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Sifting Poles from Germans? Ethnic Cleansing and Ethnic Screening in Upper Silesia, 1945–1949 Author(s): HUGO SERVICE Reviewed work(s): Source: The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 88, No. 4 (October 2010), pp. 652-680 Published by: the Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41061897 . Accessed: 25/08/2012 13:48 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Slavonic and East European Review. http://www.jstor.org SEER, Vol. 88, No. 4, October2010 SiftingPoles fromGermans? Ethnic Cleansingand EthnicScreening in Upper Silesia,1 945-1 949 HUGO SERVICE I The ethniccleansing which engulfedCentral and EasternEurope in the firsthalf of the twentiethcentury was oftena matterof indiscrimi- nate expulsionin whichlittle or no timewas takento reflecton the culturalidentity of the victims.Yet not all of it was carriedout in this manner.The occupiersand governmentswhich implementedethnic cleansingpolicies in Poland and Czechoslovakiaduring and afterthe Second World War came to the conclusionthat there were many inhabitantsof the territoriesthey wished to 'cleanse' who could not be instantlyrecognized as belongingto one nationalgroup or another. They decided to subjectthese people to rigorousethnic screening to ensurethat only genuine members of unwantednational groups were uprooted. Ethniccleansing was combinedwith ethnic screening, for example, in the territorieswhich Germanyannexed fromPoland in autumn 1939,where it tookthe formof theDeutsche Volksliste (DVL). The DVL requiredpeople livingin these territoriesto fillout special question- naireswhich the Nazi German authoritiesattempted to use to deter- minewhether they were Germans, cof German descent' or Poles. It was targetedparticularly at the linguisticallymixed areas of the annexed - territories easternUpper Silesia,part of theDanzig regionand part of southernEast Prussia- where the Nazi leadershipassumed that a large proportionof local inhabitantswere ethno-raciallyGerman and should thereforebe culturallyassimilated into the German Volk The Nazi German authoritiesultimately categorized the majorityof people livingin each of theseareas eitheras Germansor 'individuals of Germandescent' by enteringthem into one of the fourcategories of the DVL. In the annexed territoriesas a whole the authorities enteredaround 2.8 millionpre-war Polish citizens into the DVL. This shieldedthem from expulsion to the General Governmentor to other Hugo Serviceis a BritishAcademy Postdoctoral Fellow at theFaculty of History,Univer- sityof Cambridge. HUGO SERVICE 653 - partsof the annexed territories thefate of around one millionpeople duringthe war, most of them residentsof the so-calledWartheland region.1Meanwhile, in occupied Czechoslovakia,the Nazi regional governorof the so-calledProtectorate of Bohemia and Moravia,Rein- hard Heydrich,developed similar plans to culturally'Germanize' half of the territory'spopulation and eitherto sterilizeor to uproot the otherhalf eastwards. As thefirst step towards fulfilling this plan, between 1941 and 1943 his authoritiesethnically screened thousandsof the inhabitantsof thisterritory, categorizing each as either'Germanizable' or 'un-Germanizable'.2 The defeatof Nazi Germanyin 1945 by no means put an end to large-scaleethnic screening in East-CentralEurope. Indeed, in the aftermathof the war, as approximatelythree million 'Germans' were being expelledor forciblytransported to the US and Soviet Occupa- tion Zones of Germanyfrom Czechoslovakia, the country'spost-war - governmentdecided that since it was not alwaysclear who was a - Germanand who a Czech among the inhabitantsof theircountry anotherround of ethnicscreening would be necessary.Local courts were set up throughoutthe countryin 1945 to judge people's ethno- nationalidentity based on whateverevidence was available. In subse- quent years,they categorized thousands of people as ethnicCzechs, sparingthem fromdisplacement from the country.3While this was goingon in post-warCzechoslovakia, a similarprocess got underway in post-warPoland. This ethnicscreening process, introduced through- out the new westernand northernterritories which Poland acquired fromGermany at the end of the war,was knownas the ethnicVerifi- cationaction' (akcjaweryfikacyjna) and will be the primaryfocus of this article. 1 Zofia Boda-Krçzel, Sprawa volkslistyna GórnymSlqsku. Koncepcjelikwidacji problemu i ich realizacja,Opole, 1978, pp. 22-26 and 33; Zdzislaw Lempiriski,Przesiedlenie lusnosci niemieckiej Z województwaslqsko-dqbrowskiego w latach ig^-igjo, Katowice,1979, pp. 89-92; Wiodzimierz Borodziej,'Einleitung', in H. Lembergand W. Borodziej(eds), "UnsereHeimat ist uns ein fremdesLand geworden. ." Die Deutschenöstlich von Oder undNeiße ig^-ig^o: Dokumenteaus polnischenArchiven, 4 vols, Marburg, 2000-04, 1, pp. 37-113(pp. 42-43); Ingo Eser, 'Die Deutschenin Oberschlesien',in ibid.,2, pp. 360-99 (pp. 372-73);Pertti Ahonen, Gustavo Corni,Jerzy Kochanowski, Rainer Schulze, Tamas Stark,Barbara Stelzl Marx, People on theMove: Forced Population Movements in Europein theSecond World War and itsAftermath, Oxford, 2008, pp. 29-34; Mark Mazower, Hitler'sEmpire: Nazi Rule in OccupiedEurope, London, 2008, pp.2 193-98. Chad Bryant,'Either German or Czech: FixingNationality in Bohemiaand Moravia, 1939-1946', Slavic Review, 61, 2002,4, pp. 683-706(pp. 686-96); Tara Zahra, 'Reclaiming Childrenfor the Nation: Germanization,National Ascription, and Democracyin the BohemianLands, 1900-1945',Central European History, 37, 2004, 4, pp. 501-43 (pp. 527- 33)-3 Bryant,'Either German or Czech',pp. 696-700;Jeremy King, Budweisers into Czechs: A Local Historyof Bohemian Politics, Princeton, NJ, 2002, pp. 194-202. 654 SIFTING POLES FROM GERMANS The role ethnicscreening played in the ethniccleansing of East- CentralEurope duringand afterthe Second World War is relatively under-studied.A numberof recentbooks and articleshave looked at thissubject, including those by RichardBlanke, Chad Bryant,Andreas Hofmann,Jeremy King, BernardLinek, Piotr Madajczyk,Grzegorz Strauchold,Philipp Ther and Tara Zahra.4 Each of thesestudies has demonstratedthat it is not possible to fullyunderstand the acts of ethniccleansing carried out in thisregion during and afterthe Second WorldWar withoutcritically confronting the simplisticethno-national categorieslying behind these actions. But onlyHoffmann's and Strau- chold'sstudies have subjectedthe interaction between ethnic screening and ethniccleansing in thisregion at thistime to detailedexamination. Moreover,there has yet to be an in-depth,local-level analysis of the part ethnicscreening played in the ethniccleansing of East-Central Europe in the 1940s. - This articleseeks to provideprecisely that by focusingon the localityof Oppeln/Opole Districtin westernUpper Silesia.5'Western Upper Silesia' refersto the partof Upper Silesiawhich after the parti- tionof Upper Silesia in 1922remained in Germanyand was not incor- - poratedinto Poland the part of Upper Silesia which in Polish is referredto as SkyskOpolski. WesternUpper Silesia was one of the regionsPoland acquired fromdefeated Germany in 1945. A western Upper Silesianlocality has been chosenas thecase studyfor this article because this region was where the post-warCommunist-led Polish authoritiesfirst implemented ethnic screening in theirnew territories and wherethey did so on thelargest scale. Opole/Oppeln Districthas been selectedbecause it was one ofthe western Upper Silesiandistricts where ethnic screeningplayed a particularlyimportant role in the ethniccleansing process. 4 Richard Blanke, Polish-SpeakingGermans? Language and National Identity among the Masurians since1871, Cologne, 2001; Bryant, 'Either German or Czech'; AndreasR. Hofmann,Die Nachkriegszeitin Schlesien.Gesellschqfls- und Bevölkerungspolitikin den polnischen Siedlungsgebieten I945~I94ß->Cologne, 2000; JeremyKing, Budweisers;Bernard linek, Politykaantyniemiecka na GórnymSlasku w latach1945-1950, Opole, 2000; Piotr Madajczyk, PrzylqczenieSlaska Opolskiego do Polski1945-1Q48, Warsaw, 1996; Grzegorz Strauchold,Autochtoni, Polscy, Ntemieccy, czy . OdNacjonalizm doKomunizm (1945-1949), Toruñ, 2001; Philipp Ther, 'Die einheimischeBev- ölkerungdes OppelnerSchlesiens nach dem ZweitenWeltkrieg. Die Enstehehungeiner deutschenMinderheit', Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 26, 2000, pp. 407-38;Zahra, 'Reclaiming Children'. 5 By 'district'I mean both the Stadt- und Landkreis ofOppeln and thepowiat and miastoof Opole. Oppeln was the name of the districtbefore 1945. Opole has been itsname since 1945.The size ofthe population of Opole Districton 17May 1939,according to a nation- wideGerman census, was 198,100.Alfred Bohmann, Menschen und Grenzen: Strukturwandel der deutschenBevölkerung impolnischen Staats- und Verwaltungsbereich,Cologne, 1969, p. 209. HUGO SERVICE 655 This article contends
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  • Russian Federation's Constitution of 1918

    Russian Federation's Constitution of 1918

    PDF generated: 26 Aug 2021, 16:45 constituteproject.org Russian Federation's Constitution of 1918 Historical This complete constitution has been generated from excerpts of texts from the repository of the Comparative Constitutions Project, and distributed on constituteproject.org. constituteproject.org PDF generated: 26 Aug 2021, 16:45 Table of contents Preamble . 3 SECTION I: DECLARATION OF RIGHTS OF THE LABORING AND EXPLOITED PEOPLE . 3 SECTION II: GENERAL PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE RUSSIAN SOCIALIST FEDERATED SOVIET REPUBLIC . 5 SECTION III: CONSTRUCTION OF THE SOVIET POWER . 7 A. Organization of the Central Power . 7 Chapter Six: The All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers', Peasants', Cossacks', and Red Army Deputies . 7 Chapter Seven: The All-Russian Central Executive Committee . 8 Chapter Eight: The Council of People's Commissars . 9 Chapter Nine: Affairs In The Jurisdiction Of The All-Russian Congress And The All-Russian Central Executive Committee . 12 B. Organization of Local Soviets . 13 Chapter Ten: The Congresses of the Soviets . 13 Chapter Eleven: The Soviet of Deputies . 14 Chapter Twelve: Jurisdiction of the local organs of the Soviets . 15 SECTION IV: THE RIGHT TO VOTE . 16 Chapter Fourteen: Elections . 17 Chapter Fifteen: The checking and cancellation of elections and recall of the deputies . 18 SECTION V: THE BUDGET . 19 SECTION VI: THE COAT OF ARMS AND FLAG OF THE RUSSIAN SOCIALIST FEDERATED SOVIET REPUBLIC . 20 Russian Federation 1918 Page 2 constituteproject.org PDF generated: 26 Aug 2021, 16:45 • Source of constitutional authority • Preamble Preamble The declaration of rights of the laboring and exploited people (approved by the Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets in January, 1918), together with the constitution of the Soviet Republic, approved by the Fifth Congress, constitutes a single fundamental law of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic.