media tar utgangspunkt i norske forhold, men kan i midling gjennom nye medier ved Universitetet i sin forskning se nettbasert læring både i nordisk, eu- Oslo. Senteret skal være med å prøve ut interaktive ropeisk og global sammenheng. Nordisk prosjekt- multimedier og digiale nett i formidling av fors- samarbeid er ønskelig. kning ved Universitetet, ved å utvikle nye former og Forskning om nettbasert læring omfatter tekno- formater for formidlingen. Det er viktig å sikre opp- logiske løsninger og programvare for distribuert havsrettigheter til den kunnskap universitetets fag- multimedieundervisning; pedagogiske arbeidsfor- miljøer produserer. Dokumentasjon av forskningen mer og sosial samhandling over nett; medievalg og ved universitetet, også med digitale medier, er der- mediebruk; symbolske uttrykksformer (språklige, for viktig. kunstnerisk etc); juridiske forhold (bl.a. knyttet til

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Namnlöst-18 102 2005-08-16, 12:21 Nya utbildnings- och forskningsinstitutioner/program

Argonaut Study Program at the University of Helsinki

LEIF ÅBERG

Finland has always been a forerunner in applying and media organizations, such as: Nokia Ltd., new communications technologies. Some examples: Sonera Ltd., Finnish Broadcasting Company, Finland is one of the first countries where a state- MTV3, Alma Media, Reuters Finland, Statistics level information society policy has not only been Finland, To The Point Ltd. Most of the Argonaut’s stated but also put into effect. The government and lecturers are from these organizations. various ministries have established policy programs, The purpose of the Argonaut program is to prov- where concrete actions are emphasized and taken. In ide students with a high class study program in in- the fields of telecommunications and electronic formation society and modern communications mass media, Finland has undergone a broad libera- technologies issues, and to apply modern commun- lization of communications policies. Finland is ications technologies to citizen participation pro- among the very first countries in usage rates of grams. various new communications technologies such as Argonaut’s students are from our European use of mobile phone (a world-record of mobile network partner universities, from our Finnish part- phone penetration, approx. 50 percent), corporate ner organizations and from our own department. computer networks, and Internet services. Several Argonaut Program consist of special courses, Finnish telecommunications companies are among seminars and workshops, such as: the global R&D pioneers. • Introduction to Information Society For international students, the Department of Communication at the University of Helsinki has a • Studying in Virtual Environment special English language program called Argonaut • Information Society Policy Programs and Program (30 ECTS), which focuses on the issues Application where Finland is the best: information society and new communication technologies. One of the basic • New Communications Technologies ideas is a close connection between university-level • Media in Information Society education and real-life, grass root level activities. Because the knowledge of the subject is outside of • Communication Design and Multimedia our Department, we have build up a network with • The Influence of Information Society on partners from new communications technologies Economy and Employment Most of the teaching material and application form Department of Communication, P.O. Box 54, are in Internet. Please check our Argonaut home FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, [email protected] page: http://www.valt.helsinki.fi/comm/argo.htm

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Namnlöst-17 104 2005-08-16, 12:21 Nya utbildnings- och forskningsinstitutioner/program

Electronic Photojournalism Masters’ Programme Trains Skillful Professionals of Visual Communication in Cooperation with Three Finnish Universities

HANNU VANHANEN

Electronic Photojournalism Masters’ programme addition there are seminars related to MA dissertat- (EKJ) is a MA programme which trains practical ion. Students also produce services and projects for and theoretical skills for photojournalists in both various digital media. These courses aim to enable traditional printed media and new media. Writers, students to comprehend different software and photographers and graphic designers study together programming techniques and languages. Workshops for two years (60 credits). The next programme will are aimed to activate the theoretical material and to start in autumn 1999. test it in practise. On the other hand workshops are The ultimate philosophy behind the programme designed to deepen each students personal output is to combine equally the three fundamental ele- and communication/presentation skills. All lecturers ments of photojournalism – text, image and design. are offered by nationally or internationally top level A special emphasis is given to teamwork skills. specialists and experts of their own fields. This masters’ programme is carried out by three In the workshops the students have the opportu- Finnish Universities: The Department of Journalism nity to also learn from each other, they can combine and Mass Communication of the University of their knowledge from different fields and learn new Tampere, Departments of Photography and Graphic expressions and concepts of the different profes- Design of the University of Arts and Design in Hel- sional discources. Workshops are related to visual sinki and the Department of Communication of the expression, writing, graphic design and interactive University of Jyväskylä. documents. Curriculum of the Masters’ programme is The ultimate aim is to produce MA disserations composed of courses, projects and workshops. In and scientific studies, which are closely connected to the actual projects and workshops of this programme. Students are encouraged to produce Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, dissertations in teams. The projects will be pub- University of Tampere, P.O. Box 607, FIN-33101 lished on World Wide Web: http://www.uta.fi/ Tampere, [email protected] laitokset/tiedotus/ekj/

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Nordiska medieforskare reflekterar: Public service-TV. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (Olle Findahl, Trine Syvertsen, Henrik Søndergaard) 75:- Cultural Cognition. New Perspectives in Audience Theory. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1998 (Editor: Birgitta Höijer) 170:- Children and Media. Image, Education, Participation. Yearbook 1999 from the UNESCO International Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (Editors: Cecilia von Feilitzen & Ulla Carlsson) 250:- Nordic Baltic Media Statistics 1998. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (Nordic Media Trends 4) 290:- MedieSverige 1999. Statistik och analys. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (under utgivning) 250:- Barn och ungdomar i det nya medielandskapet. Statistik och analys. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1998 (MedieNotiser 2/98) 160:- Nordicoms Mediebarometer 1998. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (MedieNotiser 1/99) 200:- TV i Norden, Europa och Världen. En statistisk översikt. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (MedieNotiser 2/99) 125:- Den svenska mediemarknaden 1999. Mediemarknad, mediebranscher och medieföretag. Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1999 (MedieNotiser 3/1999) 160:- Vad säger forskningen om medievåldets påverkan? Nordicom, Göteborgs universitet 1998 (Cecilia von Feilitzen) –

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Namnlöst-16 106 2005-08-16, 12:22 Recensioner

Heikki Hellman: For more than three decades, there was a period From Companions to Competitors. of co-operation within the Finnish TV broadcasting The Changing Broadcasting Markets arena. More specifically, although being competi- tors, YLE, and commercial MTV worked closely to- and Television Programming in Fin- gether, YLE having a de facto monopoly on TV li- land. censes, MTV creating a market for TV advertising. Department of Journalism and Mass Communica- The two odd parties had a common interest: to tion, University of Tampere 1999, (doctoral disser- prevent potential rivals from entering the mixed tation) arena of public service and commercial broadcast- ing which between them they had established. This is a very interesting and readable book written In 1993, however, a politically agreed upon by a journalist active at the Culture Section of the channel reform changed it all. A number of new TV Helsinging Sanomat, a leading Finnish newspaper. stations did not tarry long to show their flags. It is a doctoral dissertation in the somewhat old- But still, the commercial stations were to subsi- fashioned Nordic tradition: learned and knowledge- dize YLE by way of a yearly ‘public service fee’. – able, bulky and detailed, leaving no tone unturned: So much for the history of Finnish television. close to 500 pages, some 450 footnotes, 21 pages of The study is located within the policy studies references, three appendices. tradition, focusing not only on the explicit decisions The book is written in a positivistic approach by taken, but also on the ways in which ‘industrial, an employee of a large and successful capitalist economic, cultural and political issues and players company, having had professor Kaarle Norden- contradict and collaborate, thus regulating the me- streng as his ‘Doktor-Vater’. It thus indirectly dia’ (p. 8). It is essentially ‘a case study, employing shows how times have been changing – also within a multitude of data and approaches in order to un- the Communications Department at the University derstand and, at the same time, explain possible of Tampere. shifts in television programming in Finland’ (p. 17). The book has three purposes: to examine The detailed analysis of these dramatic and paradig- matic processes is structured according to five main (i) how the Finnish TV broadcasting market arenas (often somewhat inappropriately termed mar- changed from co-operation to competition, kets): the technological, political, business, profes- (ii) how the Finnish TV stations reacted to that sional and popular arenas. change, and especially, This task calls for source criticism based on that classical distinction of all historical studies, the dis- (iii) the impact of that change on programming – tinction between remnants of the past, and stories not least the programming of the Finnish pub- about the past. The author takes the rather drastic lic service radio and TV company, the YLE. decision, however, to regard the stories of his inter- Especially the third purpose calls for the solution of viewees as ‘honest, objective and accurate descrip- some important theoretical and methodological tions of institutionalised norms and statuses con- problems concerning, for instance, the conceptual- cerning programming’, thus approaching them ization and measurement of the structure, range and ‘rather as testimonies than indications’ (p. 21) – in diversity of television output. terms of traditional historical source criticism, that

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Namnlöst-15 107 2005-08-16, 12:22 is, rather as remnants than stories. Only future been undertaken also after the ones carried out source criticism, scholarship and research carried within the international research program (by the out by people having detailed knowledge about the Swedish state commission, ‘Granskningsnämnden Finnish mass media world during the last 50 years för radio och TV’; cf. below). or so will be able to tell to what extent that decision The outcome of Hellman’s attempt at measuring was a wise one. and comparing diversity in Finnish TV program- According to the author, however, ‘the most am- ming is quite interesting. As expected, the diversity bitious section of the study in terms of methodol- of the two Finnish public service channels (TV1, ogy’ is the ‘analysis of programme output’, in TV2) are high (arithmetic means of .91 and .87, re- which ‘quantitative measures dominate’, sorting up spectively) – actually somewhat higher than those some 15, 000 separate programmes into ’15 pro- demonstrated by any TV station in the large interna- gramme type categories, 9 country-of-origin catego- tional comparative study mentioned above. Indeed, ries and 6 continuity status categories’. Then, the even the diversity of the commercial channel TV3/ ‘programme range is investigated by calculating MTV3 is surprisingly high – not least when com- both channel/broadcaster diversity and system di- pared to corresponding channels in the international versity supplied by Finnish Television. As the prin- study (a mean of .81) – while Pay TV has somewhat cipal measure of programme range, the Relative En- more modest figures (hovering around .70). Much tropy Index is used’, supplemented by ‘a Deviation the same results are obtained when the analysis is Index and a Programme Option Index’ (pp. 21, 22). carried out at the broadcaster level rather than at the This reviewer shares the author’s opinion that channel level (.91 for public service YLE; .81 for the analysis of the programme output is the most in- MTV, 69 for PTV). teresting part of the book. That is not to say that These results show that public service television other parts are uninteresting, of course. But there is still has a role to play, even in an increasingly com- no denying that the sometimes very long and quite mercialized media market. Compared to relatively detailed presentations of all the intricate manoeuv- recent data from Sweden (not quoted by Hellman), rings between various representatives of traditional they also show that the diversity of Finnish public political, economical and cultural interest groups – service and commercial channels tends to be some- not only their long-term strategies but also their what higher than that of their Swedish counterparts short-term tactics – now and again tend to become (Hillve & Majanen 1998). far too detailed. They thus run the risk of being of Unfortunately, Hellman does not carry out any limited interest outside a necessarily rather small so-called horizontal analyses, which could have of- circle of cognoscenti. fered a deeper understanding of the contributions of The chapters dealing with program output, on each channel to overall system diversity. (In such the other hand, should be of considerable interest analyses, the overall diversity of a given system of both to TV programmers and to international radio media channels – public service and/or commercial and TV research at large, and especially so to those ones – is calculated after removing one channel at a with an interest in the specific research tradition time, thus obtaining a measure of what the media having by now for a couple of decades been wres- system would have looked like, should the channel tling with the problem of diversity in radio and tel- removed from the analysis not have been around.) evision programming. Within this tradition, there is Previous analyses of this type have shown that com- a growing consensus that the so-called ‘Relative En- mercial channels tend to contribute very little to tropy Index’ is the best measure of diversity, from overall diversity, while public service channels do both theoretical and methodological points of view. indeed offer a decisive contribution to overall sys- The index was agreed upon some years ago by an tem diversity. international group of scholars in the area. The re- All the same, there is no question that Heikki sults of its application were presented in a book ed- Hellman’s doctoral thesis, From Companion to ited by the co-ordinator of the programme and sum- Competitors, offers a valuable contribution to inter- marized in the final chapter of that book (Ishikawa national television research, not least to research on et al. 1996). In their turn, these and related efforts diversity in commercial and public service televi- were thoroughly discussed in an insightful and criti- sion programming. Hopefully, yearly comparative cal book review not referred to by Hellman (Blum- measurements of diversity in the TV and radio sys- ler 1997). Unfortunately, the author also seems to be tems in different parts of the world will be under- unaware of the fact that similar measurements of di- taken in a not too distant future. Both commercial versity in Swedish television programming have and public service TV and radio channels and com-

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Namnlöst-15 108 2005-08-16, 12:22 panies should be able to shoulder that responsibil- Karin Nordberg: ity, preferably within a framework of nationally and Folkhemmets röst? Radion som folk- internationally co-ordinated measurement pro- bildare 1925-1950 grams. Institutionen för idéhistoria, Umeå universitet/ Symposion, Stockholm 1998 (doktorsavhandling) References Blumler, J.G. (1997) ‘Quality Assessment of Television. För en tid sedan använde jag en del av ett radiopro- A Review’. Journal of Communication, vol 47, gram från slutet av 1930-talet som upptakt till ett Summer Issue, pp. 135-137. seminarium om medieutveckling. Den som fram- Hillve, P. & Majanen, P. (1998) ‘Svensk TV-utbud 1997 – trädde i programmet var radiochefen Carl-Anders Profiljakten’, pp.1-41 (plus 36 unnumbered pages Dymling i en av sina s k dialoger med radiopubli- of notes and references) Granskningsnämndens ken. Efter inslaget frågade jag seminariedeltagarna årsbok 1998. Stockholm 1998 (Granskningsnämn- – till övervägande delen opinions- och medie- dens Rapportserie, 1). intresserade män i femtioårsåldern – om de visste Ishikawa, S., Leggatt, T., Litman, B., Raboy, M., Rosengren, K.E., and Kambara, N. (1996) ‘Diver- vem som talade. Ingen hade något namn att föreslå. sity in Television Programming: Comparative Och när jag nämnde namnet verkade inte heller Analysis of Five Countries’, pp. 253-264 in detta ge auditoriet några tydliga associationer. Ishikawa, S. (ed.) (1996) Quality Assessment of Detta gav mig något att fundera på. Är det så att Television. Luton: University of Luton Press. de personer som ledde den klassiska radion i Sverige före televisionen är helt bortglömda? Ja, några kanske man har hört talas om, t ex den Karl Erik Rosengren kontroversielle Lubbe Nordström med radioserien Lort-Sverige från 1938. Men däremot är det nog få Department of Sociology som vet något om den som initierade serien – den University of Lund idealistiske folkbildaren Yngve Hugo, som senare blev radiochef. Eller vem vet något om den förste riksprogramchefen Nils Holmberg? Kunskaps- bristen står i bjärt kontrast till vad vi vet om pres- sens män och kvinnor vid samma tid och tidigare: Rudolf Wall, Anders Jeurling, Sten Dahlgren och Harry Hjörne. En förklaring till att den äldsta radions person- ligheter kommit i bakgrunden är säkerligen att ra- dion i äldre tid var mycket av en opersonlig myn- dighet. Men en annan förklaring är att det har fun- nits relativt litet skrivet om radions historia, särskilt radions programhistoria. Forskningsprojektet Eter- medierna i Sverige håller emellertid på att ändra si- tuationen. Sedan ett par år tillbaka har det inom pro- jektets ram regelbundet publicerats en rad veten- skapliga framställningar som belyser olika aspekter på radions – och televisionens – utveckling, t ex det politiska spelet, personalrekrytering, sändnings- teknik, samhällskritik och musikrepertoar. Och un- der de närmaste åren finns det ytterligare en rad vo- lymer att vänta. Men intresset för radions och televisionens his- toria är lyckligtvis inte begränsat till det s k Eter- medieprojektet. Det finns ett ökat engagemang bland medieforskare att studera medieutvecklingens villkor. Ett utmärkt exempel på detta är Karin Nord- bergs avhandling Folkhemmets röst från 1998 med underrubriken Radion som folkbildare 1925-1950.

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Namnlöst-15 109 2005-08-16, 12:22 Den är framlagd inom ämnet idé- och lärdomshisto- I avhandlingens andra del ligger fokus på ria vid Umeå universitet och rymmer en bred ansats programmens form. Det som framför allt diskuteras på den svenska radions första kvartssekel. är föredragsformen, men också hur radions budskap kan förlängas, antingen genom s k lyssnargrupper eller i skriftlig form genom studiehandledningar och Folkbildningsradion läroböcker. Karin Nordbergs genomgång av hur Karin Nordbergs avhandling är såvitt jag kan be- radioföredragets pedagogik utvecklades tillhör nå- döma den första grundläggande beskrivningen av got av det mest intressanta i boken i och med att hon folkbildningsradion i Sverige. De relativt få analy- där berör frågan vad som var ‘radiomässigt’. Hon ser som finns av den svenska radion under dess för- kan visa på en intressant förändring: år 1928 hade sta decennier har lyft fram det politiska spelet, t ex samtliga radioföredrag en traditionell föredrags- pressens förhållande till radion, medan Nordbergs form, tio år senare hade andelen minskat till 60 pro- intresse främst är att belysa programverksamheten – cent och ytterligare tio år senare var andelen ‘rena’ både formen och innehållet. Hennes första och över- föredrag bara 40 procent. Dialoger, diskussioner gripande syfte är att ‘kartlägga radions utveckling och samtal är exempel på de nya presentationsfor- som talat medium med utgångspunkt från dess mer som nyttjas för radions folkbildningsprogram. kunskapsförmedlande roll samt att beskriva den Genom att reportageformen successivt kommer till process som kom att forma radions folkbildande användning får även medborgarna i ökande ut- uppgift och roll under de första tjugofem åren’ (s 25). sträckning komma till tals, medan det i början i stort Men Karin Nordberg går vidare. Det andra syftet sett uteslutande rörde sig om kända experter, oftast är att belysa hur programinnehållet påverkas av vad med akademisk bakgrund. hon kallar radiospråkets uttryck. Med det menas hur Den tredje delen diskuterar programmens inne- olika drivkrafter bakom och i radion påverkade håll. Först görs en genomgång av återkommande folkbildningsinnehållet, t ex tekniken, ägare, politi- tema i utbudet och vilka typer av program som före- ker, medarbetare och publik. Ett tredje syfte är dess- kommit inom varje område. Vi får en bild i vilka utom att relatera radion som folkbildare till det vi- program som medborgarkunskap förmedlades, t ex dare begreppet folkbildning: hon vill få en bild av krönikorna från riksdagen och om nya lagar. Ett an- vilken roll radion som folkbildare hade till den nat område är populärvetenskap, ett tredje hygien svenska folkbildningstraditionen. och kroppsvård, ett fjärde reseskildringar och forsk- ningsresor etc. I ett särskilt kapitel presenteras de programserier Tre huvuddelar som även omfattade särskilda s k lyssnargrupper, Det är således ett ytterst ambitiöst syfte som formu- studiecirklar som byggde på programmen. Där pre- leras för arbetet. Men det skall omedelbart fastslås senteras bl a Lubbe Nordströms Lort-Sverige och att Karin Nordberg i hög grad lever upp till det. Av- Gunnar Myrdals omfattande serie om befolknings- handlingens drygt 350 sidor rymmer en impone- frågan. I ett tredje kapitel om utbudet behandlas un- rande beskrivning av den äldsta radions framväxt der den träffande rubriken ‘Husmodernismen’ pro- och innehåll. Den första delen diskuterar hur radion grammen för kvinnorna. Karin Nordberg visar hur organiserar sitt folkbildningsuppdrag och hur radion före kriget byggde upp en kvinnooffentlighet folkbildningens aktörer värderar radions betydelse. genom program som Husmodershalvtimmen; när Den innehåller också ett mycket ingående och in- ledningen efter kriget ville minska på dessa pro- tressant porträtt av Yngve Hugo, som i många avse- gram visade sig detta inte vara möjligt p g a en stark enden kom att personifiera folkbildningsambitionen kvinnoopinion. inom Radiotjänst. Han var den viktiga ideologen – Det är inte för mycket sagt att Karin Nordberg först som programchef mellan 1931 och 1942 och genom sin avhandling åstadkommit ett verk om den sedan som radiochef mellan 1942 och 1950. Hugo svenska folkbildningsradion som ingen radiointres- får i kapitlet stå som ‘representant för en tid och ett serad kan gå förbi. Såvitt jag kan bedöma har ingen idésammanhang (...) en tidsanda’ (s 120). Hans tidigare framställning på detta sätt förmått integrera ideal är medborgarbildningen och han står för en radioorganisation, programform och programinne- stark bildningsidealism, där han i radion ser en na- håll. Dessutom är analyserna insatta i ett vidare ve- turlig del. För honom blir radion en teknik som ökar tenskapligt sammanhang, där ett återkommande möjligheterna att nå alla och han ser, i motsats till tema är den framväxande offentligheten. vissa kritiker, inga problem med att radion i prakti- För den som själv arbetat med närliggande pri- ken är en fråga om envägskommunikation. märmaterial i Sveriges Radios dokumentarkiv är

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Namnlöst-15 110 2005-08-16, 12:22 kanske ändå det mest imponerande hur Karin Nord- ingående anknyta till tidsandan, särskilt under berg lyckats skapa den samlade bilden av program 1930-talet. och programmedarbetare. Visserligen kan en del Med detta menar jag inte att Karin Nordberg har material hämtas i den s k femårsboken från 1929 lämnat sådana frågor därhän – hon tar upp de och senare i årsböckerna, men Nordbergs framställ- rashygieniska elementen både i programserierna om ning förutsätter även genomgångar av en stor Lort-Sverige och i befolkningsfrågan – men det jag mängd manuskript och lyssnande på ett mycket efterlyser är en systematisk analys. Det handlar om stort antal bevarade program. ett vidare perspektiv på radion som instrument för en centralmakt: serien i befolkningsfrågan skedde i samverkan med en statlig utredning och avsåg att Några frågor bereda marken för nya synsätt och Lort-Sverige var Även om jag således i grunden är mycket positiv till initierad av Medicinalstyrelsen, som t o m valt ut Karin Nordbergs avhandling går det inte att komma vilka läkare som skulle intervjuas. ifrån att den också reser en del frågor. Mina syn- Mot den bakgrunden saknar jag en breddad ana- punkter gäller både sådant som finns med i fram- lys av bildningsradions ställning i folkhemmet. År ställningen och sådant som har fallit vid sidan. 1935 tog staten de facto kontrollen över radion – Den första frågan gäller avgränsningen av folk- andra kammaren röstade f ö för att den även skulle bildning som område. Nordbergs ansats är här göra det de jure. Precis som på det samhällsekono- mycket bred: ‘jag har valt att i min empiriska under- miska området är det bondeförbundet och socialde- sökning koncentrera mig på det talade utbudet som mokraterna som samverkar. Visserligen fick vi inte i radion avsåg för ”den bildningssökande allmänhe- Sverige som i Tyskland några ‘Volksempfänger’, ten”’ (s 26). Enligt min mening blir en sådan av- men det finns ändå klara likheter: vi fick en radio gränsning otydlig genom att den utgår från verk- där ‘rikset’ var det viktiga och periferin skulle bil- samhetens syfte, inte från programmen i sig. Den das – och underhållas. Men bilden är inte entydig paradoxala konsekvensen är att den därmed blir och folkhemmet förändras. 1940-talets reportage, både för smal och för bred. Skolradion och språk- inte minst Gunnar Heléns, var på ett annat sätt än kurserna kommer således att falla utanför eftersom Lubbe Nordströms förutsättningslösa. Han tog hjälp de inte avser allmänheten, medan däremot större de- av universitetsforskare och inte av något ämbets- len av reportage- och aktualitetsprogrammen, t ex verk, liksom han utgick från att centrum har något riksdags- och utrikeskrönikor, debattprogram som att lära av periferin. ‘Fritt ur hjärtat’ eller Lars Madséns bygdereportage Ett sådant perspektiv skulle på ett intressantare genom att de avsåg en kunskapsförmedling till all- sätt kunna föra in den teoretiskt mest relevanta frå- mänheten. gan om folkhemmets röst: vem är det egentligen Problemet med en sådan definition är att en an- som talar i folkhemmet – är det radion som talar el- senlig del av innehållet också i dagens medier då ler är det något eller någon som talar genom radion? rimligen måste vara en fråga om folkbildning. Så Och i vilken utsträckning varierar villkoret för detta kanske är fallet, men det bidrar till att göra avgräns- tilltal över tid och mellan olika samhällen? Nu finns ningen relativt intetsägande. För beskrivningen av det snarast en tendens att i beskrivningen sätta ra- utbudet gör detta dock mindre, även om man kan dion i centrum – men var det verkligen så? undra varför Dagens Eko inte är med. Också detta Detta för över till min sista fråga som gäller de program var till en början en daglig fördjupning internationella utblickarna. Sådana finns hos Karin som rimligen syftade till att ge ‘medborgerlig Nordberg. Intressant är f ö att notera att även Lort- bakgrundskunskap’. Sverige hade en utländsk förebild – Other People’s Min andra fråga gäller kontextens roll. Som Houses som sändes av BBC 1933 och som även re- framgått av det föregående har Karin Nordberg satt sulterade i en bok med titeln Slum. Men det jag ef- in folkbildningsradion i ett bildningspolitiskt sam- terlyser är inte programförebilder utan en belysning manhang. Det är bra. Särskilt viktigt är att vi får av i vilken utsträckning folkbildningsradio i sig var veta att radions folkbildningsroll inte var helt okon- ett svenskt fenomen eller inte. Ett intryck av den troversiell. Även hennes analys av Yngve Hugos tyskspråkiga litteraturen inom fältet är att det i fråga delvis okritiska syn på konsekvenserna att använda om folkbildningsinriktning finns likheter med den radion i folkbildningen ger ett viktigt bidrag till för- äldre radion i Tyskland och Österrike. Samtidigt vet ståelsen av programutbudet. Men min fråga är om vi av andra studier att BBC var förebilden för bl a det inte är nödvändigt att gå ännu ett steg och mer organiseringen av radio.

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Namnlöst-15 111 2005-08-16, 12:22 Detta ställer intressanta frågor om radions idétra- Den mediehistoriska forskningen i Sverige är dition. Sådana frågor berörs emellertid inte alls av ännu så länge bara i sin början. Det kommer under Nordberg – och det skulle givetvis föra alldeles för det närmaste decenniet med säkerhet att publiceras långt i hennes arbete – men den borde ändå kunna en rad arbeten som kommer att ge oss ett allt bättre vara en fruktbar utgångspunkt för en fortsatt medie- underlag för att förstå mediers historiska villkor. historisk analys. Karin Nordberg har gjort en pionjärinsats genom sina beskrivning av folkbildningsradions program- former och programinnehåll. Det är enviktig bygg- En viktig byggsten sten för dem som går vidare. De frågor som jag har ställt mig vid läsningen av Folkhemmets röst förringar på inget sätt värdet av Karin Nordbergs insats. De har snarast visat på möj- Lennart Weibull ligheter att gå vidare i analyser som kan fördjupa förståelsen för radions sätt att fungera, inte minst i JMG ett komparativt perspektiv. Mycket av trådarna finns Göteborgs universitet dessutom redan i hennes framställning – det jag sak- nar är att de lyfts fram i de sista kapitlen.

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Namnlöst-15 112 2005-08-16, 12:22 Avhandlingar framlagda 1998

Finland The thesis is a theoretical discussion on information society in modernization. The frame of analysis is Ulrich Beck’s concept of reflexive modernization and infor- Universitetet i Helsingfors, Institutionen för mation society is discussed in that context. Information kommunikationsvetenskap society can also be called risk society as the risks in information society are often risks produced by techno- Arstila-Paasilinna, Anja: Opetusviestintä ja viestintävi- rittyneisyys nuoren aikuisen oppimisympäristössä: tutki- logical development and they are produced in the proc- mus kolmen opetusmenetelmän eroista toisen asteen ess of modernization. The history of the idea of infor- oppilaitoksissa. (Communication and communications mation society is discussed through analysing the dif- agility in the teaching process of a young adult). Hel- ferent waves of information society. Information and sinki: Helsingin yliopisto, 1998, 258 p. (Helsingin ylio- communication technology in the developmental con- pisto, viestinnän laitos, Julkaisuja, Sarja 1 A; 1998, 1), ISSN 1236-1356, Note: Doctoral dissertation. text are discussed, too. The author looks at teaching as a communication proc- Valtonen, Sanna: Työ teksteissä, tekstit talouskriisissä – ess. Firstly, she aims to clarify teaching environments tausta-ajatuksia mediatekstien kriittiseen analyysiin. and teaching methods’ effect on young adults learning. (Media within texts, texts within economic crises: in- Secondly, she examines how communications agility troductions to critical text analysis.) Helsinki: Univer- reflects to the learning process sity of Helsinki, 1998, 150 p. Note: Licentiate’s thesis. The author aims construct an interpretative framework Rajalahti, Hanna: Hyvät äidit, hauskat naiset: keskuste- for critical text analysis via concept analysis and litera- luanalyysia soveltava tv-sarjojen vastaanottotutkimus. ture reviews. She focus on various ways the concepts of (Good mothers, funny women: a reception study of tv- work and citizenship meet in media texts and on what series applying conversation analysis.) Helsinki: Hel- singin yliopisto, 1998, 200 p. + 6 app. Note: Licenti- kind of ingredients the media policy offered for identity ate’s thesis. formation and citizenship formation to people differ- The thesis examines conversations about television se- ently positioned within the labour market during the ries among a group of women. The frame of reference economic crisis. The framework is built on concepts of is the research on television viewing in Finland from publicity, civil society, (national) identity, community the 1970s to the 1990s. During that time period wom- and Finnishness. The questions of Finnishness and citi- en’s television viewing has been studied only occasion- zenship and their relations to the concept of work and ally. The starting point of the study is that gender is a on different interpretations of economic crisis in a work- sociocultural and semiotic construct. Communication centred welfare society are on the focus of the study. theoretically the thesis refers to the view on multia- accentuality of a text developed in the British cultural studies. Universitetet i Jyväskylä, Institutionen för kommunikationsvetenskap Tapper, Helena: Information society: another moder- Karstinen, Eija: Keskustelusta pöytäkirjaksi: kuuluste- nity. Helsinki: University of Helsinki, 1998, (Julkaisuja, lijoiden ja rikoksesta epäiltyjen viestintä poliisikuulus- Helsingin yliopisto, viestinnän laitos. Series 1 A ; 1998, teluissa. (From discussion to records: communication 2) Note: Licentiate’s thesis. between interrogators and suspects in interrogations.)

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Namnlöst-14 113 2005-08-16, 12:22 Espoo: Poliisiammattikorkeakoulu, 1998. 226 p., ISBN: personal relationship to communication and their com- 951-815-002-8, (Poliisiammattikorkeakoulun tutkimuk- municator image at psychologists’ work in general. sia, 1998, 2) ISSN 1455-8262. Note: Doctoral disserta- tion. Virtapohja, Kalle: Sankareiden salaisuudet: journa- The study focused on investigating the properties of the listinen draama suomalaista urheilusankaria synnyt- communicative event of an interrogation of a Finnish tämässä. (The secrets of heroes: the drama of journal- person suspected of a crime, on how interrogation ism as part of the making of the Finnish sports heroes). records are drawn up, and how power is manifested in Jyväskylä: Atena, 1998, 260 p. Note: Doctoral disserta- tion. ISBN: 951-796-145-6. interrogation situations. The data were collected by interviewing interrogators and interrogated persons sus- The objects of the study include sports journalism, the pected of a crime as well as by observing 22 interroga- stories of sport heroes, and the drama of journalism that tions. brings these heroes to the headlines. The products of sport journalism, the texts, are the focus of the research. Lehikoinen, Taisto: Mediauskonto: tapauksena suoma- How sports journalism is involved in the making of laiset paikallisradiot. (Media religion: Finnish local sports heroes, and how the drama of journalism is el- radios as a case study.) Jyväskylä, Jyväskylän yliopisto, evating these sports heroes are the questions consid- 1998, 199 p. + app., (University of Jyväskylä, Depart- ered. How the sport heroes and their Finnish nationality ment of Communication). Note: Licentiate’s thesis. are combined is studied by means of textual analysis. The study introduces religious radio programmes’ posi- tion among the broadcasting programmes of Finnish local radio stations. The author’s aim is to create a Universitetet i Tammerfors, Institutionen för religion-based media theory which explains religious journalistik och masskommunikation communities activity in the media field and their mo- tives to communicate in general. Pietiläinen, Jukka: Moderni, sanomalehti ja Venäjä: Karjalan tasavallan aluelehdistö muutoksessa 1985- 1997. (The modern, the newspaper and Russia: the re- Löytömäki, Jukka: Kannanottoja uutisessa: poliittiset gional press of the Karelian Republic in transition 1985- uutiset sanomalehden taustan ilmentäjänä. (Attitudes 1997.) Tampere, Tampereen yliopisto, 1998, (Univer- in the news: political news as manifestations of a news- sity of Tampere, Department of Journalism and Mass paper’s ideological background.) Communication). Note: Licentiate’s thesis. Jyväskylä, Jyväskylän yliopisto, 1998, 210 p + app. The research objects of the study are changes in Rus- (University of Jyväskylä, Department of Communica- tion). Note: Licentiate’s thesis. sian press and journalism in the 1990s during the Peres- trojka. The theoretical framework is built on a theory of The author analysis newspapers’ political bonds and modern society and the earlier research on modern news- background’s manifestations in news dealing with poli- paper’s and journalism’s development as a part of a tics. The research material consists of political news modern society’s formation. In the empirical part of the published in Finnish newspapers in 1985 and 1995. How study the transformations of the regional press of the much and in which ways the titles, the texts and the Karelian Republic are under examination. illustration express newspapers’ background and com- mitments are the questions under examination. The re- Saari, Timo: Knowledge creation as the production of search method used was discourse analysis based on individual autonomy how news influences subjective Teun A. van Dijk’s model. reality. Tampere: University of Tampere, 1998, 260 p. ISBN: 951-44-4363-2, (Tampereen yliopiston opettajan- Takala, Eeva: Viestijäkuvan tutkiminen haastatelemalla: koulutuslaitoksen julkaisuja A, 15/1998), ISSN 1238- näkökulmia empiirisiin, teoreettisiin ja metodologisiin 3279. Note: Licentiate’s thesis. mahdollisuuksiin. (Studying the communicator image The research problem of the study is: how news is turned through interviews: aspects of empirical, theoretical and into knowledge and how that knowledge influences our methodological possibilities.) Jyväskylä, Jyväskylän yliopisto, 1998, 173 p. + app., (University of Jyväskylä, subjective reality. Communication is seen as informa- Department of Communication). Note: Licentiate’s the- tion processing (the messages distributed as a symbolic sis. flow of mediated experience) and as interactive nego- The author aims to study the communicator image tiation of meaning and the creation of social reality. through empirical research and to look at the theoreti- The focus is on the process of how the production of cal and methodological questions which are connected meaning, and further, the production of knowledge oc- to research on communicator images. Seven psycholo- curs in learning from news. gists were interviewed in order to clarify their own

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Namnlöst-14 114 2005-08-16, 12:22 Ridell, Seija: Tolkullistamisen politiikkaa: televisiouu- en analys av konstruktionen av våldsfilmer i den gene- tisten vastaanotto kriittisestä genrenäkökulmasta. (Poli- rella debatten samt alternativa förklaringar till varför tics of sense-making: The reception of TV news from a critical genre perspective ) Tampere: Tampereen ylio- fiktivt våld uppfattas så skadligt. pisto, 1998 331 p. ISBN: 951-44-4405-1, (Acta Univer- sitatis Tamperensis, 617), ISSN 1455-1616, Note: Doc- Eriksson, Annika: En gangster kanske kunde älska sin toral dissertation. mor...: produktionen av moraliska klichéer i amerikan- ska polis- och deckarserier. Lunds universitet, Sociolo- The study explores both theoretically and empirically giska institutionen, avd. för medie- och kommunikations- the conventionalized processes of meaning in the re- vetenskap, 1998, 194 p., ISBN 91-89078-36-5, (Lund ception of television news. Starting from a construc- Dissertations in Sociology; 23), ISSN 1102-4712. tionist and critical cultural studies framework the work En analys av hur brottslingar framställs i amerikanska develops a social-semiotic notion of genre and applies polis- och detektivserier. Studien fokuserar på den moral it in examining empirically the ways people routinely som kommer till uttryck i serierna, och på de moraliska follow and make meaning of TV news. The critical genre klichéer som gestaltningen av karaktärerna bygger på. conception approaches the daily practices of reception Det empiriska underlaget utgörs av 100 avsnitt från ett in terms of the politics of sense making, in other words, antal olika amerikanska tv-serier som producerats mel- as having actual social and political implications. lan 1983 och 1993.

Wallengren, Ann-Kristin: En afton på Röda Kvarn: svensk stumfilm som musikdrama. Lund, Lund Univer- Norge sity Press, 1998, 280 p., ISBN 91-7966-524-1, (Littera- tur Teater Film, Nya serien; 17), ISSN 0347-7770. (Lunds universitet, Litteraturvetenskapliga institutio- Universitetet i Bergen, Institutt for medievitenskap nen). Eide, Martin: Popularisering, modernisering, strukture- Behandlar olika sidor av stumfilmsmusikens utveckling ring: en populæravis tar form: Verdens Gang i for- i Sverige, såsom orkesterutvecklingen, musikens utform- vandling 1945-81. Bergen, Institutt for medievitenskap, ning och stil, musiken som medel att höja filmens sta- 1998, 442 p., ISBN 82-578-0390-1, (Rapport; 40), ISSN tus, originalkompositioner, biografmusikernas arbetssi- 0801-2814. (Universitetet i Bergen, Institutt for medie- vitenskap). (Dissertation for the degree of dr. philos). tuation och deras reaktion på ljudfilmen, användningen av mekaniska instrument, den legendariske kapellmäs- The author analyses and discusses the changes of the taren Rudolf Sahlbergs arbete på Röda Kvarn. modern paper Verdens Gang (VG) into a popular news- paper. He argues that the story of the paper invokes basic approaches for a historical-sociological investi- Göteborgs universitet gation into journalism, and wishes to contribute to a sociologically informed history of press and journa- Carlsson, Ulla: Frågan om en ny internationell informa- tionsordning: en studie i internationell mediepolitik. lism. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för journalistik och masskommunikation/JMG, 1998, 339 p., ISBN 91- 88212-21-1, (Göteborgsstudier i journalistik och mass- kommunikation; 14), ISSN 1101-4652. Sverige Redovisar en analys av frågan om den nya informa- tions- och kommunikationsordningens (NWICO) upp- Doktorsavhandlingar gång, på 1970-talet, och fall. Särskilt belyses samman- Lunds universitet hang mellan medie- och kommunikationssystem och politiska mål mot bakgrund av mer generella utveck- Dalquist, Ulf: Större våld än nöden kräver?: medie- våldsdebatten i Sverige 1980-1995. Umeå, Boréa Bok- lingsteorier. Även dagens informationsordning diskute- förlag, 1998, 258 p., ISBN 91-89140-01-X. (Lunds ras. universitet, Sociologiska institutionen, avd. för medie- och kommunikationsvetenskap). Johansson, Bengt: Nyheter mitt ibland oss: kommunala Genom en kvalitativ analys behandlas frågan hur medie- nyheter, personlig erfarenhet och lokal opinionsbild- ning. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för journalis- våldet konstruerats i svensk dagspress 1980-1995. 1029 tik och masskommunikation/JMG, 1998, 205 p., ISBN artiklar från de sju största dagstidningarna i Sverige 91-88212-23-8, (Göteborgsstudier i journalistik och utgör det empiriska underlaget. Studiens tre delar be- masskommunikation; 15), ISSN 1101-4652. handlar: en kritisk översikt av medieeffektforskningen,

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Namnlöst-14 115 2005-08-16, 12:22 Är det mediebilden eller våra egna upplevelser som Frenander, Anders: Debattens vågor: om politisk-ideo- skapar bilden av vår omvärld. Frågan studeras utifrån logiska frågor i efterkrigstidens svenska kulturdebatt. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för idé- och lär- vilken roll den lokala samhällsjournalistiken – de kom- domshistoria, 1998, 482 p. munala nyheterna - spelar för människors uppfattning Avhandlar de politisk-ideologiska svängningarna avse- av lokala samhällsförhållanden. I huvudsak koncentre- ende frågor i den svenska kulturdebatten mellan åren ras studierna av de kommunala nyheterna till Göteborg 1946 och 1989. Författaren analyserar kultursidesartiklar och kommuninnevånarna i Göteborg. som ingår i en debatt om politisk-ideologiska frågor. Larsson, Larsåke: Nyheter i samspel: studier i kommun- journalistik. Göteborgs universitet, Institutionen för journalistik och masskommunikation/JMG, 1998, 253 Linköpings universitet p., ISBN 91-88212-27-0, (Göteborgsstudier i journalis- Karlsson, Magnus: The liberalisation of telecommun- tik och masskommunikation; 17), ISSN 1101-4652. ications in Sweden: technology and regime change from Studerar hur kommunjournalistiken skapas och formas 1960s to 1993. Linköpings universitet, Tema T, 1998, i interaktionen mellan kommunala aktörer och journa- 391 p., ISBN 91-7219-162-7, (Linköping studies in arts and science; 172). lister samt vilken slags journalistik detta samspel resul- terar i. Analysen bygger på intervjuer med olika aktörer Describes the liberalisation of telecommunications in i nyhetsprocessen i sju kommuner. Sweden and analyses the role of technology in this pro- cess. A sociotechnical systems perspective, emphasising Lindstedt, Inger: ”Till de unga, till dem som ämna bliva the interrelatedness of social and technical factors, is tidningsmän”: handböcker i journalistik. Göteborgs explored in order to supplement existing explanations universitet, Institutionen för journalistik och masskom- of regime change. The concept of sociotechnical culture munikation/JMG, 1998, 287 p., ISBN 91-88212-31-9, and inertia are applied in the analysis of the traditional (Göteborgsstudier i journalistik och masskommunika- telecommunications system in Sweden and the process tion; 19), ISSN 1101-4652. of system reconfiguration. Analyserar vilka råd och regler handböcker i journalis- tik ger till den blivande journalisten när det gäller att utforma en text som skall uppfylla de journalistiska Stockholms universitet kraven. Råden omfattar både textens struktur och språ- Bolin, Göran: Filmbytare: videovåld, kulturell produk- kets utformning. Materialet omfattar alla handböcker i tion & unga män. Umeå, Boréa Bokförlag, 1998, 288 journalistik publicerade i Sverige under perioden 1915- p., ISBN 91-89140-00-1, (Avhandling; 7 (Medie- och 1996, totalt 17 publikationer. kommunikationsvetenskap)), ISSN 1102-3015. (Stock- holms universitet, Institutionen för journalistik, medier Albinsson Bruhner, Göran: Dagspressens politiska eko- och kommunikation/JMK). nomi. Göteborg, SNS Förlag, 1998, 208 p., ISBN 91- Analyserar kulturell produktion och reception bland 7150-726-4. (Handelshögskolan vid Göteborgs univer- filmbytande medievåldsintresserade unga män, som ett sitet). exempel på en specifik mediepraktik i dagens pluralisti- Beskriver och analyserar dagspressens ekonomiska och ska medielandskap. Analysen utgår från ett medieetno- legala ställning, hur den tillkommit och vilka krafter grafiskt perspektiv. som arbetar för dess bevarande. Sköld, Gullan: Från moder till samhällsvarelse: vardags- Blomgren, Roger: Staten och filmen: svensk filmpolitik kvinnor och kvinnovardag från femtiotal till nittiotal i 1909-1993. Hedemora, Gidlunds förlag, 1998, 172 p., familjetidningen Året Runt. Stockholms universitet, In- ISBN 91-7844-283-4, (Studier i politik; 56), ISSN 0346- stitutionen för journalistik, medier och kommunikation/ 5942. (Göteborgs universitet, Statsvetenskapliga insti- JMK, 1998, 370 p., ISBN 91-88354-10-5, (Avhandling; tutionen). 8 (Journalistik)), ISSN 1102-3015. Utifrån ett historiskt perspektiv studeras politiken och Diskuterar veckopressjournalistik utifrån en tolkande debatten bakom statliga beslut, under 1909-1993, avse- analys av valda delar av det redaktionella innehållet i ende produktion, distribution och visning av Svensk fem årgångar av familjetidningen Året Runt och beskri- film. Huvudsakligt material utgörs av det offentliga ver bilden av den svenska kvinnan och familjen. trycket i form av propositioner, motioner, riksdagspro- tokoll och statliga utredningar, samt Filminstitutets års- berättelser.

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Namnlöst-14 116 2005-08-16, 12:23 Åker, Patrik: Vår bostad i folkhemmet: bilden av hem- Nekatibeb, Teshome: Media utilization and school im- met i en organisationstidskrift. Nora, Bokförlaget Nya provement: a case study of primary education radio Doxa, 1998, 327 p., ISBN 91-578-0068-5, (Avhand- support programs in Ethiopia. Stockholms universitet, ling; 9 (Journalistik)), ISSN 1102-3015. (Stockholms Institutionen för internationell pedagogik, 1998, 229 p., universitet, Institutionen för journalistik, medier och ISBN 91-7153-837-2, (Studies in comparative and in- kommunikation/JMK). ternational education; 45), ISSN 0348-9523. Behandlar relationen mellan samhällsutvecklingen, hem- Investigates the utilization and performance of educat- met och journalistiken. Studien belyser hemmet som en ional radio support programs in Ethiopia. The disserta- abstrakt föreställning, en metafor för samhälle och sam- tion focuses on national educational radio policy, the hällsutvecklingen. Analysen av bilderna av hemmet görs strategies of educational radio implementation, the size utifrån tre årgångar (1937, 1955 och 1987) av tidskrif- of operations, the characteristics of radio support ser- ten Vår bostad - organ för HSB och Hyresgästernas vices, school radio organization, school radio opera- Riksförbund. tions and radio results.

Bengtsson, Bengt: Ungdom i fara: ungdomsproblem i svensk spelfilm 1942-62. Stockholms universitet, Film- Uppsala universitet vetenskapliga institutionen, 1998, 369 p., ISBN 91-628- 3007-4. Höjdestrand. Erik: Det vedervärdiga videovåldet: att återupprätta moralisk ordning. Uppsala universitet, Avhandlar hur ungdomsbrottslighet beskrives i svensk Sociologiska institutionen; Uppsala University Library, spelfilm mellan 1942 till 1962. Studien gör en historisk 1997, 239 p., ISBN 91-554-4100-9, (Acta Universitatis översikt över dessa filmer, hur de porträtterar samhället Upsaliensis. Studie Sociologica Upsaliensia; 44), ISSN och det sociala livet och hur detta relateras till ung- 0585-5551. domsproblem. Tjugo filmer analyseras. I december 1980 utbröt en upphetsad debatt om vålds- filmer på video, sedan ett TV-program avslöjat att oscen- Björkin, Mats: Amerikanism, bolsjevism och korta kjo- surerade filmer kunde hyras fritt av barn och ungdomar. lar: filmen och dess publik i Sverige under 1920-talet. Här analyseras debattens innehåll, förlopp och förut- Stockholm, Aura förlag, 1998, 328 p., ISBN 91-628- sättningar, samt det TV-program där saken först togs 3081-3. (Stockholms universitet, Filmvetenskapliga in- upp och den pressdebatt som följde, liksom hur video- stitutionen). våldet gjordes till föremål för politiska åtgärder och Avhandlingen undersöker relationen mellan amerikani- civilt engagemang. seringen och tillkomstprocesserna för den svenska film- industrin under 1920-talet, där amerikanismen, hotet från den ryska revolutionen såväl som könspolitiken är Umeå universitet grundläggande för förståelsen av mellankrigsperioden. Nordberg, Karin: Folkhemmets röst: radion som folkbil- Filmer från mitten av tjugotalet analyseras. dare 1925-1950. Stockholm/Stehag, Brutus Östlings Bokförlag Symposion, 1998, 464 p., ISBN 91-7139- Österman, Torsten: Opinionens mekanismer: om värde- 408-7. (Umeå universitet, Institutionen för historiska ringar och verklighet. Stockholms universitet, Sociolo- studier). giska institutionen, 1998, 280 p., ISBN 91-7153-706-6. En kartläggning av radions utveckling som talat me- Redovisar teoretiska och empiriska iaktagelser inom dium, med utgångspunkt från dess kunskapsförmedlande området opinionsbildning och politiska val. roll, samt en beskrivning av den process som kom att forma radions folkbildande uppgift och roll under de Riegert, Kristina: ”Nationalising” foreign conflict: fo- första tjugofem åren. Vidare diskuteras hur samspelet reign policy orientation as a factor in television news reporting. Stockholms universitet, Statsvetenskapliga mellan programinnehållet och radiospråkets uttryck institutionen, 1998, 301 p., ISBN 91-7153-743-0, (Stock- påverkar budskapet. holm studies in politics; 58), ISSN 0346-6620. Explores the notion that national television news covers Licentiatuppsatser foreign conflict in ways that reflect a country’s foreign policy orientation and its stance towards particular Stockholms universitet conflict. Sweden and Britain is compared. Four cases Mårtensson, Eva: Det vardagliga småpratet i radio: från are studied in order to empirically determine how and trygghet till utmaning. Stockholms universitet, Institu- to what extent aspects of these foreign policy orientations tionen för journalistik, medier och kommunikation/JMK, are relevant for foreign conflict news image. 1998, 149 p.

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Namnlöst-14 117 2005-08-16, 12:23 Utifrån en analys av ”offentliga privatsamtal”, här häm- Investigates ethnic affairs reporting in four Swedish tade ur radioprogrammen ”Ring så spelar vi” och newspapers: Dagens Nyheter, Svenska Dagbladet, Ex- ”Önska”, diskuteras utvecklingen av det offentliga sam- pressen and Aftonbladet. Focuses on reality represen- talet och hur denna typ av samtal uppfattas av en grupp tations in the newspapers and examines how ethnic lyssnare. Studien har huvudsakligen ett språkveten- identities were constructed in these representations. skapligt fokus.

Nord, Lars: Makten bakom orden: en studie av ledarsidor Mitthögskolan och ledarskrivande i svensk dagspress. Stockholms Gulliksson, Mikael: Elektroniska källor i dagspress- universitet, Institutionen för journalistik, medier och journalistik: tekniktillgång, teknikanvändning och atti- kommunikation/JMK, 1998, 160 p. tyder vid tre redaktioner 1993 och 1996. Umeå, Mitt- Studerar den svenska dagspressens ledarkommentarer högskolan, Institutionen för medie- och kommunika- med avseende på innehåll och produktionsvillkor. Un- tionsvetenskap, 1998, 204 p. + 3 app. 27 p., (Rapport; 1998:5), ISSN 1104-294X. dersökningen fokuserar på frågan i vilken utsträckning och under vilka förutsättningar, som partipress kan sä- Med utgångspunkt i en surveyundersökning med repre- gas fortfarande existera i form av partipolitiskt följ- sentanter för tre dagstidningsredaktioner diskuteras frå- samma ledartexter samt på en analys av vilka produk- geställningar om journalisters tillgång och attityder till tionsvillkor som är av betydelse för att förstå varför datorer och nätverk för datorkommunikation i dagstid- ledarkommentarer ser ut som de gör. ningsföretag. Vidare undersöks enskilda journalisters tillgång och attityder till arkiv- och databasanvändning Danielsson, Helena: Video som språk & kommunika- (elektroniska källor). tion: barn och unga skapar med video i skolan. Stock- holms universitet, Pedagogiska institutionen, 1998, 121 p. Undersöker vad barn och unga försöker att uttrycka Umeå universitet med sitt skapande när de arbetar med videoteknik och Lindgren, Simon: Ungdomsbilder: text och kontext i vilka slutsatser som kan dras av denna process. Studi- den norrbottniska mediediskursen från trettiotal till ens inriktning är av kvalitativ och pedagogisk etnogra- åttiotal. Umeå universitet, Sociologiska institutionen, 1998, 198 p. + app. 35 p., ISBN 91-7191-529-X, (Umeå fisk natur, och det empiriska materialet är hämtat från studies in sociology; 113), ISSN 1100-3553. Stockholmsförorterna Botkyrka och Märsta. Utifrån en analys av dagstidningarna Norrbottens-Kuri- Hyder, Mohsinul: Ethnic affair reporting in the mass ren och Norrländska Socialdemokraten beskrivs dis- media: construction of “ethnicity’ in four Swedish daily kursen omkring ungdomar i Norrbotten från 1930-tal newspapers. Stockholms universitet, Statsvetenskapliga till 1980-tal. institutionen, 1998, 244 p.

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Namnlöst-14 118 2005-08-16, 12:23 Litteraturnotiser

Bro, Peter: Journalisten som aktivist: om presse, politik Danmark og demokratisk dialog. København, Fremad, 1998, 113 p., ISBN 87-557-2183-4, (Fremads debatbøger). Brandt-Pedersen, Martin (ed.): Mediernes æstetiske Handler om pressens problemer med at formidle politik udfordring: en studie- og debatbog om børn, unge, medier og skole. København, Danmarks Lærerhøjskole, på en interessant og engagerende måde. Herunder en 1998, 184 p., ISBN 87-7701-595-9, (Udviklingspro- beskrivelse af en række amerikanske journalistiske for- grammer). (Danmarks Lærerhøjskole). søg med Public Journalism, der har diskuteret hvilken En debatbog om børn, unge, medier og skole. Giver en rolle pressen bør spille i fremtidens demokrati. bred introduktion til nogle af de tanker og overvejelser – om både teori og praksis – der rører sig blandt en vifte Harr, Erik (ed.); Kjærsgaard, Camilla (ed.); Hansen, af folk, der har været med til at præge og udvikle det Erik (ed.): Klondike & karaoke: dansk medie- og popu- lærkultur i 90‘erne. København, Tiderne Skifter, 1998, mediepædagogiske område. Indeholder følgende artikler: 341 p., ISBN 87-7445-803-5. ”Wannabe”: mediebrug, identitet og æstetisk praksis Om tendenser i 90‘ernes danske film, teater, musik, (Birgitte Holm Sørensen), Det æstetiske og formsproglige radio, TV, magasiner, mode, reklame og Internet. Giver i lære- og billedprocesser (Kristian Pedersen), Æste- et nærgående og kritisk portræt af, hvad der er sket i tikkens triumf – pædagogikkens fallit?: nogle over- dansk kulturindustri i dette årti. Indeholder følgende vejelser om tendenser i tidens børne- og ungdomskultur artikler: Med morgenluft mod millenium madness (Eva på baggrund af konkrete lærererfaringer fra folkeskolen Novrup), Dramatiske sceneskift (Camilla Kjærsgaard), – og fire bud på, hvad vi stiller op med det (Martin Bannerførerne og gratisterne (Thomas Søie Hansen), Brandt-Pedersen), Hvad skal vi lære?: om grundlaget Tæskehold, telefoner og teenagepop (Anders Høeg for en forståelse af kommunikative og æstetiske kompe- Nissen), Signaler uden grænser (Thomas Porskjær Chris- tencer i børne- og ungdomskulturen (Bent B. Andre- tiansen), Glittede drømme i magasinformat (Erik Harr), sen), Mediepædagogikkens grundlag: kultur, dannelse Mærkevarer og mediemode (Erik Hansen), Involver dem og æstetisk praksis (Ole Christensen og Niels Kryger), før du forfører dem (Nadja Pass), De hvide pletter på En informationsteknologisk ørkenvandring (Ole Grün- det digitale landkort (Henrik Føhns). baum), Filmen VIVA: den store filmfortælling lever og har det godt (Ulrich Breuning), Mareridtsvisioner og Ingemann, Bruno: Fatamorgana: pressefotografiets vir- mandeidealer: temaer i gysergenren og actionfilmen kelighed og læsernes. København, Museum Tusculanums (Rikke Schubart), Nye verdner og oplevelser i com- Forlag, 1998, 211 p., ISBN 87-7289-503-9. puteren: om børns og unges brug af computerspil (Gun- Undersøger hvordan læserne tilskriver avisens billeder nar Langemark), Medieværkstedet i dagens skole (Ole betydning ud fra en analyse af 16 informanters læsninger Christensen og Niels Kryger), Video i undervisningen: af fire forskellige artiklers billeder. ideer til en pædagogisk praksis (Susanne Gjessing), Internet og det pædagogiske opbrud (William Vonsild), McQuail, Denis (ed.); Siune, Karen (ed.): Media po- Filmen ud af skammekrogen (Susanne Wad), Det er svært licy: convergence, concentration and commerce. Lon- at spå – også om medieundervisningens fremtid (Bir- don, Sage Publications, 1998, 231 p., ISBN 0-7619- gitte Tufte). 5939-4. (Euromedia Research Group).

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Namnlöst-13 119 2005-08-16, 12:23 The European media landscape is changing profoundly. Artiklar In this wide-ranging and timely text, members of the Jantzen, Christian; Østergard, Per: The rationality of Euromedia Research Group examine the ways in which ”irrational” behaviour: Georges Bataille on consuming national and supranational policy is adapting to these extremities. In: Brown, Stephen; Doherty, Anne Marie; changes. Contains among other things the following Clarke, Bill (eds.): Romancing the market, London, articles: Changing media and changing society (Karen Routledge, 1998, 291 p., ISBN 0-415-18417-7, (Rout- ledge interpretive marketing research series), pp. 125- Siune), The European newspaper market (Els De Bens 136. and Helge Østbye), Does public broadcasting have a A study about consumers being possessed by emotions future? (Karen Siune and Olof Hultén), Convergence: or longings, which are not about calculable needs and legislative dilemmas (Bernt Stubbe Østergaard), Politi- wants, but about consuming passions like love and rage, cization in decline? (Kees Brants and Karen Siune), i.e. about the other side of consumption. The authors European policy initiatives (Mario Hirsch and Vibeke want to introduce a theory, which might illustrate some G. Petersen). of the consumers’ desires and appetites for objects and Qvortrup, Lars: Det hyperkomplekse samfund: 14 for- experiences beyond utility. tællinger om informationssamfundet. København, Gyl- dendal, 1998, 347 p., ISBN 87-00-34152-5. Bogen fører læseren igennem flere hundrede års idé- og Finland kulturhistorie og frem til en forståelse af den voldsomme samfundsmæssige omvæltning, det såkaldte informa- Blomberg, E.: Yleisradiotoiminta tietoyhteiskunnassa. tionssamfund repræsenterer. (Public broadcasting service in the information society.) Helsinki, Sitra, 1998, 39 p. + 4 app., ISBN 951-563- Schantz Lauridsen, Palle (ed.): Filmbyer. Hellerup, 333-8, (SITRA; 173), ISSN 0785-8388. Forlaget Spring, 1998, 271 p., ISBN 87-90326-14-8, The report reviews citizens’ service needs in the infor- (Urbanitet & æstetik). mation society and the role of public broadcasting in Bogen handler om de byer vi møder på film, de byer realizing of audience’s needs. The report also discusses film konstruerer og repræsenterer. Rummer indgående the national and international regulation of commun- analyser af en række mesterinstruktørers filmbyer, foru- ication, different technological alternatives and the den generelle artikler om byrummet som filmisk sceno- values on which public broadcasting services are con- grafi, biografens historie, film og varieté i Danmark, og structed in the digitalized future. om det helt centrale forhold mellem byen, filmen og arkitekturen. Indeholder følgende artikler: Filmene og Boyd-Barrett Oliver and Terhi Rantanen (eds.): The byen: et vanskeligt forhold (Pierre Sorlin), Berlin fra globalization of news. London: SAGE, 1998, 230 p. himlen og på jorden i film af Ruttmann, Wenders og ISBN: 0-7619-5386-8. andre billedmagere (Torben Kragh Grodal), København The book gives a comprehensive overview of the news som metropolis: forekommer den overhovedet i dansk agencies, which report and film the news for the press film? (Karsten Fledelius), New York fortolket: metropo- and broadcast media. Institutional, historical, political, len set gennem Martin Scorseses og Woody Allens lin- economic and cultural studies perspectives are used in ser (Patricia Kruth), Fremtidens byer, byernes fremtid: consideration of this media organization. science fiction-filmens urbane rum (Peter Larsen), Stor- by-symfonier: byen som forevisnings- og repræsenta- Digitaalinen televisio ja Suomi. (Digital television and tionssted i den tidlige film (Helmut Weihsmann), Film- Finland.) Helsinki, Liikenneministeriö, 1998, 96 p., byer: byrum som filmisk scenografi (Anders Troelsen), ISBN 951-723-169-5, (Liikenneministeriön julkaisuja; Kroppen og arkitekturen: om Greenaways ”Arkitektens 1998, 23), ISSN 0783-2680. mave” (Berit Anne Larsen og Rikke Rosenberg), Film The report is published by the working group of Finnish og varieté i Danmark: tværmedialitet omkring århundre- Ministry of Transport and Communications. The pur- deskiftet (Palle Schantz Lauridsen), Drømmenes huse: pose of the group was to further prepare the digitalization et strejftog gennem den danske biografs historie (Hans of broadcasting in Finland and to propose the schedule Vilhelm Bang), Byens biograf: rundt om ”City Bio” set for the Finnish television operators to transfer to (Palle Schantz Lauridsen). digital transmissions.

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Namnlöst-13 120 2005-08-16, 12:23 Kantola, Anu (ed.); Mörä, Tuomo (ed.): Journalismia! or Frankestein?) Tampere, Vastapaino, 1998, 208 p., Journalismia? (Journalism? Journalism!) Porvoo, ISBN 951-768-034-1. WSOY, 1998, 316 p., ISBN 951-0-22922-9. The study deals with the representations of medicine The work is an anthology of articles where journalists and doctors in the public. The writer wants to find out and other media professionals as well as researchers how the medical professions are presented, are there view different aspects of journalism and journalistic diverse aspects and where they may originate from. work. Mäkimattila, Pirkko (ed.): Toimittaja ja Internet: opas Hintikka, Kari A.: Puheenvuorojen kirjasto: keskustelua tietokoneavusteiseen journalismiin. (Journalist and Inter- suomalaisesta tietoyhteiskunnasta. (The discussion net: guide to computer-aided journalism.) Tampere, Tam- about Finnish information society.) Helsinki, Suomen pereen yliopisto, 1998, 128 p., ISBN 951-44-4339-X. itsenäisyyden juhlarahasto, 1998, 152 p. + 3 app., ISBN The study reviews the possibilities offered by the new 951-563-324-9, (SITRA; 163), ISSN 0785-8388. digitalized technology to the journalistic processes. The work sums up the public discussion that has been taken place on different sectors and levels about infor- Perko, Touko (ed.); Salokangas, Raimo (ed.): Kymmenen mation society and its development in Finland. kysymystä journalismista. (Ten questions about journa- lism.) Jyväskylä, Atena, 1998, 250 p., ISBN 951-796- Hynninen, Asko: Julkisen ja salaisen rajat maakuntien 090-5. EU-tukihallinnossa: kartoitus journalismin ehdoista ja The book and its articles review Finnish journalism and mahdollisuuksista uudessa julkisuuskulttuurissa. (Jour- media, their trends, problems, myths and realities, decon- nalists and regional supportive administration of the European Union in Finland: review of conditions and structs them and presents criticism and analytical views possibilities of journalism.) Jyväskylä, Jyväskylän ylio- on the subject. pisto, 1997, Note: Licentiate thesis. The study discusses interaction and its new forms be- Turkki, Teppo: Minuus mediassa: uusia identiteettejä metsästämässä. (The self in media: searching for new tween journalists and Finnish regional officials and identities.) Jyväskylä, Atena, 1998, 80 p., ISBN 951- administrators who have applied the publicity con- 796-134-0, (Sitra; 186), ISSN 0785-8388. ventions of the European Union which are more re- The author analyses the power of digital media on hu- stricted and secretive to those of Finnish ones. The writer man inner world and the way it is constructed as a part analyse ways to improve the publicity between the two of the self. On the other hand that construction opens instances. immense possibilities for diverse formulations of identity and social networks according to the writer. Hyvönen, Kaarina: Sähköistyvä arki: kuluttajat ja säh- köisten markkinoiden mahdollisuudet. (Electricity in the everyday life: consumers and the possibilities of electric Uusmedia kuluttajan silmin: Kansallisen multimedia- markets.) Helsinki, Sitra, 1998, 92 p. + 26 app., ISBN ohjelman Kuluttajatutkimukset-hanke. (New media in 951-563-335-4, (SITRA; 175), ISSN 0785-8388. the eyes of a consumer: Consumer research project of the National multimedia programme.) Helsinki, Tekes, The work analyses electronic trade from citizens and 1998, 178 + 7 app., ISBN 951-53-1398-8, (Digitaalisen consumers viewpoints and how its various aspects can median raportti; 1998, 2), ISSN 1455-223X. be applied in everyday needs and functions of people The work sums up consumer researches of National using electronic channels. multimedia project, KAMU. The project aims to find out what meanings shall the multimedia applications Kytömäki, Juha; Ruohomaa, Erja: How does Yle meet bear by the consumers in the future. The analysis is licence-payer expectations?: summary of 1997 audience research. Helsinki, Finnish Broadcasting Company, based on interviews in which the attitudes of consumers 1998, 59 p., ISBN 951-43-0744-5, ISSN 1239-1409. to new technology and new media were surveyed. The report analyses the Finnish Broadcasting Company and its new view on customer service: there is a growing Artiklar commitment wider to meet audience expectations in Yleisradio with the regard to the quality of programming. Arolainen, Teuvo: Käräjät mediassa. (Trial by news- The report gives a general view of the company and its paper.) Tiedotustutkimus 22(1999)1, ISSN 0357-8070, programming policies. pp.124-140. The article deals with the concept trial by newspaper Kärki, Riitta: Lääketiede julkisuudessa: Prometheus vai (trial by press). The concept describes the situation Frankenstein? (Medicine in the publicity – Prometheus where the media takes court of justice’s role, in other

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Namnlöst-13 121 2005-08-16, 12:23 words the media uses moral, nearly judicial power in discusses his views in reviewing pornographic and the publicity. The author critically analyses the negative violent tendencies that are nowadays manifested in the response given to the media about their practices and film supply. evaluates the grindings behind the criticism. Valaskivi, Katja; Maasilta, Mari: Tappajanainen Thai- Hynninen, Asko: Julkisuuden kultamaassa. (In public maasta: “Kuopion hiv-tapauksen” myyttinen drama- affairs’ Eldorado?) Tiedotustutkimus. 22(1999)1, ISSN turgia. (A killer-woman from Thailand: the mythic 0357-8070, pp. 98-114. dramaturgy of a AIDS case in Kuopio.) Tiedotustutkimus 22(1999)1, ISSN 0357-8070, pp. 84-97. The author analyzes the Finnish principles of free ac- cess by the public to public records and new legislation The authors analyze ‘sensational’ news items concerning concerning it from the perspective of journalism and a case in which a foreign female was accused of trans- journalistic practices. As an concrete example he de- mitting AIDS on purpose in a Finnish town. The re- scribes Ministry of Trade and Industry’s publicity prin- search material consists of newspaper articles and Fin- ciples when it is question about the public records nish Broadcasting Company’s television news. The dealing with the European Union’s subsidies. authors investigate in which ways the case was covered in the publicity. Minkkinen, Merja: Sankaripianistin paluu: onko julma kriitikko aina taiteilijan pahin vihollinen? (Is a slasher always an artist’s worst enemy?) Tiedotustutkimus 22(1999)1, ISSN 0357-8070, pp.115-122 Norge The author looks at cultural criticism’s and art critics’ Diesen, Jan Anders: Film som statlig folkeopplyser: status on the media and theirs meaning to the artist’s Statens filmsentral i 50 år. Oslo, Norsk filminstitutt, public image and career. 1998, 119 p., ISBN 82-90463-85-5, (Norsk filminstitutts skriftserie; 9). Niinimäki, Pirjo-Liisa: Arkkiveisut lehdistön edeltäjinä Jubileumsberetning som skildrer begivenhetene som Suomessa 1600- ja 1700-luvuilla. (Broadside ballads as førte frem mot opprettelsen av Statens filmsentral i 1948, news in Finland in the 1600s and 1700s.) Tiedotus- tutkimus 21(1998)3, ISSN 0357-8070, pp. 36-53. og institusjonens historie gjennom 50 år. The article reviews the communicative importance of Ernst & Young Management Consulting: Gjennomgang broadside ballads in Finland. In songs there were a av støtteordningene til norsk spillefilm. Oslo, Kultur- diversity of topics and the writer argues that dissemina- departementet, 1999, 81 p. ting news was one of the purposes of ballads. Rapporten vurderer organiseringen av tilskuddsord- ningene for filmområdet i Norge. Forfatterne ser spesielt Pietilä, Kauko: Journalismi sosiologin kannalta. (Jour- på incentivsystemet knyttet opp mot støtteordningene, nalism from a sociologist’s perspective.) Tiedotustut- kimus 22(1999)1, ISSN 0357-8070, pp.142-157. og foreslår at det bør gjennomføres strukturelle forand- ringer for bedre å kunne oppfylle filmpolitiske mål- The author looks at journalism form a sociological settinger. perspective. He sees journalism as interaction of three actors: the journalistic medium, the actors (persons or Gripsrud, Jostein (ed.): Television and common know- groups covered in the news) and the audience. He aims ledge. London, Routledge,1999, 209 p., ISBN 0-415- to sketch different possibilities where the journalists 18928-4. could use their journalistic medium and act audience- A collection of essays examining television as a vehicle like in the interaction and vice versa. The author is for informed citizenship. Four out of twelve contri- especially interested in the media-mediated interaction butions are registered here: Scholars, journalism, tele- between the audience and the actors. vision: notes on some conditions for mediation and intervention (Jostein Gripsrud), Imaginary spaces: te- Räsänen, Pekka: Pornografian ja väkivallan arkipäiväi- levision, technology and everyday conciousness (Peter styminen: postmodernismin heijastumia populaari- viihteessä. (Trivialization of pornography and violence: Larsen), Knowledge as received: a project on audience reflections of postmodernism in popular entertainment.) uses of television news in world cultures (Klaus Bruhn Kulttuuritutkimus 15(1998)2, ISSN 0781-5751, pp. 37- Jensen), Credibility and media development (Anders 45, 68. Johansen). The article problematizes the use of post-modern con- cepts and their relevancy in film studies. The writer

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Namnlöst-13 122 2005-08-16, 12:23 Gripsrud, Jostein; Syvertsen, Trine; Kruse, Gro Shetelig; Storgaard), Shaping innovative users: information sys- e.a.: Allmennkringkastingsrådet: rapport 1997. Fredrik- tem development in small rural firms (Arild Jansen). stad, Statens medieforvaltning, 1998, 63 p. Allmennkringkastingsrådets vurdering av de norske Høst, Sigurd: Avisåret 1997 : opplagsøkning, oppkjøp, radio- og fjernsynskanalenes programvirksomhet i 1997. fusjon. Fredrikstad, Institutt for journalistikk, 1998, 27 p., (IJ-rapport; 1998, 2). Note: Revidert utgave. Grønnestad, Dag: Distribusjon og markedsføring av En oversikt over avisåret 1997, med opplagstall og norske fonogrammer i de smale genrene. Oslo, Norsk vurdering av utviklinga. Grunnlaget for rapporten er kulturråd, 1999, 86 p., ISBN 82-7081-067-3, (Arbeids- notat; 29), ISSN 0806-9700. Avisregisteret ved Institutt for journalistikk. Rapporten beskriver markedssituasjonen i Norge for Karlsen, Pål: Læremiddelet som kom bort : en utredning fonogrammer innen såkalt smale genre: klassisk musikk, om undervisningsfilmen i Norge og hvordan produk- samtidsmusikk, jazz, folkemusikk og musikk for barn. sjonen kan styrkes. Oslo, Norsk filminstitutt, Statens Forfatteren drøfter kulturpolitiske og markedsførings- skolefilmutvalg, 1998, 45 p. messige tiltak for å bedre formidlingen av slike fono- Forfatteren beskriver produksjonen av undervisnings- grammer. film i Norge, samt i Sverige og Danmark. Han drøfter fordeler og ulemper ved bruk av undervisningsfilm som Helseth, Tore (ed.): Mørkets musikk : musikk i norske læremiddel, og legger frem forslag til hvordan produk- kinofilmer. (Oslo), Norsk filminstitutt, (1998), 141 p., sjonen av skolefilm kan styrkes i Norge. ISBN 82-90463-81-2, (Norsk filminstitutts skriftserie; 6). Kolbjørnsen, Tone Kristine: Astaire og Rogers-filmene Samleverk med artikler om norsk filmmusikk: Forspill i genrehistorisk perspektiv. Bergen, Universitetet i Ber- (Tore Helseth), Markens grøde : Hamsun-film med gen, 1998, 22 p., ISBN 82-578-0394-4, (Arbeidsnotater; Norges første originalskrevne filmmusikk (Ivar Roger 1998, 32). (Universitetet i Bergen; Institutt for medie- Hansen), Lyden av norsk film : musikk i norske kinofilmer vitenskap). (Bjørn Sverre Kristensen), Norsk filmkomponistforening Forfatteren diskuterer hva som er spesielt med filmene 1939-1970 (Tore Helseth), Gunnar Sønstevold : en til danseparet Ginger Rogers og Fred Astaire i forhold filmmusikalsk fornyer (Edle Stray-Pedersen), Musikken til filmmusikal-genren. Hun drøfter videre begrepet er ved Egil Monn-Iversen (Mona Levin), Orions belte : genrehistorie, og argumenterer for at en genrehistorie en filmmusikalsk nærstudie (Arne Saunes). Samleverket må gi rom for det historisk og estetisk spesifikke ved inneholder også katalog over musikk i norske kinofilmer filmene den er ment å si noe om. og en CD med utdrag av norsk filmmusikk. Larsen, Leif Ove: Fleksible konvensjoner : filmsjangre Hetland, Per (ed.); Meier-Dallach, Hans-Peter (ed.): og historie. Bergen, Universitetet i Bergen, 1998, 27 p., Making the global village local?: domesticating the ISBN 82-578-0393-6, (Arbeidsnotater; 1998, 31). (Uni- world wide webs of information and communication versitetet i Bergen; Institutt for medievitenskap). technology. Luxembourg, Office for official publications Forfatteren ser nærmere på sjangerbegrepet og ulike of the European communities, 1998, 304 p., ISBN 92-828-3361-5, (COST A4; 7). forståelser av det i filmstudiene, fra auteurstudiene og strukturalismen til såkalt New film history. Han disku- A collection of papers selected from the International terer deretter betydningen og verdien av et sosialhistorisk workshops organised by the editors and directors of the perspektiv i sjangerstudiene. COST A4 project “The social shaping of telematics and rural development”. Out of twelve contributions, eight Larsen, Peter: Tilbageskridtets umulighed. Bergen, Uni- are registered here: Making the global village local?: versitetet i Bergen, 1998, 24 p., ISBN 82-578-0395-2, the agenda of national policy (Per Hetland, Hans-Peter (Arbeidsnotater; 1998, 33). (Universitetet i Bergen; Meier-Dallach og Kresten Storgaard), Videotex in the Institutt for medievitenskap). melting pot (Birgit Jæger), Constructing technology in Med utgangspunkt i en avisdebatt om festspillutstill- a social experiment: following the actors and contro- ingen i Bergen i 1998, drøfter forfatteren spørsmålet: versies (Per Hetland), Rural telematics: social networks, Gjør kunsten fremskritt? Han oppsummerer ideen om local rivalry and readiness (Kresten, Storgaard), The fremskrittet gjennom flere hundre års kunstdebatt, og small community in the global village: identity or inte- drøfter teorier om kunstens utvikling og historiske verdi. gration (Arild Jansen), Shaping interactive commun- ication technologies: text and context (Per Hetland), Lomheim, Sylfest: Skrifta på skjermen : korleis skjer Dialogue between research and development (Kresten teksting av fjernsynsfilm? Kristiansand, Høgskolen i

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Namnlöst-13 123 2005-08-16, 12:23 Agder, 1998, 164 p., ISBN 82-7717-366-9, (Forsknings- (Kirsten Drotner), Actionfilm og kjønn (Margrét Helga- serien; 8), ISSN 0806-5934. (Høgskolen i Agder, Av- dóttir Næss). deling for humanistiske fag). Forfatteren beskriver prosessen med å oversette og tekste Raaum, Odd: Pressen er løs!: fronter i journalistenes fjernsynsfiksjon. Han drøfter hvordan fjernsynsover- faglige frigjøring. Oslo, Pax, 1999, 202 p., ISBN 82- settere skiller seg fra vanlige oversettere, blant annet 530-2044-9. ved sin kreative funksjon. Forfatteren viser hvordan Om de ideologiske og praktiske framstøt som gjøres for reduksjon, utelatelse og nøytralisering av utsagn blir å skaffe større spillerom for journalistikken som fag, sentralt i oversettelsesprosessen. Han bruker blant annet samfunnsinstitusjon og næring. Forfatteren drøfter hvor- fjernsynsseriene Maigret, Gylne år og “Allo “allo! som vidt denne frigjøringsprosessen fører til at journali- eksempler. stikken underlegges andre bindinger.

Lundby, Knut: Longing and belonging : media and the Slaatta, Tore: Europeanisation and the Norwegian news identity of Anglicans in a Zimbabwean growth point. media: political discourse and news production in the Oslo, Universitetet i Oslo, 1998, 173 p., ISBN transnational field. Oslo, Universitetet i Oslo, 1999, 82-570-6106-9, (Report; 34), ISSN 0802-1872. (Uni- 389 p., ISBN 82-570-6108-5, (Report; 36), ISSN 0802- versitetet i Oslo, Institutt for medier og kommunika- 1872. (Universitetet i Oslo, Institutt for medier og sjon). kommunikasjon). Note: Dissertation for the degree of The study explores the role of global media in the Dr. polit. shaping of identity in the modern Zimbabwean growth The author discusses the role of media in nation-state point of Tsanzaguru. The author shows how Anglicanism democracies and the power of the media in directing is defined differently by two local groups, both applying and orchestrating political change in Europe. He relates material from the media in the shaping of their identities. his discussion to the Norwegian news media.

Morlandstø, Lisbeth: Når estetikken former kritikken: Tranvik, Tommy: Hva skal staten gjøre i Cyberspace? en analyse av pressens dekning av HVPU-reformen. Bergen, LOS-senteret, 1998, 166 p., (Rapport; 9802), Bodø, Høgskolen i Bodø, 1998, 136 p., ISBN ISSN 0801-9045. 82-7314-248-5, (HBO-rapport; 1998, 5). (Høgskolen i Forfatteren beskriver forskjellige motiver for å regulere Bodø, Seksjon for journalistikk og mediefag). Internett. Han drøfter slike reguleringer i forhold til En undersøkelse av hvordan norsk presse dekket gjen- grunnleggende demokratiske rettigheter, og i forhold til nomføringen av HVPU-reformen mellom 1990 og 1992. praktiske og tekniske muligheter for å kontrollere Intern- Forfatteren har analysert mer enn 500 presseoppslag, ett på nasjonal basis. og diskuterer forholdet mellom dramaturgisk estetikk og grundig kildekritikk og analyse. Ullmann, Linn: Yrke: regissør: om Arne Skouen og hans filmer. Oslo, Norsk filminstitutt, 1998, 67 p., ISBN Mühleisen, Wencke (eds.): Ungdom, kjønn og medier, 82-90463-84-7, (Norsk filminstitutts skriftserie; 8). Oslo, Universitetet i Oslo, 1998, 136 p., ISBN Forfatteren beskriver temaer, tanker og linjer i Arne 82-758-6063-6, (Arbeidsnotat; 1998, 4), ISSN Skouens filmer. 0803-0715. (Universitetet i Oslo, Senter for kvinne- forskning.) Vaage, Odd Frank: Norsk kulturbarometer 1997. Oslo, En samling papers fra et forskningsseminar 12.-14. mars Statistisk sentralbyrå, 1998, 97 p., ISBN 82-537-4538-9, 1998 ved Senter for kvinneforskning, Universitetet i (Statistiske analyser; 25), ISSN 0804-3221. Oslo. 7 av 8 bidrag er registrert her: Invasion of the Beskriver nordmenns bruk av forskjellige kulturtilbud, body stockings: forestillingen om TV som kvindeligt og tilgang til og interesse for slike tilbud og egenaktiviteten det gamle public service-TV (Vibeke Pedersen), Baluba: på dette feltet. et underholdningsprogram med en postfeministisk helt- inne (Wencke Mühleisen), Er reklamen fjernsynets egent- Vatne, Thomas: Fra forvaltning til forretning: mot opp- lige budskap til ungdommen?: TV2 Heartbreak High rettelsen av Telenor AS 1968-1994. Bergen, LOS-sen- (Kathrine Skretting), Unge, medier, dannelse og smag teret, 1998, 138 p., (Rapport; 9805), ISSN 0801-9045. (Anne Scott Sørensen), Den serie, vi elsker at hade: Forfatteren beskriver utviklingen som førte til at den Beverly hills 90210 set igennem danske 16-18-åriges statlige forvaltningsbedriften på telekommunikasjon- stile (Karen Klitgaard Povlsen), Medieminder: om me- sområdet i Norge, Televerket, ble omdannet til statsak- diernes betydning for unge kvinders kulturelle identitet sjeselskap gjennom Stortingsvedtak i 1994. Han drøfter

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Namnlöst-13 124 2005-08-16, 12:23 generelle styringspolitiske problemer ved reformpro- Birkvad, Søren: A battle for public mythology: history sessen, og tar opp hvordan endrede rammebetingelser and genre in the portrait documentary. M, tidsskrift for kunst- og medieforskning (1998)2/3, temanummer, ISSN gradvis påvirket fristillingsmotstandere til å skifte stand- 0807-1896, pp. 44-56. punkt. The author discusses the film genre of portrait docu- mentary with respect to it’s history, it’s genre traits and Waldahl, Ragnar (ed.): Perspectives on media, culture and democracy in Zimbabwe. Oslo, Universitetet i Oslo, the concept of personal identity. 1998, 115 p., ISBN 82-570-6105-0, (Report; 33), ISSN 0802-1872. (Universitetet i Oslo, Institutt for medier og Brinch, Sara: Når man ser tilbake: fortiden illustrert. M, kommunikasjon). tidsskrift for kunst- og medieforskning (1998)2/3, tema- nummer, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. 11-18. Anthology of articles on the media and their cultural and political role in Zimbabwe. Contains the following Forfatteren drøfter illustrasjonspraksis i dokumentar- articles: Democratisation processes in southern Africa filmer som skildrer fortiden. Hun ser særlig på bruken and the role of the media (Helge Rønning), Going to av rekonstruksjoner, og tar utgangspunkt i Karoline Tsanzaguru: communication and identity: a case study Frogners film Mørketid: kvinners møte med nazismen. (Knut Lundby), Patterns of media consumption in Zim- babwe (Ragnar Waldahl), The Janus face of television Brinch, Sara: Sider ved livet: 32 korte filmer om Glenn Gould som mangefasettert portrett og fragmentarisk in small countries: the case of Zimbabwe (Michael Bruun biografi. M, tidsskrift for kunst- og medieforskning Andersen), The 1995 election campaign in Zimbabwe (1998)1, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. 40-45. seen through the Herald (Ragnar Waldahl), “You’ve Med utgangspunkt i Francois Girards film 32 korte fil- come a long way, baby?”: some questions of gender mer om Glenn Gould, drøfter forfatteren filmen som representation in Zimbabwean women’s magazines biografisk medium. (Hilde Arntsen). Dahl, Hans Fredrik: Å dokumentere nazisme. M, tids- Ytreberg, Espen: Allmennkringkastingens autoritet: end- skrift for kunst- og medieforskning (1998)2/3, tema- ringer i NRK fjernsynets tekstproduksjon 1987-1994. nummer, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. 6-10. Oslo, Universitetet i Oslo, 1999, 325 p., ISBN 82-570- 6107-7, (Rapport; 35), ISSN 0802-1872. (Universitetet Forfatteren diskuterer ordbruk ved dokumentering av i Oslo, Institutt for medier og kommunikasjon). Note: politiske yttergrupper, i forhold til ordbruken i politisk Avhandling for Dr. art-graden. polemikk. Avhandlingen undersøker hvordan overgangen fra til- nærmet monopol til konkurranse bidro til å endre NRK Dahlbäck, Nina: Ändstation Bryssel: bildspråk i poli- tisk debatt och rapportering. Rhetorica scandinavica fjernsynet i perioden 1987-1994. Forfatteren tar for seg (1998)8, ISSN 1397-0534, pp. 41-53. institusjonens organisasjon og programpolitikk i perio- den, men beskriver også tekstlige og produksjonsmessige Forfatteren drøfter bruken av metaforer i det politiske utviklingstrekk innen forskjellige fjernsynsgenre. språket, og hvorvidt den har sammenheng med økende mediefokusering. Hun tar utgangspunkt i den finske EU-debatten.

Artiklar Fremo, Skjalg: Personvern eller fri nyhetsformidling. Allern, Sigurd: Grådige, globale medier. Skup, tidsskrift Skup, tidsskrift for undersøkende journalistikk (1998)1, for undersøkende journalistikk (1998)1, ISBN 82-7147- ISBN 82-7147-176-7, pp. 15-30. 176-7, pp. 31-42. Refererer en undersøkelse av avisenes praksis når det Om verdien av å granske medienes finansiering, eier- gjelder å navngi personer i kriminalreportasjer. For- skap, organisering og det virkelighetsbildet de fremmer. fatteren drøfter forholdet mellom personvern og pres- sens informasjonsansvar i kriminalsaker. Bech-Karlsen, Jo: Kampen om sannheten: om grunnlaget for et dokumentarisk sannhetsbegrep i journalistikken. Furseth, Frank: Spillets regler: protagonisten i klassisk Skup, tidsskrift for undersøkende journalistikk (1998)1, filmfortelling. M, tidsskrift for kunst- og medieforsk- ISBN 82-7147-176-7, pp. 97-115. ning (1998)1, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. 46-51. Forfatteren beskriver hvordan sannhetsbegrepet har Forfatteren drøfter protagonistens rolle i den klassiske endret seg gjennom de siste 20 årene, og drøfter vil- filmfortellingen. kårene for et sannhetsbegrep innen journalistikken.

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Namnlöst-13 125 2005-08-16, 12:23 Holm, Arne O.: Offerets etikk. Skup, tidsskrift for under- Søbstad, Frode: Barn og massemedier. In: Skaalvik, søkende journalistikk (1998)1, ISBN 82-7147-176-7, pp. Einar M.; Kvello, Øyvind (eds.): Barn og miljø: om 43-52. barns oppvekstvilkår i det senmoderne samfunnet, Oslo, Tano Aschehoug, 1998, 358 p., ISBN 82-518-3723-5, Forfatteren drøfter i hvilken grad de norske presseetiske pp. 251-276. regler yter motstand for journalister som opererer på grensen til det etisk forsvarlige. Han tar utgangspunkt Forfatteren beskriver mediebruken blant barn og unge. i opprullingen av en barneporno-sak. Han tar opp hvordan barn og unge bearbeider medie- budskap, hva slags funksjoner mediene har, og hva slags Hovinbøle, Tom: Darkness visible: en studie av David rolle mediene har i sosialiseringsprosessen. Finchers Seven. M, tidsskrift for kunst- og medieforsk- ning (1998)1, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. 10-19. Sørenssen, Bjørn: A new audiovisual format emerges: En analyse av David Finchers film Seven. Forfatteren See it now in Korea. M, tidsskrift for kunst- og medie- forskning (1998)2/3, temanummer, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. undersøker hvordan filmen forholder seg til og bruker 35-43. genrefilm-konvensjoner, samt litterære referanser. The author presents two editions of the CBS “See it now” television series that premiered in 1951. He argues Iversen, Gunnar: Sakløs og stemmeløs: om NRKs nye tabloid-dokumentar. M, tidsskrift for kunst- og medie- that the series set the standards for a new documentary forskning (1998)2/3, temanummer, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. format evolving from the television medium. 19-31. Forfatteren analyserer noen dokumentarprogram pro- Vullum, Jan Are: Beavis and Butt-Head are dead! M, dusert av kulturredaksjonen i NRK. Han drøfter i hvilken tidsskrift for kunst- og medieforskning (1998)1, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. 20-24. grad opplysning synes å være et mål for dokumentartil- budet eller om det i stigende grad styres av publikums- Forfatteren analyserer fjernsyns-serien Beavis and hensyn. Butt-Head.

Kvenild, Tone: Jakten på bekreftelse: konstruksjon av homofil identitet gjennom film. M, tidsskrift for kunst- Sverige og medieforskning (1998)1, ISSN 0807-1896, pp. 30-39. Forfatteren refererer fra en empirisk undersøkelse om Bengtsson, Bengt: Ungdom i fara: ungdomsproblem i hvordan homofile menn og kvinner opplever film. svensk spelfilm 1942-62. Stockholms universitet, Film- vetenskapliga institutionen, 1998, 369 p., ISBN 91-628- Margareth Sandvik: Nå gidder jeg ikke diskutere med 3007-4. Note: Dr. diss. English summary. deg mer!: om overgangen debatt-krangel. Rhetorica Avhandlar hur ungdomsbrottslighet beskrives i svensk Scandinavica 5(1998), ISSN 1397-0534, pp. 39-50. spelfilm mellan 1942 till 1962. Studien gör en historisk Forfatteren behandler begrepene diskusjon, debatt og översikt över dessa filmer, hur de porträtterar samhället krangel for å trekke opp skillelinjene, og særlig for å och det sociala livet och hur detta relateras till ung- kunne peke på hva som skjer ved overgangen fra debatt domsproblem. Tjugo filmer analyseras. til krangel. Bengtsson, Charlotte; Hjorth, Malin; Sandberg, Helena; Morlandstø, Lisbeth: Kritisk journalistikk eller drama- e.a.: Möten på fältet: kvalitativ metod i teori och prak- turgisk estetikk? Skup, tidsskrift for undersøkende jour- tik. Lunds universitet, Sociologiska institutionen, Medie- nalistikk (1998)1, ISBN 82-7147-176-7, pp. 53-67. och kommunikationsvetenskap, 1998, 147 p. + app. 8 p., ISBN 91-89078-34-9, (Working Paper; 1998:1). Forfatteren drøfter hvorvidt en dramatisk fremstilling av nyhetsstoff kan true journalistikkens kritiske funks- Rapporten är skriven inom ramen för en doktorandkurs jon. Hun tar utgangspunkt i en undersøkelse av presse- i kvalitativ forskningsmetod. I en första del förs en mer oppslag om HVPU-reformen mellom 1990 og 1992. generell diskussion kring kvalitativ forskning och kva- litativa datainsamlingsmetoder. I den andra delen redo- Svensson, Christian: Massmedieretorik och diskurs- görs för ett fältarbet som författarna genomförde i an- analys: måste de utesluta varandra? Rhetorica Scandi- knytning till kursen och vars övergripande tema var navica 5(1998), ISSN 1397-0534, pp. 59-66. tevens roll i barnfamiljers vardagsliv. Forfatteren forsvarer diskursanalysen mot Kristina Lund- grens kritikk (se Rhetorica Scandinavica 2(1997)).

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Namnlöst-13 126 2005-08-16, 12:23 Björkin, Mats: Amerikanism, bolsjevism och korta kjo- Höglund, Arvid; Karlsson, K-G: IT i skolan – vision och lar: filmen och dess publik i Sverige under 1920-talet. verklighet. Stockholm, Teldok, 1998, 105 p., (TELDOK Stockholm, Aura förlag, 1998, 328 p., ISBN 91-628- Rapport; 126), ISSN 0281-8574. 3081-3. Note: Dr. diss. English summary. Redovisar en studie om politikers och andra besluts- Avhandlingen undersöker relationen mellan amerikani- fattares visioner om IT som ett verktyg i den praktiska seringen och tillkomstprocesserna för den svenska film- skolverksamheten. Genom fallstudier undersöks gym- industrin under 1920-talet, där amerikanismen, hotet nasieskolorna i tre svenska kommuner (Sundsvall, Öst- från den ryska revolutionen såväl som könspolitiken är ersund och Järfälla), ett stort komvux (i Järfälla), samt grundläggande för förståelsen av mellankrigsperioden. ett par ”further education colleges” i London. Filmer från mitten av tjugotalet analyseras. Höjdestrand. Erik: Det vedervärdiga videovåldet: att Boman, Jörgen: I allmänhetens tjänst: om svensk public- återupprätta moralisk ordning. Uppsala universitet, servicemedias avsikter och utsikter. Umeå universitet, Sociologiska institutionen; Uppsala University Library, Institutionen för kultur och medier, 1998, 103 p. + 2 1997, 239 p., ISBN 91-554-4100-9, (Acta Universitatis app. 11 p., (Rapportserien; 1998:3), ISSN 1400-6561. Upsaliensis.Studie Sociologica Upsaliensia; 44), ISSN Redovisar de lagtexter och de avtal som utgör grunden 0585-5551. Note: Dr. diss. English summary 5 p. för publicservice-modellens utformning. De mest frek- I december 1980 utbröt en upphetsad debatt om vålds- vent förekommande definitionerna och tolkningarna av filmer på video, sedan ett TV-program avslöjat att oscen- begreppet redovisas, och i anslutning till detta en kort surerade filmer kunde hyras fritt av barn och ungdomar. historik. Här analyseras debattens innehåll, förlopp och förut- sättningar, samt det TV-program där saken först togs Dalquist, Ulf: Större våld än nöden kräver?: medie- upp och den pressdebatt som följde, liksom hur video- våldsdebatten i Sverige 1980-1995. Umeå, Boréa Bok- våldet gjordes till föremål för politiska åtgärder och förlag, 1998, 258 p., ISBN 91-89140-01-X. Note: Dr. civilt engagemang. diss. English summary 4 p. Genom en kvalitativ analys behandlas frågan hur medie- Israel, Lena (ed.): Vetenskapens populära gestaltningar: våldet konstruerats i svensk dagspress 1980-1995. 1029 rapport från en konferens om Popularisering av veten- artiklar från de sju största dagstidningarna i Sverige skap och forskningsinformation. Högskolan i Halmstad, utgör det empiriska underlaget. Studiens tre delar om- Centrum för Medieforskning, 1998, 120 p., (Rapport fattar: en kritisk översikt av medieeffektforskningen, en från Centrum för Medieforskning; 1998, 3). analys av konstruktionen av våldsfilmer i den generella Belyser populärvetenskapliga gestaltningar genom olika debatten samt alternativa förklaringar till varför fiktivt medier såsom film, tv, IT, bilder, muséer, vetenskapliga våld uppfattas så skadligt. biografier och andra texter. Rapporten innehåller föl- jande artiklar: Farliga publiker och skadliga popula- Den framtida kommersiella lokalradion. Stockholm, riseringar (Jan Nolin), Lay theories of mental illnes Fakta Info Direkt, 1999, 325 p., ISBN 91-7610-918-6, (Adrian Furnham), Psykologiska teorier i filmisk ge- (SOU; 1999:14). (Kulturdepartementet). Note: Betän- staltning (Lena Israel), Scientific biography and the kande av Utredningen om den framtida kommersiella lokalradion. popularization of science (Thomas Söderqvist), Valsa relativt med publiken: om ikonen Einstein, relativitets- En översyn av och förslag till de framtida villkoren för teorien och populärvetenskapen (Kjell Jonsson), The den kommersiella lokalradion. relevance of presuppositions in science for its popul- En guide till digital-TV. Haninge, Radio- och TV-ver- arization (Joachim Israel), Vetenskapen som motbild ket, 1999, 79 p., ISBN 91-630-7841-4. (Radio- och TV- (Hertha Hanson), När orden inte räcker – om bildbruk verket). i gamla kunskapsböcker (Per-Uno Ågren) och ”To con- Behandlar digital tv-teknik baserad på uppgifter från nect or de-connect? That is the question”: internett- aktörer och organisationer verksamma inom fältet. I brukeren: innskrevet, omskrevet og beskrevet (Per Het- bokens tre delar berörs 1) digital teknik – skillnader land). mellan digital och analog teknik, distributionsformer, samt begreppet konvergens, 2) marknätet – tillstånds- Karlsson, Magnus: The liberalisation of telecommun- ications in Sweden: technology and regime change from givning, aktörer, funktioner, och 3) de viktigaste myn- 1960s to 1993. Linköpings universitet, Tema T, 1998, digheterna och statligt tillsatta utredningar på medie- 391 p., ISBN 91-7219-162-7, (Linköping studies in arts området, samt lagar och förordningar som är tillämp- and science; 172). Note: Dr. diss. liga på digital-tv.

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Namnlöst-13 127 2005-08-16, 12:23 Describes the liberalisation of telecommunications in Den 13:e kartläggningen av den svenska reklam- och Sweden and analyses the role of technology in this pro- mediemarknaden. cess. A sociotechnical systems perspective, emphasising the interrelatedness of social and technical factors, is Österman, Torsten: Opinionens mekanismer: om värde- explored in order to supplement existing explanations ringar och verklighet. Stockholms universitet, Sociolo- giska institutionen, 1998, 280 p., ISBN 91-7153-706-6. of regime change. The concept of sociotechnical culture Note: Dr. diss. English summary 12 p. and inertia are applied in the analysis of the traditional Redovisar teoretiska och empiriska iaktagelser inom telecommunications system in Sweden and the process området opinionsbildning och politiska val. of system reconfiguration.

Lusserapporten 1998. Stockholm, Sveriges Television, SVT Utveckling, 1998, 93 p. Artiklar Medarbetare på SVT Utveckling Teknik redogör för Dahlgren, Peter: Meaning and/vs. information in media digital tv-teknik/digital tv, utvecklingen av olika standar- studies. Loisir et société/Society and Leisure 21(1998)1, pp. 43-62. der, uppstarten av nyheter 24 timmar om dygnet: SVT24, produktion, samt presenterar olika tilläggstjänster, som Discusses the information perspective in media research, kommer att förändra och utveckla programverksamhe- and addresses meaning as a contrasting research per- ten inom SVT. spective and contextualize it within the cultural turn in media studies, as manifested by Cultural Studies and Ny svensk filmpolitik. Stocholm, Fritzes, 1998, 162 p., qualitative methodologies. The author takes up two dif- ISBN 91-38-21061-4, (SOU), ISSN 0375-250X. (Kultur- ferent topics for which meaning is central. departementet). Note: Betänkande från filmutredningen. Redovisar utredningens förslag till hur ett framtida stöd Dahlgren, Peter: Enhancing the civic ideal in television till svensk filmproduktion skall utformas. Vidare före- journalism. In: Brants, Kees; Hermes, Joke; Zoonen, Liesbet van (eds.): The media in question. Popular slås åtgärder för att främja en bred spridning och vis- cultures and public interests, London, SAGE Publi- ning av film, ökning av antalet biobesökare samt ut- cations, 1998, 184 p., ISBN 0-7619-5723-5, pp. 89- veckling av biografen som kulturell mötesplats i hela 100. landet. Slutligen prövas dels förutsättningarna för ett Taking his point of departure in the term “the civic nytt filmavtal som finansieringsmodell, dels finansie- ideal”, the author explore the possibility that we might ring utan avtal. be able to conceptually define – and normatively en- courage – a shift in the societal role television journa- Orvesto Konsument 1997: Helår: mätperiod: januari- lism might play. december 1997. Sollentuna, Sifo Research & Consulting/ IMU, 1998, 130 p. Dahlgren, Peter: Cultural studies as a researchperspec- Redovisar data över svenska tidningars räckvidd i upp- tive: themes and tensions. In: Corner, John; Schlesinger, räknade tal och i procent av olika målgrupper under Philip; Silverstone, Roger (eds.): International media mätperioden januari-december 1997. Här redovisas även research: a critical survey, London, Routledge, 1997, data för radio och television, samt intresse för datorer 236 p., ISBN 0-415-09035-0, pp. 48-64. och innehav i hushållet av mobiltelefon, parabol och Begins with some reflections on the radical heterogene- internetabonnemang. ity of media research. Then the author offers a snapshot account of the evolution of Cultural Studies, and a Orvesto Konsument Helår 1998: uppräknade tal och discussion of its core theoretical elements. These clusters räckvidder i procent. Sollentuna, Sifo Research & Con- around three themes: culture, meaning and power. That sulting/IMU, 1999, 156 p. discussion is followed with some reflections on critical Redovisar data över svenska tidningars räckvidd i upp- theory and postmodernism, and major dilemmas and räknade tal och i procent av olika målgrupper under tensions. The article concludes with some brief pointers 1998. Här redovisas även data för radio och television, about what Cultural Studies might offer media research samt intresse för datorer och innehav i hushållet av in the future. mobiltelefon, parabol och internetabonnemang. Dahlgren, Peter: Medierna och värdegemenskap: skif- Trotzig, Elisabeth; Lund, Jan: Svensk Reklammarknad: tande villkor. In: Bexell, Göran (eds.): Värdegemenskap maj 1998. Stockholm, irm, 1998, 132 p., (Institutet för i ett mångkulturellt samhälle. Rapport från ett inter- reklam- och mediestatistik/irm). nordiskt symposium i Lund, Lund, Lund University

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Namnlöst-13 128 2005-08-16, 12:23 Press, 1998, 202 p., ISBN 91-7966-540-3, (Lund Studies Här diskuteras vad medierna erbjöd för information och in Ethics and Theology; 6), ISSN 1102-769X, pp. 157- kunskap till Malåborna, och i vilken utsträckning förut- 174. sättningarna fanns för en välinformerad allmänhet. Författaren tar sin utgångspunkt i senare tids forskning om mediernas inverkan på identitetsprocesser, både Findahl, Olle: News in our minds. Communications. individuella och kollektiva, och i uppfattningen att The European Journal of Communication Research medier idag både främjar och motverkar värdegemen- 23(1998)4, ISSN 0341-2059, pp. 409-425. skap. Huvuddiskussionen rör medier som fenomen, med The basic idea presented here is that the human thought betoning på TV, och relationen mellan medierna och process must be studied in its everyday context and that värdegemenskap utifrån två centrala områden: national- understanding and making-meaning are situational and staten och det civila samhället. must be studied in the concrete situation where created. Results from a one-year panel study, in a combination Feilitzen, Cecilia von: Media violence: four research with in-depth interviews with people in their homes, perspectives. In: Dickinson, Roger; Harindranath, Rama- and focus group discussions based on the screenings of swami; Linné, Olga (eds.): Approaches to audiences. A reader, London, Arnold, 1998, 318 p., ISBN 0-340- news programs, are presented in this article. 69225-1, (Foundations in media), pp. 88-103 p. Sjölander, Annika: Opinionsbildning – en kärfråga: en Discusses four research perspectives of importance to analys av TV-nyheternas rapportering från förstudierna media violence: media violence itself, culture, the i Storuman och Malå. In: Lidskog, Rolf (eds.): Kommu- audience, or the power relations in society. nen och kärnavfallet. Svensk kärnavfallspolitik på 1990- talet, Stockholm, Carlsson Bokförlag, 1998, 273 p., Findahl, Olle: Media som folkbildare: Malå och kär- ISBN 91-7203-250-2, (fig., tab.), pp. 181-209. navfallet. In: Lidskog, Rolf (eds.): Kommunen och kär- Analyserar Rapports och Nordnytts rapportering från navfallet. Svensk kärnavfallspolitik på 1990-talet, Stock- Storuman respektive Malå kommun angående de för- holm, Carlsson Bokförlag, 1998, 273 p., ISBN 91-7203- 250-2, (fig., tab.), pp. 211-247. studier som gjorts för eventuellt slutförvar av kärnav- fall. Hösten 1997 skulle invånarna i Malå kommun säga ja eller nej till ett eventuellt lager för högaktivt kärnavfall.

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