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European Regional Development Fund I S p a i n . Marès Museum. Romanesque carving i n M O S A A r t I C T A O R F A

Taüll (). Church of Sant Climent the , of the Mudejars... For reasons of history and temperament, they could not have emerged anywhere but . An inherent vitality explains why is as diverse as it is, and why it has played a leading role in the history of world art as a whole. Spain has given the world some of its greatest universal masters, both past and present: creative giants such as Velázquez, Zurbarán and

Take Spain’s geographic diversity and varied landscape, take its history of invasions, migrations, expansion, conquest, and what do you get? Art, with a capital A. Spanish Art was born of the ebb and flow of civilizations that has determined Spain’s history since antiquity. New cultures with new ideas have always met, clashed, intermingled and been transformed in the great melting pot that is . Centro de Arte Reina Sofía National Museum. Pablo R. Picasso: “Guernica” (1937) the . The result is a Barcelona. Marès Museum. Roman statue mosaic of styles, nuances, currents, colours and trends stretching over the . Marqués de Dos Aguas Palace Madrid. Prado Museum. Velázquez: “” centuries and comprising one of the Goya have been followed, in more world’s most enviable artistic heritages. modern times, by Gaudí, Picasso, Spanish artistic creativity has always been Miró, Dalí, and even more recently determined by the tension between what by world-ranked names including came from abroad and what already Tapiés, Barceló and many others. existed in Spain. To explore this wealth of creativity, Along with examples of each wave that to allow one’s gaze to wander across has swept over the Peninsula and given it the sweeping mosaic that is Spain, its its Celtic fortresses, Romanesque landscapes, and its art, is to embark monasteries, Gothic and on a fantastic visual adventure. palaces, one finds artistic expressions that originated in Spain and are quintessentially Spanish: the art of the prehistoric , of the , of

2 3 CROSSROADS OF ANCIENT CULTURES HE first artists of Iberia gave us T mysterious and beautiful cave paintings. Later, peoples from distant lands arrived

over the centuries to add their own contributions to the

artistic heritage of Spain. Finally, the

left its indelible stamp on Spanish culture and art.

Coaña prehistoric settlement () Santillana del Mar (). Albarracín (Teruel). Rock shelter in Las Olivanas Altamira caves Paintings in caves, such as In the beginning, there was art Altamira, or in rock Antequera (Málaga). Menga shelters, such as In a time long forgotten a man created the birth certificate of Spanish art on Albarracín, signal the the ceiling of a cave in northern Spain. The genius responsible for the cave birth of art on the Iberian paintings of Altamira may have worn rough clothes and communicated with grunts, but the only thing that separates him from Pablo Picasso is Peninsula. They would be time –15,000 years of it. The paintings were discovered by accident when followed much later by a Spanish aristocrat and his young daughter were exploring the cave in Neolithic pottery, 1875. “Cows!”, the girl exclaimed when she saw the beautifully traced settlements, stone representations of bison. So perfect and so well preserved were the and funeral chambers. paintings that at first experts were reluctant to accept them as authentic. Many similar examples were subsequently discovered in northern Spain. Prehistoric art from a later date, in caves and rock shelters in eastern and southern Spain, are much different in character: schematic, almost abstract renditions of hunting scenes, accompanied by undecipherable symbols. As time progressed, prehistoric man left further samples of his skill, in prehistoric ceramic vases that can be seen in museums all over Spain. And from the Neolithic period, there are astounding megalithic constructions, such as the dolmens of La Menga and El Romeral in Antequera (Málaga), funeral chambers built, no one knows how, with massive stone slabs weighing many tons. Similar structures exist elsewhere in , and in , Aragon, , Extremadura and Álava. 4 5 Barros (Cantabria). Celtic stele was influenced by peoples who arrived by sea, and it achieved such sophistication that it still amazes the experts. For who can explain how a supposedly backward people could create such masterpieces as the Dama de Elche or the Dama de Baza, busts representing priestesses or goddesses, along with sculptures of fantastic Mahón (Menorca). Es Tudons funeral chamber animals, ingenious figurines and charms that can be seen in the National Archeological Museum in Madrid and in local museums such as the Alicante Museum, Elda Museum, Alcoy Museum or the Museum of Prehistory in Valencia? The Treasure of Carambolo and other vestiges displayed in the Archeological Museum of are attributed to a mysterious civilization, the fabled kingdom of Tharsis or Tartessos, mentioned in Seville. Archeological Museum. The Treasure of Carambolo the Bible and believed to have flourished in the area 3,500 years ago. They came from the sea

Since antiquity, Spain has attracted traders and invaders, who settled here and enriched Iberia’s growing artistic heritage. Phoenician merchants, colonists, Carthaginians all left traces. The Phoenicians, more interested in commerce and navigation, were not Pontevedra Museum. collar essentially creators of art, but they were vital in spreading it among the lands they visited, which included the entire Mediterranean coastline. The most The dawn of civilization typical expression of their art are sculpted sarcophagi such as those discovered in one of their earliest colonies, Gadir (present-day Cádiz). Other Megalithic constructions were to become more complex colonies they established on Iberia’s coast were Ibusim (), Sexi with the arrival of the Bronze Age. Menorca is so well (Almuñécar), and Abdera (Adra). endowed with examples of “talayots” (defensive towers), Adventurous Greeks followed in the wake of the Phoenicians, settling along “taulas” (a kind of altar) and “navetas” or funeral the Mediterranean coast, especially in the north. They established colonies in chambers such as Es Tudons that the entire island is an Rohdes (Roses) and, most notably, Emporion (Empuries), in , where open air museum of prehistoric . two Greek settlements share a site with a later Roman colony. By the Iron Age, what we can consider to be Iberian Art Little is left of the passing of the Carthaginians, heirs of the Phoenicians who had acquired a well-defined identity, though it varied in founded Cartago Nova (New ) at Cartagena on the eastern coast. In character from one region to another. In the north the Spain, as in the main city of Carthage in northern Africa, their bitter enemies influence of the first great European civilization, the the Romans were especially thorough in wiping out any trace of the Celts, is seen in fortresses and settlements of Galicia, Carthaginians, although a few remnants survive, including several necropolis amongst whose ruins the exquisitely fashioned jewels on and reliefs such as that of Osuna. display in the Museum of Pontevedra were discovered. In the central regions of Spain, early artists created Madrid. Archeological Museum. The Dama de Elche sculptures of totemic animals, including the Bulls of During the so-called Iron Age the art Guisando (Ávila). The art of the Mediterranean coastline of Iberia began to take on a well-defined identity: in the north, Celtic culture left stone reliefs and stylized jewelry, while in the centre of Iberia there is an abundance of totemic animals, and to the south figures of deities and priestesses El Tiemblo (Ávila). Bulls of Guisando show the influence of peoples who arrived by sea.

6 Itálica (Seville).

The Roman legacy shows in every aspect of life in Iberia, from great bridges and aqueducts to small details like the tiles that decorated the floors of Roman homes, or the design of a simple doll.

Segovia.

The Empire builders

Rome’s victory over Carthage was a quarries such as Las Medulas (Bierzo- major turning point. In Spanish art, as León) and El Medol (). in its history, there is a before and an And once in a while they allowed after the Romans’ arrival. themselves the indulgence of building In a relatively short period, the land a triumphal , including those at Rome called was to be Bará (Tarragona), Medinaceli (Soria), transformed into one of the key and Cáparra (Cáceres). pieces in the Empire, birthplace of The cities they founded thrived long many prominent Romans, including after the Romans left, so much of the emperors , and what they built lies buried under later Mérida (Badajoz). Milagros Roman Aqueduct Mérida (Badajoz). Museum of Roman Art Mérida (Badajoz). Museum of Roman Art Theodisius, or great thinkers and constructions. Even so, in colonies writers such as Seneca, Martial and like Barcino, or Emerita The legacy of Rome Lucan. Augusta –today’s Barcelona, The Romans ruled Iberia for more Tarragona and Mérida– fine Despite the ravages of time, Spain is blessed items of everyday use: sculptures, reliefs, Tarragona. Bará Arch than six centuries, and their influence examples of Roman building share with many examples of well-preserved mosaics, vases, coins, weapons, utensils, on everything from law and language space with later architecture. Roman buildings. There are towers, walls jewels, furniture, and other objects that filled to art and agriculture is impressive. Strangely, it is in the ruins of isolated and fortifications, some as complete as the their cities and homes. Roman statuary in They were above all builders with a “fundi” or country estates (examples walled city of Lugo and the Archeological particular achieved a high degree of flair for daring feats of engineering. exist in Burgos, Palencia and Toledo) Promenade of Tarragona. There are Roman perfection in Hispania. Museums such as the They endowed Spain with paved and in those cities that were baths and waterworks. There are temples striking Moneo-designed Museum of Roman roads (some of the ancient routes are abandoned where one can best (Córdoba, Vic). There are tombs, Art in Mérida or that of Tarragona (housed still in use). They built bridges across ponder on the rise and fall of the mausoleums (the Tower of the Scipios, in the praetorian tower within the city’s rivers, in Alcántara, Ourense, Córdoba, Roman empire; ghost towns such as Tarragona) and entire necropolis (the one in Roman ruins) are vital for understanding Mérida, ... They Empuries in Girona, Carmona is exceptional). Above all, there are Spain’s legacy. Other outstanding transported water for miles with their (Soria), Segóbriga (Cuenca), the emblematic theatres, amphitheatres and collections are on display in the museums of aqueducts, ranging from the Italica (Seville) and Acinipo circuses, such as those in Mérida, , Barcelona, Zaragoza, Seville, Madrid, and awe-inspiring constructions in (Málaga), where the cry of a raven is Clunia, Italica and Tarragona, to mention a Toledo. and Mérida to more modest all that is heard in amphitheatres that few of the most impressive ones. ones in remote areas of Spain. They once echoed to a thousand voices. Monumental buildings aside, Roman art is built ports. They dug mines and especially rich in decorative elements and

8 9 The Christian revolution In the last years of Empire, when the LIGHT IN THE peninsula was enjoying a complacent period of peace and civility, a new form of thinking was to shake the established order. Rome had absorbed many different religions in the past, but in Christianity it faced a veritable social revolution. DARK AGES Christianity took root quickly in Burgo de Osma (Soria). . Hispania, and the new movement Tomb of San Pedro of Osma was to affect artistic output. and baptisteries such as those in Son Bou (Menorca), Son Pereto (Manacor) or Santa María de Tarrasa or the curious cupola of Centcelles HE collapse of the Roman Empire (Tarragona) are examples of early Christian art. In particular, in their sarcophagi one sees the perfect marriage of Christian and classic art T brought about the so-called “Dark forms. There are some magnificent examples in museums, but one also finds them in the most unexpected places: converted into an altar in Ages”, yet the flame of creativity continued to Écija, embedded in a wall in San Feliú (Girona)... And the horseshoe seen in some early Christian constructions are a prelude to what burn on the Iberian peninsula. Invading Santo Domingo de Silos (Burgos). Monastery the following centuries were to bring.

Visigoths merged with Hispano-Romans, giving

shape to a culture that would prepare the way

for the artistic movements of the Middle Ages,

The early Christians adopted pagan images and symbols, when Romanesque and Gothic would inspire San Juan de las Abadesas (Girona). endowing them with a new “Most Holy Mystery” meaning, such as the Good Shepherd which shares space with Biblical scenes, including some of the great monuments of Spain. Daniel in the lion’s den, on the Écija Sarcophagus.

Écija (Seville). Church of Santa Cruz. Details of early Christian sarcophagus

10 11 Visigothic culture and, later, Asturian or Ramirense art are expressions of The unknown art of the Visigoths local creativity that were a prelude to the Romanesque style about to sweep The arrival of northern European tribes sounded the death knell Europe. for the already crumbling . Awed by superior Roman culture, these so-called “barbarians” adopted classical art forms, but nevertheless added their own touches. The interaction between the Hispano-Romans of the Iberian peninsula and the newly arrived Visigoths gave birth to a new, indigenous culture. Sandwiched as they are between two great civilizations –the Romans and the Moors of Al-Andalus– the Visigoths and their art are generally ignored, relegated to footnotes in art history (Asturias). books. But a visit to the Museum of Visigothic Culture in what Church of was once their capital, Toledo, dispels the notion that Visigothic Campillo (Zamora). Church of San Pedro de la culture had nothing to offer.

Oviedo (Asturias). Church of Santa María del Naranco

The birth of

Arab and Berber armies arrived from Spanish March which straddled the North Africa in 711, defeating the Pyrenees, also are a prelude to the Visigothic King Roderick, and, new spiritualism that was taking within a few years, had occupied the hold in Europe. entire Iberian peninsula save for a The sweeping influence of the few isolated pockets of resistance in Cluniac reform and the comings and the mountains of northern Spain. goings of pilgrims spread That part of Spain never under Romanesque art across Europe. Such Muslim rule was the birthplace of a was the force of this artistic peculiar pre-Romanesque style movement that it was fairly uniform known as Asturian art, or Ramirense throughout the continent, yet on the art (after King Ramiro, who ruled peninsula, where Romanesque Campillo (Zamora). Church of San Pedro de la Nave Pola de Lena (Asturias). Church of the in the 9th thrived in the 11th and 12th century). A score of churches centuries, it showed Visigothic and scattered in the hills of Asturias pre-Romanesque influences and Most remnants date from the 7th century. Outside Toledo, only a include such charming examples as even borrowed from the culture of few isolated buildings or simple reliefs remain of the Visigoths. Santa María del Naranco or San the Moors of southern Spain. There are churches, either with a plan, as in San Juan de Miguel de Lillo. Baños (Palencia), or cruciform plan, as in Santa Comba de This art coincided in time with the Bande (Ourense) and San Pedro de la Nave (Zamora). The Carolingian renaissance in the capitals and reliefs in this last church, as those of Quintanilla de Frankish empire, the harbinger of las Viñas (Burgos), show a stylized spirituality that hints at the Romanesque art. Some churches in symbolism which would follow during the Middle Ages. Catalonia, in the Frankish-controlled

12 13 León. Collegiate of San Isidoro

The age of monasteries

During the 12th century, sculpture had a decorative and didactic function, mainly in the form of facades and capitals. In an age when literacy was the exception, the figures on the facade of the Ripoll monastery constituted an illustrated Bible for the unlettered populace. The capitals of Sant Pere de Galligans, San Juan de las Abadesas, San Cugat del Valles or of the Girona and Tarragona cathedrals also fulfilled an educational purpose. In Navarre and Aragon there are exceptional examples in the churches of San Pedro el Viejo and San Juan de la Peña (Huesca), Sangüesa and San Miguel de Estella, and, in central Spain, the cloister of Silos monastery and the marvellous Jacobean facade of Carrión de los Condes (Palencia). Spain also contributed some of the finest known examples of Romanesque painting, especially in frescoes, altar frontals and miniatures illustrating illuminated codices. Barcelona’s Museum of Catalonia has one of the world’s finest collections of Romanesque art, though there are many treasures as well in the museums of Vic and Jaca. To these one must add the frescoes of the Pantheon of San Isidoro in Leon or the archaic figures, with Mozarab touches, of Maderuelo and San Baudelio de Berlanga (Prado Museum). Towards the end of the 12th century, France was shaken by another upheaval: the Cistercian reform, which sought a return to greater austerity and severity. Monasteries from this period were veritable cities devoted entirely to prayer and work: Poblet, Santes Creus, Fitero, Veruela, Iranzu, Piedra, Las Huelgas, Santa María de Huerta, Oya, Osera... At the same time, architects were turning their hand to secular constructions, especially in Catalonia, for instance the Old Quarter of Besalú or the frontier castles erected on land Carrión de los Condes (Palencia). reclaimed from the Moors. Church of Saint James. Pantocrator The Christians’ southward advance was unstoppable, reaching as far as Córdoba and Seville, The way of Saint James The Pantocrator - Christ conquered by King Ferdinand III in 1236 and 1248. Here we can see examples of churches represented as Ruler of the of what could be termed “Fernandino” design, a transitional style in which one can The pilgrim route to the shrine of Saint James in , Universe - surrounded by the appreciate how Romanesque was already giving way to another great medieval walked by millions during the Middle Ages, was crucial in the spread of symbols of the four Evangelists, movement: . Romanesque art across Christian Spain. Many great constructions sprung up carved in stone tympanums or in Santes Creus (Tarragona). Monastery along the “Jacobean Way”: the cathedral in Jaca, San Martín de Frómista (Palencia), San Isidoro de León or, the grandest example of a Romanesque the frescoes of apses, sums up the cathedral in all of Spain, the shrine of Saint James in Santiago itself. Maestro schematic character of Mateo’s Portico of Glory is a medieval symphony in stone, a masterpiece that Romanesque Art. has its predecessors in sculptural works such as the porticos of San Vicente in Avila, and San Pedro el Viejo and Santa Cruz de Serós in Huesca. Also worth mentioning as examples of 11th century Romanesque carving are the capitals in the cloisters of Silos monastery or the reliefs on coffers and ivory chests in San Millán de la Cogolla (La Rioja). By the 12th century Romanesque art was so widespread that there were already individual schools developing with local peculiarities. Thus, one can speak of a Segovian Romanesque, which produced churches with porticos such as San Millán, San Martín, or San Esteban, this last with the most splendid example of a Romanesque tower. In the valley of the Duero river, Byzantine influences can be detected in the ornamented cupolas of Zamora, Toro and the old cathedral in Salamanca. Oriental undertones are also seen in the Soria style, in the churches of San Juan de Duero and San Juan de Rabanera. Galicia, too, had its own variation on the Romanesque theme, seen Taüll (Lleida). Church of Sant Climent. in the Tuy cathedral and the churches of Betanzos or Noya. Apse frescoes Catalonia is especially rich in Romanesque art, in this case not only showing Jacobean but Carolingian and Lombard influences as well, evidenced by the Romanesque churches of the Pyrenees, the , or Sant Pere de Galligans. 14 15 The cathedral builders “El Doncel” (Page’s comt.). Sigüenza Gothic was no mere artistic fashion. It was a new way of perceiving life that would make its mark on the entire continent. The “dark ages” were a thing of the past. A new kind of spirituality, one that was lighter and brighter, took hold of the cities, which by now had replaced the monasteries as the main centres of cultural activity. These medieval cities were usually arranged around their most

León. Cathedral

Gothic Art which arrived from Europe lightened the look of cathedral walls, covered portals, palaces and cloisters with delicate carving, and endowed statues with a Segovia. Convent of Santa Cruz. Portal human expressiveness that announced a new sensitivity. Toledo. Convent of San Juan de los Reyes

The spirit of the flame

As the 14th century gave way to the 15th, as to “go down into history as madmen.” Gothic art became ever more light and airy. The same flamboyant spirit prompted the Its fondness for tapering lines is somewhat cathedrals of Segovia and the new reminiscent of a candle flame; for this cathedral of Salamanca, this last the work reason it is sometimes known in Spanish as of Gil de Hontañón. “Gotico flamígero”, though, for its Sculpture was no longer considered to tendency towards flowery ornamentation, it have a secondary role, and sculptors important building, the cathedral, but life The 13th century saw the building of is generally termed Flamboyant Gothic. enjoyed an improved status as true artists, was no longer entirely dominated by three great Castillian cathedrals. Burgos Two separate schools developed this rather than mere craftsmen. In the religion. This was the age of minstrels, and Leon both have a decidedly French aesthetic in central Spain. One was centred Kingdom of Aragon, the work of Guillem chivalry, gallant love, refined palaces, an flavour, particularly in their sculptural in Toledo, home of Juan Guas – who Sagrera and Pere Joan stands out. age when once again sculpture and painting elements. Toledo is indisputably the most designed San Juan de los Reyes (Toledo) Navarrese sculpture showed a Burgundian became art forms in their own right. “Spanish” of the three, with indications of and the Infantado Palace (Guadalajara) – influence (appreciated in carved tombs in So sudden was the flourishing of Gothic the Moorish influence which was so and Enrique Egas, who built three royal Pamplona and Tudela). Flemish influence, art at the beginning of the 13th century strong in the city. hospices in Santiago, and Santa on the other hand, was strong in Castile that some buildings were started with During the 14th century, building activity Cruz in Toledo. The other school was and its dependent states, especially in Romanesque pilasters and finished off shifted to the eastern seaboard of the centred in Burgos, the workplace of Juan Seville, Burgos – Gil de Siloe was a with Gothic . This architectural peninsula. The cathedrals of Barcelona, de , who gave the major exponent – and Toledo. “changing of the guard” can be seen in Girona, Palma de Mallorca, Valencia, its spires, and Simon de Colonia, architect And, while frescoes continued to adorn many Cistercian monasteries and churches Manresa and have a Palma de Mallorca. Cathedral of San Gregorio in . walls, the most characteristic medium for built at the time. Romanesque austerity much lighter, more spacious feel inside. The exuberant temperament of the age painting in this period were the great influenced the design of the first Gothic inspired one of Christianity’s most altarpieces. Of the diverse styles, Hispano- cathedrals, in Avila, Tarragona, Lleida, ambitious projects, the Cathedral of Seville, Flemish of the second half of the 15th Cuenca, Sigüenza (these last two are whose instigators sought a temple so grand century is especially noteworthy. unusual cases in Spain of the Norman style).

16 17 THE ART OF AL-ANDALUS

HEN the armies of arrived W on the Spanish peninsula, they would transform the land they

came to call Al-Andalus.

While northern Europe was

floundering in feudalism,

they created a civilization

that not only outshone its neighbours but formed a

Granada. . El Partal gardens Monastery of (Madrid). Library. “Book of Games”, by King Alfonso X the Wise bridge between the Western and Oriental worlds.

18 19 Málaga. The Madinat al-Zahra (Córdoba) Rise and fall of Al-Andalus outside Córdoba. The opulence of its Both peoples were religious The Moors’ greatest moment of halls astounded visitors, including fundamentalists with no time for the cultural splendour is the so-called Byzantine ambassadors accustomed frills and frivolity of the Córdoba In the name of Allah Córdoba period. Al-Andalus, which to extravagance. But the palace’s caliphate or the Taifa kings. Their art at one time covered most of the splendour was short lived: it was was severe. Brick facades only Berber and Arab armies landed in peninsula, was at first dependent on razed to the ground by rebellious occasionally broken by a diamond in 711 for what initially the ruling Umayyad dynasty in Berber mercenaries a mere half- pattern, the “sebka”, are about all the had been meant as a large-scale Damascus. When the Umayyads century after it was built. Almohads allowed themselves in the raiding party. They had no intention were overthrown by a rival clan, the The collapse of the Córdoba way of decorative flourishes. of staying but, as it turned out, they Umayyad prince Abd Al-Rahman I caliphate brought about the Nevertheless, they built notable occupied the peninsula, or part of it, fled to Spain to establish an splintering of Muslim Spain into a works such as the Giralda in Seville for nearly eight centuries. Their independent emirate, with its capital in jigsaw puzzle of small kingdoms, the –a minaret, later incorporated into influence on Spanish art and culture Córdoba. In 929 his descendant, Abd Taifas. Málaga’s Alcazaba and the the Christian cathedral– or the was enormous. The civilization of al-Rahman III, founded the Córdoba magnificent Aljafería in Zaragoza Tower of Gold on the banks of the Al-Andalus was the most brilliant of caliphate, proclaiming himself date from this period. Guadalquivir river. its time, and constituted the meeting Caliph or “Prince among believers”. Increasing pressure from the ever point of Western and Oriental The most representative work of the more powerful Christians in the north culture. period is the Córdoba , built led several of the Taifa kings to Not only did the Moors, as the on the site of an old Visigothic appeal for help from the Almoravids, of Spain are properly basilica. Roman and Visigothic the ruling clan in northern Africa. called, develop their own style, they and capitals were used in Accepting the invitation, the influenced that of the Christians with the construction, which was added Almoravids invaded the peninsula in whom they shared –be it in peace on to by successive caliphs. Another 1086 –and stayed. They in turn or war– the peninsula. Separate monumental project was the fabulous were replaced by another north styles were developed by the palatial city of Madinat al-Zahra African tribe, the Almohads, in 1146. (Christians who lived under Muslim rule) and later the Mudejars (Moors who remained in territory conquered by Christians). Zaragoza. The Aljafería Spain’s Jewish community, too, adopted elements of Islamic art as the basis of a distinct Sephardic Art of the Córdoba period, when style. Moorish civilization reached its zenith, served as a model for later generations who created such beautiful works as the Giralda of FOTO NUM. Seville or the Aljafería of 45 Zaragoza. Giralda de Córdoba. Mosque Sevilla. Torre del Oro 20 21 The last of the Moors San Miguel de Escalada (León). Church of San Miguel

By the middle of the 14th century, with Seville, Córdoba and most of western Andalusia in Christian hands, the Moors’ presence in Spain was reduced to the small kingdom of Granada, encompassing the present- day provinces of Granada, Málaga and Almería. There they would remain, a vassal kingdom, until their defeat by King Ferninand and Queen Isabel in 1492. The twilight years of Moorish rule in Spain saw the flowering of Nasrid art, which demonstrated a poetic flair for ornamentation and balanced combination of materials. Their crowning achievement is, of course, the palatial complex of the Alhambra in Granada, with its intricate wall decorations, patios, trickling fountains, , defense towers and adjoining gardens.

Granada. View of the Alhambra Strangers in Paradise

In general, the Moorish rulers of Spain tolerated Jews and Christians, as “people of the Book”. Christians living under Moorish rule, known as Mozarabs – “almost Arabs” – were a clannish folk with customs and rites unlike those of Christian Spain. They developed their own artistic style, which reached its peak in the 10th century, manifesting itself both as works by communities who remained in Muslim territory, and by Mozarabs who emigrated to Christian lands but maintained their old customs. The first group left us the churches of Bobastro (Málaga) and Melque (Toledo). The second group built the Peñalba de Santiago (León). Church of Saint James churches of San Miguel de la Escalada and Santiago de Peñalba in Christians under Moorish rule, Leon, San Cebrián de Mazote and San called Mozarabs, used many Baudelio de Berlanga in Castile, and Arabic elements in their churches. Santa María de Lebeña in Cantabria.

San Cebrián de Mazote (Valladolid). Iglesia mozárabe

22 23 The Moors who remained

With the Christian advance entire Moorish communities came under Christian rule, as farmers and skilled craftsmen. They were the Mudejars –from the Arabic for “those permitted to remain”– and developed a style which flourished especially from the 12th to 14th century, though it continues to have an influence even today. Far from being hermetic, Mudejar art adapted and changed the styles that prevailed at any given time. Thus, while earlier Mudejar creations are clearly influenced by Romanesque and Gothic, we can also talk of Renaissance Mudejar or Mudejar. And we can even detect Mudejar forms in many bullrings, train stations, and other public buildings of the 19th and 20th centuries. Among the jewels of Mudejar during the Romanesque period are several churches around Arévalo (Ávila), Sahagún (León) and Toledo. The synagogues of Toledo, and many of Toledo’s towers, churches and palaces are examples of Gothic Mudejar. In Tordesillas, the Convent of Santa Clara incorporates the remains of a Mudejar palace similar to the Alcázar del Rey Don Pedro in Seville, Andalusia’s most exceptional Mudejar monument. The cloister of Guadalupe Monastery in Extremadura is also noteworthy. Perhaps the finest examples of Mudejar are to be found in Aragón, especially in Teruel with its 13th- and 14th-century towers and cathedral. Toledo. Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca Toledo. Tránsito Synagogue

The silent splendour of Sepharad

First arriving under the Romans, the Both the art of the Sephardic Jewish community in Spain played an Jews and that of the Christians in important role, socially and culturally, in territory formerly under Moorish the land they called Sepharad. Rather than rule incorporated Arabic styles, develop a separate art, Spanish Jews giving birth to the Mudejar style, absorbed what existed around them as a means of artistic expression. Thus, they whose influence was still felt up to adapted many Moorish and, later, the beginning of the 20th century. Mudejar forms as the most suited to their needs. Spain preserves many medieval “calls” or “juderías” –Jewish quarters– some as evocative as the judería in Córdoba (birthplace of Maimonides), the call in Girona, and the Besalú call with its ritual baths. Part of the Sephardic legacy are three of the oldest and most beautiful synagogues in Europe. Santa María la Blanca, in Teruel. Church of San Martín Coca (Segovia). Castle Toledo, was built in the 13th century. Also in Toledo is the Tránsito Synagogue, Sevilla. Royal Alcázares built a hundred years later under the patronage of the Spanish king’s treasurer, with fine Mudejar plasterwork and wood encrusted with mother of . The third, in Córdoba, is the only surviving synagogue in Andalusia. Remains of other synagogues are to be found in numerous Spanish towns, including Tudela, Agreda and Segovia. Tordesillas (Valladolid). Convent of Santa Clara s

Sahagún (León). Church of San Tirso s s

24 25 THE QUEST HE end of the 15th century saw the birth of a new FOR PERFECTION T world, in more ways than one. The Middle Ages were truly over. The discovery of America opened a whole new

range of possibilities. Man

embarked on a voyage of

scientific discovery, armed

with an unsatiable thirst Madrid. Prado Museum. Juan de Juanes: “The ”

for knowledge. He no longer sought perfection in theology, but

in the physical world. This is the age of order and reason, when

Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña). Facade of the Cathedral at first artists looked for inspiration in the classical ideals of

Valladolid. Convent of San Gregorio cloisters

antiquity, then experimented with the elaborate forms of Baroque,

only to turn full circle with the Age of Enlightenment and its

Neoclassical norms.

26 27 Winds of change Towards 1530 the style was superseded by more restrained, Events toward the end of the 15th century were to change Spain beyond classic , as recognition. The marriage of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabel of in the work of Alonso de Castile brought about a union of sorts between the two kingdoms. And Covarrubias of Toledo or Gil de the discovery of the New World was to change Spain’s destiny forever. Hontañon in Salamanca. The Palace From the artistic and cultural point of view, the winds of change blew of Charles V which Pedro Machuca from . Humanistic thought permeated all. Art was inspired by the built within the Alhambra in Granada classic ideals of ancient Greece and Rome. is an example of pure Italian-style In Spain, Renaissance architecture was characterized by a taste for Renaissance. Also in Granada, Diego exterior ornamentation. Facades were covered with a profusion of de Siloe designed the city’s cathedral decorative details reminiscent of silver filigree, which earned this and, elsewhere in Andalusia, Andrés particular style the name of Plateresque, meaning literally “silversmith- de Vandelvira filled the towns of like”. Jaen, Baeza and Ubeda with The Hospital of Santa Cruz in Toledo was the first example in Spain of Renaissance palaces. Cogolludo (Guadalajara). Ducal Palace this new movement, and before long the style had swept the country: The same Italian spirit is seen in the the Palace of Cogolludo (Guadalajara), the Town Hall of Seville, the paintings of Pedro Berruguete, Juan facade of the University of Salamanca... all show the profligate hand of de Borgoña, and the Raphael- Plateresque architects. influenced Juan de Juanes, who worked in Valencia. Sculptors, too, were swept up by the Italian aesthetic. The greatest was Alonso de Berruguete, the most “Spanish” of them, for already one detects a Baroque flair in his sculptures. He worked especially in Valladolid and Toledo (the choir of is his masterpiece). Other sculptors, such as Juan de Juni The Italian style radically changed at the start and Damian Forment, were more of the Renaissance. Humanism spelt a return to classical forms. faithful to classical Renaissance serenity.

Úbeda (Jaén). Salvador Chapel

Toledo. Santa Cruz (Holy Cross) Hospital Granada. Palace of Charles V

Salamanca. Facade of the University

Toledo. Cathedral. Choir

28 29 Madrid. Prado Museum. Morales: The “Divine” Morales and were exceptions to the rule imposed by “Virgin and Child” the austerity of Philip II’s court: a sober, almost severe aesthetic that

s s inspired Herraran design, whose best expression was the Monastery of El Escorial. Madrid. San Fernando Royal Academy of Fine Arts. El Greco: “Saint ” s

El Escorial (Madrid). Monastery of San Lorenzo

The austerity of Philip II

During the second half of the 16th century, King Philip II ruled Spain down to the last detail. His personal taste also governed Spanish artists, so we can talk of an “official”, court-approved art, as opposed to the unsanctioned activity of independent artists. Perhaps not surprisingly, the best art was produced by the second group, which included Luis de Morales, whose mysticism earned him the moniker of “The Divine”, and the Crete-born Domenico Theotocopuli, El Greco, who after an unsuccessful sojourn in the court settled in Toledo to silently indulge his highly spiritual conception of art. The legacy he left in Toledo is impressive, shared between the museum named after him, hospitals, the cathedral and churches such as Santo Tomé, where his masterpiece the “Burial of Count Orgaz” hangs. One notable contribution of “official” art under Philip II was the so-called Herreran style, named after architect , which was a reflection of the king’s austere reaction to Renaissance humanism. Herrera gave shape to the grandiose and very Castillian monastery-palace of San Lorenzo del Escorial. The style was repeated in the cathedral of Valladolid and the Lonja, or commercial exchange, in Seville, and in many other buildings that conformed to the strict rules of the day.

Madrid. Facade of the City Hall , Spanish style

Baroque architecture took hold in Spain very gradually. Indeed, the first Baroque buildings at the beginning of the 18th century owed much to the sobriety of Herrera’s works. This can be seen for example in the designs of Juan Gómez de Mora, Alonso Cano, or Francisco de Herrera El Mozo. Some years would pass before the Baroque style took hold with all its unfettered force. In honour of architect José de Churriguera, Spanish Baroque architecture is known by the tongue-twisting name of “Churrigueresque”, though its chief exponent was to be Pedro de Ribera.

Toledo. Church of Santo Tomé: El Greco:“Burial of the Count of Orgaz”

Madrid. Municipal Museum. Detail of the facade 30 31 Seville. Convent of Las Teresas. La Roldana: “Virgin and Child”

Valladolid. Cathedral. Gregorio Fernández: “Ecce Homo”

The religious images of Spain’s Golden Century constitute a unique case in European sculpture. The pathetic of the images echoed a profound popular devotion.

Seville. Museum of Fine Arts. Martínez Montañés: “Saint Dominic, Penitent” Granada. Cathedral. Seville. Hospital de la Caridad. Pedro Roldán: “Holy Interment altarpiece” Alonso Cano: “Bust of Saint Paul” The image makers In Granada, the carved Immaculate If the 17th century has come to be Andalusia had its own school of Virgins by the architect and painter known as the Golden Age of Spanish image carvers. Juan Martínez Alonso Cano formed the basis of art, it is largely due to the work of Montañés is the most representative another school. His pupil, Pedro de Spain’s painters and image makers. of Seville. His Immaculate Virgins Mena, added to the master’s elegance Religious imagery was a particularly and boy-saints have an aura of a measure of pathos and religious Spanish art form, very different from serenity and tenderness that is very emotion, especially in his Dolorosas. the sculptures being produced different from the pathos of their The work of another Granada artist, elsewhere in Europe, which tended Castillian counterparts. Juan Gómez José de Mora, showed the influence towards secular subjects. Spain and Pedro Roldán were among his of both Cano and Mena. produced religious images of successors, and this last in turn was In Eastern Spain, in the 18th century, expressive realism for use in succeeded by his daughter, Luisa sculpture was more European in its altarpieces and in processions. It was “La Roldana” and the Cordoban choice of secular subjects. But the essentially a folk art form, executed Pedro Duque Cornejo, author of the most popular sculptor of the region, in gilded and polychrome wood. choir in his home town’s cathedral. Francisco Salzillo, spelt a return to In Castile, Gregorio Fernández was a the religious theme. He was son of a master at depicting pain and sorrow Napolitan sculptor and his Italian in his recumbent Christs and parentage can be seen in his Holy mourning Madonnas, used in Holy Week images and nativity figures, so Week processions. The National dear to the tradition of Naples. The Museum of Sculpture in Valladolid Salzillo Museum in Murcia contains houses the best of his and his much of his work. contemporaries’ work. Murcia. Salzillo Museum. “The Last Supper” 32 33 The golden age of painting

Spain’s golden century is, above all, identified with the painters of the day, some of whom are linchpins in the history of western art. The Prado Museum in Madrid, the Fine Arts Museum in Seville and other Spanish museums are the custodians of this astounding heritage. Many of the most prominent names (Vizcaya). Museum of Fine Arts. came from Andalusia, though the most Madrid. Prado Museum. Velázquez: detail of “Las Meninas” Ribera: “Saint Jerome” important, Seville-born Diego Velázquez, soon moved from his southern homeland to set up shop Bilbao (Vizcaya). Museum of Fine Arts. Zurbarán: “The Holy Family” within the Spanish court. This allowed him among other things to personally meet Rubens and to take part in two official trips to Italy. Velázquez is an indisputable case of absolute genius, a producer of pure art, though there is a progression in his work: in the first, youthful stage he painted still lifes, genre paintings, mythological scenes (“”, “The Forge of Vulcan”). A later period brought courtly portraits and royal themes (“The Surrender of ”). After his second voyage to Italy he produced his most mature works, including “Las Hilanderas (The Spinners)” and “Las Meninas (The Maids of Honour)”. Extremadura-born Francisco de Zurbarán moved first to Seville and then to the court. He was a painter of Velázquez, Zurbarán, Murillo and religious themes, monks and saints. Ribera are giants among the Seville was also the base for another of prodigious generation of artists the greats, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, who shaped Spain’s ‘Golden who achieved enormous popularity in Century’ of art. his time with his Immaculate Virgins and angelic boys portrayed with a tenderness we might today find overly sentimental. But his genre paintings Madrid. San Fernando Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Murillo: and Biblical scenes show the hand of a “San Diego de Alcalá feeds the poor” true master (Hospital de la Caridad, Seville). No less talented, though he enjoyed less recognition, is Alonso Cano of Granada, who also painted Virgins and other religious themes (). Juan Valdés Leal of Seville is perhaps the most “Baroque” of them all, with his “tremendista” paintings on the vanity of the world. Valencia is a case apart in Spanish painting of the day. Francisco Ribalta introduced the Italian chiaroscuro “tenebrist” tradition in Spain, though it reached its greatest level with José de Madrid. Gallery in the Prado Museum Ribera, after a sojourn in Italy where he earned his nickname, Lo Spagnoletto (The Little Spaniard). Madrid. Prado Museum. Velázquez: “The Topers, or the Triumph of Bacchus” 34 35 In its final stages, Baroque art became more moderated and works such as the Palace of show signs of Neoclassical serenity to come. Neoclassicism, in its turn, had its riposte in the genius of Goya, who would usher in a new era, the Romantic Age.

Aranjuez (Madrid). Royal Palace

Madrid, especially, acquired a number of Neoclassical monuments, the foremost example being the building that houses the Prado Museum, by Juan de Villanueva. Gardens and avenues became populated with sculptures of demure deities and mythological figures, including the statues of Cibeles, Neptune or Apollo. Paintings, such as those by José de Madrazo or the portraits by México. Cathedral Vicente López, exuded a cold elegance. But it could not be long before the unruly Spanish artistic temperament would assert itself. There was an undercurrent of rebellion straining against the barriers of the Neoclassicism, and it burst forth with a vengeance in the person of one of the greatest artists of all time, Francisco de Goya. While his first works followed the classic mold of the day –in frescoes, early religious paintings, cartoons for tapestries, portraits– soon Goya was to become an artist removed from his time, a modern painter in the broadest sense of the word, with his loose, expressive brush strokes, and above all his free, nonconformist outlook. He is the forebear of a new artistic spirit, one that mistrusts the impositions of pure reason, putting Jerez de los Caballeros (Badajoz). Church of San Bartolomé Madrid. Prado Museum. Goya: “The Naked Maja” the emphasis, instead, on sentiment. With The cold elegance of Neoclassicism Goya, a new artistic day had been born.

So much Baroque exuberance was bound to become overwhelming and cause a backlash. In the final stages of what still can be considered the Baroque period, The extravagance of Spanish art became more moderate in its approach, more restrained, guided New World Baroque by the more gentle manners by then prevailing in Italy and, especially, France. This coincided with the access to the throne of the Bourbon dynasty, Naturally, with Spain devoting much altarpieces which displayed an following the Spanish War of Succession. French influence was decisive in of its efforts to the colonization of uninhibited mixing of colours and the the 18th century, and is evident in Spain’s last great Baroque monuments, the the Americas, Spanish art had an frequent use of shiny tiles and royal palaces of La Granja, Aranjuez or Madrid itself. affect on the New World. It was a encrusted mirrors. Mexico City, The Spanish Royal Academy of Fine Arts was established in 1752, to pass two-way traffic for, in turn, the Guadalupe, Puebla, Cuzco, Lima and judgement on what was and what wasn’t proper artistic form. It looked to Americas provided indigenous Quito all offer examples of this classical art as the model. Reason, order and moderation were the new ideals. touches which tended to exaggerate colonial art which, occasionally, Architect Ventura Rodriguez embodied this transition. His abundant, and the extravagance of Spanish Baroque. would affect what was being influential, work, which at first answered to Italian tenets, finally evolved This Ultra-Baroque was expressed in produced in Spain itself. into a detached Neoclassicism. profusely ornate facades, altars and

Madrid. San Fernando Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Goya: “Burial of the Sardine” 36 A NEW ART FOR A NEW ERA

URING the 19th century, the cult

D to reason gave way to a discovery

of the value of feelings and sensitivity. It was the

start of a new cycle in art, one in which the idea

Bilbao (Vizcaya). Museum of Fine Arts. Andrés Cortés: “Seville Fair” of freedom and

individuality are

foremost. It was the

age of Romanticism

Cuenca. Museum of Abstract Art

which, in turn, would Madrid. Centro de Arte Reina Sofía National Museum Madrid. Contemporary Arts Fair (ARCO) Barcelona. Domènech i Muntaner: “Casa Lleó i Morera”

make way for modern currents flowing through

art even today.

38 39 Madrid. Centro de Arte Reina Sofía National Museum. Rusiñol: “Gardens of Aranjuez. El cenador” s s El Roncal (Navarre). Benlliure: “Gayarre Mausoleum” s Cádiz. Museum of Fine Arts. Valeriano Domínguez Bécquer The all-encompassing embrace of Modernism

During the last half of the 19th century, historical painting, a genre with clear literary connections, became all the rage. Artists like Casado del Alisal and Eduardo Rosales were wholeheartedly devoted to this fashion. Others, like Mariano Fortuny, were able to finally break away from the historical obsession to dedicate themselves more to experimenting with properly pictorial techniques, the effects of light, textures... This exploratory trend would find root in painters such as Santiago Rusiñol, Aureliano de Beruete, Darío de Regoyos, Ramón Casas, Joaquim Mir, or Francisco Iturrino, who constitute the forefront of the Spanish Impressionists. The same ideals form the basis of the somewhat later work of Joaquín Sorolla. The best of these and other artists of the time are displayed in Madrid’s Prado Museum. From 1890, the great industrial boom of Barcelona encouraged the emergence of a moneyed local bourgeoisie. This new middle class readily embraced the ideals of the modernist spirit then sweeping Europe, giving them form in what is known as Catalan “”, or “Noucentisme”. Cities such as Barcelona and Reus boast marvellous buildings imbued with this voracious aesthetic which aimed to envelop every aspect of design, down to the furniture, fixtures and items of everyday use. The most original, and best known, exponent was, of course, Antonio Gaudí, whose personal genius nevertheless transcends the tenets of any particular movement. Such distinctive creations as the as-yet-unfinished Sagrada Familia Basilica, the Güell Park and some of the homes and buildings he designed in Barcelona and elsewhere express a very modern idea of “total art”, to which design of today owes much.

Madrid. Sorolla Museum: “Beneath the Awning” Barcelona. Gallery on Modern Art. Fortuny: detail of “The Vicary” Romantic Impressions Barcelona. Gaudí: detail of Casa Batlló Romanticism was essentially a literary, or If Romanticism had any appropriate Spanish Romanticism existentialist, phenomenon. Romantic expression in the visual arts, it was in encouraged art with an thought was something difficult to express sculpture and, especially, painting, which historical or popular theme. in terms of architecture, for example. were better suited to capture the theatrical Soon that gave way to the Instead, what coincided with the Romantic quality of Romantic thought, particularly loose brush strokes and period in the 19th century was a sort of in the choice of subject matter. We can “bastardized neoclassicism”, in which see this in the popular scenes by Antonio luminosity of the Spanish medieval or renaissance elements were María Esquivel, Federico de Madrazo or Impressionists and, later, to added on to classic forms. Architecture of Valeriano Domínguez Bécquer. Modernism, when Gaudí the period is an eclectic mishmash of neo- revolutionized architectural this and neo-that: Neo-Gothic, Neo- forms. Mudejar, Neo-Renaissance... The chief novelty in architecture was the use of new materials –iron, glass– and the new uses for which buildings were designed –railway stations, marketplaces... Bilbao (Vizcaya). Museum of Fine Arts. Barcelona. Círculo del Liceo. Raimundo de Madrazo: “Young Lady in a Garden” Casas: detail of “Afternoon Dance”

40 41 Bilbao (Vizcaya). Museum of Fine Arts. Solana: “Streetwalkers”

The advance of the avant-garde

At the turn of the century, Spanish “-isms” that would shape 20th century art impressionists coexisted with painters of a was Cubism, whose birth date can be more Romantic bent, such as Carlos Haes placed around 1908. And a Spaniard, or Pérez Villamil, and were joined by Picasso, was its principal exponent. another school of painters who practised Pablo Picasso was much more than a Expressionist Realism, including Nonell, Cubist. He was a genius who assimilated Gutierrez Solana and Zuloaga. But soon and practised all avant-garde movements. after the start of the 20th century, an ever It can be said that his protracted and increasing succession of avant-garde prolific career sums up all of 20th-century movements burst onto the European art art. Aside from Picasso’s Cubism, there scene. Ironically, Spain on the one hand are his “pink” and “blue” periods, his was more resistant than most countries to “Neoclassic” stage, his Expressionist these currents, but on the other hand stage... all of which show an irrepressible contributed some of the greatest talent. inner vitality that extended to painting, The first, and most decisive, of the new sculpture, ceramics, and graphic art.

Barcelona. Picasso Museum. Pablo R. Picasso: “Las Meninas después de Velázquez” (1957)

The European vanguard Spanish Surrealism movements at the beginning of the 20th century included many Another especially vigorous “-ism” of the only his material works, but keep alive Spanish artists, some as early 20th century was Surrealism, much of his creative spirit. significant as Picasso, Dalí and formulated in the 1920s around André To get an idea of Spain’s decisive Breton and other writers. Spain contributed contribution to 20th century art, one has Miró. decisively to this movement with two key only to view the permanent collection in figures: Salvador Dalí and Joan Miró. Dalí the Reina Sofia National Art Centre in followed a more orthodox surrealism in his Madrid. Painters of the stature of Juan first years, then gave free rein to personal Gris, María Blanchard, Antoni Clavé, experimentation and obsessions that were Francisco Bores, and sculptors like not always artistically grounded. His work Gargallo, Julio González, Clará, Manolo is displayed in an especially suggestive Hugué and others exemplify the different manner in the Dalí Museum in Figueres, movements that have revolutionized art. and in Cadaques and Port Lligat (Girona). The European contribution to these Miró’s work also evolved from a primitive movements is also well represented in surrealism to a more personal, very poetic Madrid, not far away from the Reina Sofia form of expression. The Miró Foundations centre, in the Thyssen-Bornemisza in Barcelona and Mallorca maintain not Collection.

Bilbao (Vizcaya). Museum of Fine Arts. Zuloaga: “Countess Matieu Noailles” Madrid. Centro de Arte Reina Sofía National Museum. Salvador Dalí: “The great Masturbator”

42 43 Rebels with a cause Art in a world without frontiers Two world wars brought about a lull in the formulation of new artistic trends in Europe, but post war prosperity, especially during the Sixties, With Spain’s integration into Europe brought new waves of creative innovations, this time not emanating from in the last decades, Spanish art beats Paris, but New York: Abstract Expressionism, Minimalism, Pop Art... anew to the rhythm of world art in Spain was at the time politically removed from the western mainstream, general. In this last quarter of the and artistic creativity was often born of a spirit of rebellion. The most 20th century, one can no longer prominent artists’ collective of the time was El Paso, which grouped distinguish frontiers between “here” such painters as Tàpies, Saura, Millares, Canogar or Feito. Of these, and “there”: more than ever before, Tàpies is the one who has achieved, in a long career, the greatest artistic creation is a personal universal recognition. The Tàpies Foundation in Barcelona gathers adventure. together paintings full of magic and poetry, along with sculptures, objêts, Spain continues to give the world and his extensive graphic work. The works of the El Paso members and outstanding artists. The work of

© Sucesión Antonio Saura / www.antoniosaura.org, VEGAP, 2009 other contemporary painters form the basis of the Museum of Abstract architects like José Luis Sert, Ricardo Art in Cuenca. Bofill, Calatrava or Rafael Moneo is sought after abroad. Spanish visual art goes with the flow of worldwide trends in art over the last decades, and Spain continues to nurture artists Cuenca. Fundación Juan March. of the first order, including Tapiés, Museum of Abstract Art. Barceló, Jose María Sicilia, or García Saura: “Brigitte Bardot” (1959) Sevilla, as well as sculptors like Spain continues to provide great talents to the diverse currents in world Chillida, Susana Solano, Juan Muñoz, art, in every field: painters like Tàpies and Barceló, sculptors like Jaume Plensa, and Txomin Badiola. Chillida, architects like Bofill are some of the prominent names in It can be said that all trends and modern art. fashions in world art are reflected in Spanish art, though it is difficult at the end of the 20th century to talk of artistic “movements” as such. In the natural continuation of the cycle that started with Romanticism, each artist seeks his own personal space, and Cuenca. Fundación Juan March. Museum of Abstract Art. Tàpies: “Grande Equerre” follows his own individual quest for freedom and personal expression. Is it possible, in the age of the Global Village, to speak of “Spanish art” as opposed to world art? That is a question for future generations of art historians. Meanwhile, it is left to us to sit back and enjoy the show. © FMGB, 2000 Bilbao. Guggenheim Museum

Txomin Badiola: “Manhatan dos”

s Work by Miquel Barceló (private collection) s

Gijón (Asturias). Monument by Chillida

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