Apraxia: the Neuropsychology of Action

Apraxia: The Neuropsychology of Action

edited by

Leslie j. Gonzalez Rothi and Kenneth M. Heilman

Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Ca inesville, FL 32610, USA

'P ~~~~~~~;?c9XP Press LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 1997 by Psychology Press Published 2014 by Psychology Press 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex, BN3 2FA

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ISBN 978-0-86377-743-1 (pbk) ISBN 978-0-863-77743-1 (hbk) ISSN 0967-9944

Coverdesign by Joyce Chester TypesetinTimes by Gilbert Composing Services, Leighton Buzzard, Bedfordshire

Publisher's Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent. Contents

Chapter I. Introduction to Limb Apraxia 1 Leslie J. Gonzalez Rothi and Kenneth M. Heilman

Chapter 2. Limb Apraxia: A Look Back 7 Kenneth M. Heilman and Leslie J.Gonzalez Rothi

Chapter 3. Handedness 19 Kenneth M. Heilman

Chapter 4. A Cognitive Neuropsychological Model of Limb Praxis and Apraxia 29 Leslie J. Gonzalez Rothi, Cynthia Ochipa, and Kenneth M. Heilman

Chapter 5. Conceptual Praxis 51 Anastasia M. Raymer and Cynthia Ochipa

Chapter 6. Limb Praxis Assessment 61 Leslie J. Gonzalez Rothi, Anastasia M. Raymer and Kenneth M. Heilman

Chapter 7. Management and Treatment of Limb Apraxia 75 Lynn M. Maher and Cynthia Ochipa

Chapter 8. Kinematic Approaches to the Study of Apraxic Disorders 93 Howard Poizner, Alma S. Merians, Mary Ann Clark, Leslie J. Gonzalez Rothi, and Kenneth M. Heilman

iii iv CONTENTS

Chapter 9. Representations of Actions in Ideomotor Limb Apraxia: Clues from Motor Programming and Control 111 Deborah L. Rarrington and Kathleen Y. Haaland

Chapter 10. Disorders ofWriting 149 Steven Z. Rapscak

Chapter I I. Apraxia of Speech: Another Form of Praxis Disruption 173 Paula A. Square, Eric A. Roy, and Ruth E. Martin

Chapter 12. Subcortical Limb Apraxia 207 Bruce Crosson

Chapter 13. Developmental Dyspraxia 245 Mary K. Morris

Chapter 14. Naturalistic Action 269 Myrna F. Schwartz and Laure/ J. Buxbaum

Glossary 291

Author Index 299

Subject Index 309 Contributors

Laurel J. Buxbaum, Moss Rehabilitation Research Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA MaryAnn Clark, Seton Hall University, Newark, NJ, USA. Bruce Crosson, Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA. Kathleen Y. Haaland, Psychology Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Departments of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neurology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA. Deborah L. Harrington, Psychology Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, and Departments ofPsychology and Neurology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA. Kenneth M. Heilman, Department of Neurology, University of Florida, and Neurology Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, USA. Lyon M. Maher, Department of Educational Psychology and Special Education, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA. Ruth E. Martin, Department ofCommunicative Disorders, University ofWestem Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada. Alma S. Merians, University ofMedicine and Dentistry ofNew Jersey, Newark, NJ,USA. Mary K. Morris, Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA Cynthia Ochipa, Audiology and Speech Pathology Service, James A. Haley Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Tampa, FL, USA.

V vi CONTRIBUTORS

Howard Poizner, Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA. Anastasia M. Raymer, Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA. Leslie J. Gonzalez Rothi, Audiology and Speech Pathology Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Neurology, University ofFlorida, Gainesville, FL, USA. Eric A. Roy, Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Myrna F. Schwartz, Moss Rehabilitation Research Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA. Paula A. Square, Graduate Department of Speech Pathology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Brain Damage, Behaviour and Cognition Developments in Clinical Neuropsychology

Series Editors Chris Code, University of Sydney, Australia Glyn Humphreys, University of Birmingham, UK Dave Müller, University College Suffolk, UK

Published titles Cognitive Rehabilitation Using Microcomputers Veronica A. Bradley, John L. Welch and Clive E. Skilbeck The Characteristics of Aphasia Chris Code (Ed.) Classic Cases in Neuropsychology Chris Code, C/aus-W. Wal/esch, Yves Joanette, and Andre Roch Lecours (Eds) The Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia Anthony S. David and John C. Cutfing (Eds) Neuropsychology and the Demenlias Siobhan Hart and James M. Sempie Clinical Neuropsychology of Alcoholism Robert G. Knight and Barry E. Langmore Acquired Neurological Speech/Language Disorders in Childhood Bruce E. Murdoch (Ed.) Neuropsychology of the Amnesie Syndrome Alan J. Parkin and Nicholas R.C. Leng Clinical and Neuropsychological Aspects of Closed Head Injury John T.E. Richardson Unilateral Neglect: Clinical and Experimental Studies /an H. Robertson and J.C. Marshall (Eds.) Apraxia: The Neuropsychology of Action Les/ie J. Gonzalez Rothi and Kenneth Heilman (Eds.) Acquired Apraxia of Speech in Aphasie Adults Pau/a A. Square (Ed.) Developmental Cognitive Neuropsychology Christine Temple Cognitive Rehabilitation in Perspective Rodger Wood and /an Fussey (Eds.) Series Preface

From being an area primarily on the periphery of mainstream behavioural and cognitive science, neuropsychology has developed in recent years into an area of central concern for a range of disciplines. We are witnessing not only a revolution in the way in which brain-behaviour-cognition relationships are viewed, but a widening of interest concerning developments in neuropsychology on the part of a range of workers in a variety of fields. Major advances in brain-imaging techniques and the cognitive modeHing of the impairments following brain darnage promise a wider understanding of the nature of the representation of cognition and behaviour in the damaged and undamaged brain. Neuropsychology is now centrally important for those working with brain• damaged people, but the very rate of expansion in the area makes it difficult to keep up with findings from current research. The aim of the Brain Damage, Behaviour and Cognition series is to publish a wide range of books which present comprehensive and up-to-date overviews of current developments in specific areas of interest. These books will be of particular interest to those working with the brain• damaged. lt is the editors' intention that undergraduates, postgraduates, clinicians and researchers in psychology, speech pathology and medicine will find this series a useful source of information on important current develop• ments. The authors and editors of the books in this series are experts in their respective fields, working at the forefront of contemporary research. They have produced texts which are accessible and scholarly. We thank them for their contribution and their hard work in fulfilling the aims of the series.

CCandGH Sydney, Australia and Birmingham, UK Series Editors viii 1lntroduction to Limb Apraxia

Leslie J. Gonzalez Rothi and Kenneth M. Heilman

ADEFINITION OF APRAXIA The term apraxia was coined by Steinthai in 1871. During the last century it has been used to describe a wide variety of neuro1ogically induced, acquired, and developmental disorders including buccofacial apraxia, constructional apraxia, dressing apraxia, gait apraxia, gaze apraxia, limb apraxia, speech apraxia, truncal apraxia, and swallowing apraxia. Although the term apraxia is applied in each of these cases (and others), many of these disorders seem tobe unrelated neurologically and psychologically. De Ajuriaguerra and Tissot (1969) therefore suggested that it may be necessary to abandon the general concept of apraxia as a class of disorders in favour of a description of various specific apraxias. But the term apraxia does have functional implications and we wondered about the attributes it implied to us. When Steinthai initially used this term apraxia it was not clear whether it reflected motor, sensory or gnosic deficits. Liepmann's (1977) earliest writings at the turn ofthe century suggested that the term apraxia should be used when the genesis of the disorder was motor in nature. The term apraxia is sometimes used to indicate a disorder of volitional movement where nonvolitional movement is spared. However, volition is operationally difficult to define and discriminate. Others describe apraxia as a disorder of movement from memory. For example, when a person is asked to "pretend to blow out a match" they fail to do so, but when a lit match is placed before them they blow it out successfully and efficiently because the presence of

1 2 ROTHI AND HEILMAN

the lit match "made it possible to retrieve the movement memories." These attributes of the disorder (i.e. failure with productions that are volitional or produced from memory), while probably the most consistently described attributes, are inconsistent with the movement behaviour found in some "apraxia" syndromes such as a few of those mentioned earlier. In other instances the "ahle/not able" distinction is less than absolute. For example, the long-held assumption that apraxic patients are only deficient in performing limb gestures to verbal command while they remain able to perform normally with actual tools and objects appears nottobe correct. Whereas patients with limb apraxia may do better when using actual tools than they do with pantomime, they may also err when actually holding tools and objects (De Renzi, 1985) or when using tools and objects in their natural context (Foundas, Macauley, Raymer, Maher, Heilman, & Rothi, 1995). The term apraxia also seems to have been used less discriminantly to refer to disorders of action where sensory-perceptual disorders have not been complete• ly ruled out. One example is "constructional apraxia." Since the constructive behaviour ofthese cases may not be entirely explained by the movement aspect of the deficit, the more accurate term of "visuoconstructive disability" is now used (Benton & Trane!, 1993). Hughlings Jackson (1884) proposed that the central nervous system was hierarchically organised. At the lowest Ievel the behavioural repertoire is limited and the responses are Stereotypie. As the Ievel heightens the behavioural reper• toire becomes more complex and less stereotypic. Whereas the behaviours mediated at the lower Ievels cannot be modified and appear to be automatic or involuntary, the behaviours mediated at the highest Ievels are learned, can be modified, and appear to be voluntary. For an example at the lower Ievel, the spinal cord is programmed to send an efferent volley of action potentials to a muscle when that muscle's tendon is rapidly stretched. It is this program that gives us deep tendon reflexes. This simplest of motor programs cannot be modified by learning, is automatic, and is involuntary. At a higher Ievel the brain stem, together with the basal ganglia, mediates righting reflexes such that, when there is rapid change in one's position with respect to gravity, postural compensations are implemented. This principle is perhaps best illustrated when sitting on a chair which is tilting backward. If the chair started to fall backward one would automatically extend the lower extremities at the knee, flex the lower extremities at the hip, and lean forward with arms outstretched and positioned in front ofthe trunk. Although one can superimpose voluntary behaviours on these brain stem-, basal ganglia- and spinal cord-mediated behaviours, these automatic behaviours are not learned, cannot be modified, and therefore are frequently termed "reflexes." The cerebral cortex is capable of programming both simple ( e.g. finger flexion) and complex ( e.g. using a pair of scissors to cut a piece of paper) behaviours. Almost all behaviours programmed by the cortex are voluntary (not automatic). In contrast to the primitive reflexes which may be 1. INTRODUCTION TO LIMB APRAXIA 3 motorically quite complex but not learned, the complex behaviours mediated by the cortex are almost always learned. A lass (as the result ofneurologic disorder) of the ability to perform these /earned voluntary actions is what we term apraxia. Hughlings Jackson (1878) noted that, even when a specific body part may be unable to carry out a volitional act, that same body part may still be able to make the same movements when carrying out nonintentional or reflexive acts. The opposite may also occur such that an individual who can no Ionger perform an automatic involuntary behaviour may be able to perform voluntary behaviours with the same body parts. Although some term the loss ofthe ability to perform automatic behaviours apraxia (e.g. optic and swallowing apraxia), we use the term apraxia to denote a loss oflearned behaviours. Therefore, we define apraxia simply as a neurological disorder of /earned purposive movement skill that is not explained by deficits of eiemental motor or sensory systems.

RELEVANCE Almost 20 years ago we began our collaboration in research in limb apraxia. W e have been asked many times by students, colleagues, and, most acutely, by grant reviewers: "Why is the study of apraxia of interest?". While it is a commonly held notion that apraxia is of theoretical interest without being of any practical import, we disagree. Although we did not have experimental data to support our position, it was not uncommon for patients' families to teil us that they bad to remove access to dangerous tools and objects from the patients' environment because they were concerned that these patients might hurt themselves. In addition, because we see many patients who are aphasic, we commonly Iook to gesture in the form of Amer-ind (Skelly, 1979) as an alternative form of communication. Amer-ind is a gestural system that can be performed with a single band. Amer-ind gestures are relatively transparent in terms of meaning and can be interpreted by most untrained viewers. However, because limb apraxia commonly co-occurs (Kertesz, Ferro, & Shewan, 1984) with aphasia, we found limited success with the ability of patients with both disorders to acquire this gestural system. Most recently, the work of Schwartz and colleagues (described in Chapter 14 of this book) as weil as our own work looking at the ability of patients with limb apraxia to use tools and objects in natural contexts (Foundas et al., 1995) have confirmed our impression that apraxia is notatrivial behavioural disorder only of theoretical interest, but instead apraxia is a common and disabling disorder.

DOMAIN OF INTEREST Unfortunately, interest in apraxia has been limited to a small group of neurologists, psychologists, and speech-language pathologists. However, because apraxia is of both theoretical and practical importance, we believe that 4 ROTHI AND HEILMAN many professions (from anthropologists to occupational therapists) should find this topic of interest as well. For example, several phylogenetic Ievels of animals are known to use tools and to learn to use body movements meaningfully and skilfully. Tool manufacture and complex tool use, while noted in rare examples, are less well developed in animals than man. The development oftool use in man is, of course, of interest anthropologically. Therefore what is learned from comparative psychological and anthropological studies of the development of tool use and "gesture" across species and across human history with specific reference to changes in relevant brain structures should be consistent or compatible with what is known about the cognitive neuropsychology of human praxis using an ablation paradigm of study. Additionally, as pointed out by Morris in Chapter 13, how children learn to use tools and gesture with each hand is poorly understood. Knowledge of how the praxis system is acquired should inform us not only ofthe neural substrates of skill acquisition but also about which portions of a componential system of limb praxis are modular and which are not by virtue of their dependence on development of others. Studying developmental models of normal praxis may also help us understand developmental disorders of praxis. Neuropsychologically, the study ofhow one loses a previously attained Ievel ofmovement skill as the result ofbrain impairments allows us to study how the adult human brain instantiates planned movements. The principles of movement processing, such as those learned by use of the ablation paradigm of neuro• psychology, must be reconciled with those Iearned by using the paradigms of cognitive psychology, such as the study of normal reaching patterns, etc. (for example, see Chapter 9 by Barrington and Haaland). In turn, the interest of the physician is to use the knowledge gained from neuropsychological evaluation to assist in diagnosis, lesion localisation and patient care. Finally, information regarding praxis processing and deficiencies should be of interest to rehabilitation clinicians such as speech-language pathologists, clinical neuropsychologists, occupational therapists and physical therapists for a number of reasons. For one, these clinicians need to advise their clients of potential environmental dangers. In addition, there is a need to develop efficacious and theoretically informed treatment and rehabilitative strategies (see Chapter 7, by Maher and Ochipa, for examples).

THE BOOK This book is a compilation of the works of many clinical investigators working on different praxis problems. We are indebted to these authors for their contri• butions, their guidance, and their support. While certainly not an exhaustive review of the various perspectives currently available in the study of limb apraxia, we have included these 14 chapters because we feel they provide a reasonably cohesive and compatible statement collectively. In Chapter 2, Heilman and Rothi provide a selected history of the re-emergence of interest in 1. INTRODUCTION TO LIMB APRAXIA 5 the psycho1ogy of 1imb apraxia 1arge1y as a resu1t of Geschwind's articles of 1965 entit1ed "Disconnexion syndromes in anima1s and man." Serving as one of Hei1man's professors during his clinica1 training, Geschwind was influentia1 in encouraging Heilman to read Liepmann's writings of the turn of the century regarding limb apraxia. Because hand preference and hand skill are so closely linked functionally, theories accounting for hand preference are reviewed, prior to a discussion of the mechanism of hand skill (limb praxis) in subsequent chapters. Then, utilising the discoveries ofLiepmann (and the reformulations of Geschwind) and recruiting parallels found in the cognitive neuropsychology of language, Rothi, Ochipa, and Heilman (1991) proposed a cognitive neuropsycho1ogica1 model of limb praxis and cited cases in the Iiterature supporting its structure. An updated, but fundamentally unaltered reiteration of that 1991 paper is presented in Chapter 4 and forms the basis of many of the subsequent chapters ofthis book. For example, Chapter 5 by Raymer and Ochipa expands upon the issue of action semantics raised in Chapter 4 by Rothi, Ochipa, and Heilman and enlists many of the same methodologies that have become the hallmark ofthe cognitive neuropsychological approach. Similarly, in Chapter 6 Rothi, Raymer, and Heilman provide the interested clinician and researcher with attributes of test construction that would allow one to assess a patient in a manner compatible with the fractionation of praxis functions implied by the model described in Chapters 4 and embellished in Chapter 5. While relatively Iittle is known about the neurology ofthe praxis system based on this functional approach, Crosson in Chapter 12 embraces the challenge of parallels between language and praxis modelled in Chapter 4 and applies these notions to what the roJe of the subcortical structures might be in praxis programming. As a result, seven hypotheses are generated to challenge future research. Poizner and colleagues in Chapter 8 describe a technology used to analyse the spatiotemporal characteristics of skilled limb movement as applied to patients with ideomotor limb apraxia and, with this technology, confirms Liepmann's hypothesis of apraxia resulting from a failure of stored movement representations. Explicating the nature of information in and structure of these "movement representations" as proposed by Liepmann is the challenge approached in Chapter 9 by Rarrington and Haaland, whereas a higher order perspective on praxis processing is the perspective provided in Chapter 14 by Schwartz and Buxbaum in their work on action pragmatics or how actions are used in natural contexts. Finally, Chapters 10 and 11 represent interesting reviews of praxis systems closely linked to limb praxis specifically: notably, writing and speaking. For example, it is a commonly held (but inaccurate) notion that failure to write legibly as the result of brain darnage is the result of a coexisting limb apraxia (Zangwill, 1954). In Chapter 10 Rapcsak reviews the cognitive neuropsychological model specific to peripheral agraphias that is compatible but distinctive from that which is proposed for limb apraxia. Regarding apraxia of speech, Square, Roy and Martin review in Chapter 11 the 6 ROTHI AND HEILMAN

controversy that continues to rage over the existence of a defect of motor planning of speech and its potential relationship to limb and buccofacial apraxias. Thus, the chapters that follow provide the reader with a perspective of limb apraxia that expands upon Hugo Liepmann's vision that is almost 100 years old. The reader may be a clinician looking for theoretical underpinnings that might provide greater precision to clinical interventions for this disorder while the reader who is a researcher of normal motor skill acquisition may find concurrence in principles provided by a Iook at pathology and information emanating from the ablation paradigm.

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3 Chapter 3. Handedness

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Watson, R. T. & Heilman, K.M. (1983). Callosal apraxia. Brain, 106, 391-403. 4 Chapter 4. A Cognitive Neuropsychological Model of Limb Praxis and Apraxia

B e a u v o i s , M . F . , D e r o u e s n e , J . , & B a s t a r d , V . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . A u d i t o r y p a r a l l e l t o p h o n o l o g i c a l a l e x i a . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e T h i r d E u r o p e a n C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , C h i a n c i a n o , I t a l y .

B e a u v o i s , M . F . & S a i l l a n t , B . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . O p t i c a p h a s i a f o r c o l o u r s a n d c o l o u r a g n o s i a : A d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n v i s u a l a n d v i s u o v e r b a l i m p a i r m e n t s i n t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f c o l o u r s . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 2 , 1 4 8 .

B e l l B . D . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . P a n t o m i m e r e c o g n i t i o n i m p a i r m e n t i n a p h a s i a : A n a n a l y s i s o f e r r o r t y p e s . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 4 7 , 2 6 9 2 7 8 .

B e n k e , T . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . T w o f o r m s o f a p r a x i a i n A l z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . C o r t e x , 2 9 , 7 1 5 7 2 5 .

B o l d r i n i , P . , Z a n e l l a , R . , C a n t a g a l l o , A . , & B a s a g l i a , N . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . P a r t i a l h e m i s p h e r i c d i s c o n n e c t i o n s y n d r o m e o f t r a u m a t i c o r i g i n . C o r t e x , 2 8 , 1 3 5 1 4 3 .

B r i n k m a n , C . & P o r t e r , R . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . S u p p l e m e n t a r y m o t o r a r e a i n t h e m o n k e y : A c t i v i t y o f n e u r o n s d u r i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o f a 1 e a r n e d m o t o r t a s k . N e u r o p h y s i o l o g y , 4 2 , 6 8 1 7 0 9 .

C l a r k , M A . , M e r i a n s , A . S . , K o t h a r i , A . , P o i z n e r , H . M a c a u 1 e y , B . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . S p a t i a l p l a n n i n g d e f i c i t s i n 1 i m b a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 1 7 , 1 0 9 3 1 1 0 6 .

C o l t h e a r t , M . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . E d i t o r i a l . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 1 , 1 8 .

C o s l e t t , H . B . , R o e l t g e n , D . P . , R o t h i , L . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . T r a n s c o r t i c a l s e n s o r y a p h a s i a : E v i d e n c e f o r s u b t y p e s . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 3 2 , 3 6 2 3 7 8 .

C o s l e t t , H . B . , & S a f f r a n , E . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . P r e s e r v e d o b j e c t r e c o g n i t i o n a n d r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n i n o p t i c a p h a s i a . B r a i n , 1 1 2 , 1 0 9 1 1 1 1 0 .

D e R e n z i , E . , F a g l i o n i , P . , S c a r p a , M . , & C r i s i , G . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . L i m b a p r a x i a i n p a t i e n t s w i t h d a r n a g e c o n f i n e d t o t h e l e f t b a s a l g a n g l i a a n d t h a l a m u s . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 4 9 , 1 0 3 0 1 0 3 8 .

D e R e n z i , E . , F a g l i o n i , P . , & S o r g a t o , P . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . M o d a l i t y s p e c i f i c a n d s u p r a m o d a l m e c h a n i s m s o f a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 0 1 , 3 0 1 3 1 2 .

D e R e n z i , E . & L u c c h e l l i , F . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . I d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 1 1 , 1 1 7 3 1 1 8 5 .

D u f f y , J . R . , W a t t , F . , & D u f f y , R . J . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . P a t h a n a l y s i s : A s t r a t e g y f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g m u l t i v a r i a t e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n d i s o r d e r s . J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g R e s e a r c h , 2 4 , 4 7 4 4 9 0 .

D u f f y , R . J . , D u f f y , J . , & P e a r s o n , K . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . P a n t o m i m e r e c o g n i t i o n i n a p h a s i a . J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g R e s e a r c h , 1 8 , 1 1 5 1 3 2 .

D u f f y , R . J . & D u f f y , J . R . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p a n t o m i m e e x p r e s s i o n a n d p a n t o m i m i c r e c o g n i t i o n i n a p h a s i a : T h e s e a r c h f o r c a u s e s . I n G . R . H a r n m o n d ( E d . ) , M 4 7 A d v a n c e s i n p s y c h o l o g y : C e r e b r a [ c o n t r o l o f s p e e c h a n d l i m b m o v e m e n t s ( 4 1 7 4 4 9 ) . A m s t e r d a m : E l s e v i e r .

D u f f y , R . J . & L i l e s , B . Z . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . A I r a n s i a l i o n o f F i n k e l n b u r g ' s ( 1 8 7 0 ) I e e i u r e o n a p h a s i a a s a s y m b o l i a w i t h c o m m e n t a r y . J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g D i s o r d e r s , 4 4 , 1 5 6 1 6 8 .

G e s c h w i n d , N . ( 1 9 6 5 ) . D i s c o n n e x i o n s y n d r o m e s i n a n i m a l s a n d m a n . B r a i n , 8 8 , 2 3 7 2 9 4 .

G e s c h w i n d , N . & K a p l a n , E . ( 1 9 6 2 ) . A h u m a n c e r e b r a l d i s c o n n e c t i o n s y n d r o m e . A p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t . N e u r o l o g y , 1 2 , 6 7 5 6 8 5 .

H e a d , H . ( 1 9 2 6 ) . A p h a s i a a n d k i n d r e d d i s o r d e r s o f s p e e c h . C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 7 3 ) . I d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a r e d e f i n i t i o n . B r a i n , 9 6 , 8 6 1 8 6 4 .

H e i l m a n , K . M . , M a h e r , L . H . , G r e e n w a l d , L . , & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . C o n c e p t u a l a p r a x i a f r o m I a t e r a l i z e d l e s i o n s . N e u r o l o g y , 4 5 , A 2 6 6 .

H e i l m a n , K . M . & R o t h i , J . G . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A p r a x i a . I n K . M . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y ( 1 3 1 1 5 0 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

H e i l m a n , K . M . , R o t h i , J . , & V a l e n s t e i n , E . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . T w o f o r m s o f i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . N e u r o l o g y , 3 2 , 3 4 2 3 4 6 .

K a p l a n , R . F . , V e r f a e l l i e , M . , & C a p l a n , L . R . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . V i s u a l a n o m i a a n d v i s u a l a p r a x i a i n a p a t i e n t w i t h a l e f t o c c i p i t a l b r a i n l e s i o n . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 1 2 , 8 9 .

K e m p l e r , D . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . L e x i c a l a n d p a n t o m i m e a b i l i t i e s i n A l z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . A p h a s i o l o g y , 2 , 1 4 7 1 5 9 .

L i e p m a n n , H . ( 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e s y n d r o m e o f a p r a x i a ( m o t o r a s y m b o l y ) b a s e d o n a c a s e o f u n i l a t e r a l a p r a x i a . ( A I r a n s l a i i o n f r o m M o n a t s c h r i f t f ü r P s y c h i a t r i e u n d N e u r o l o g i e , 1 9 0 0 , 8 , 1 5 4 4 ) . I n D . R o t t e n b e r g & F . H . H o c k b e r g ( E d s . ) , N e u r o l o g i c a l c l a s s i c s i n m o d e r n t r a n s l a t i o n . N e w Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n .

L i e p m a n n , H . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e a n d a c t i o n . ( A t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m M ü n c h e n e r M e d i z i n i s c h e W o c h e n s c h r i f t , 1 9 0 5 , 4 8 4 9 ) . T r a n s l a t i o n s f r o m L i e p m a n n ' s e s s a y s o n a p r a x i a . I n R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n # 5 0 6 . D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o l o g y , T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W e s t e r n O n t a r i o .

L i e p m a n n , H . & M a a s , 0 . ( 1 9 0 7 ) . F a l l v o n l i n k s s e i t i g e r A g r a p h i e u n d A p r a x i s b e i r e c h s t s e i t i g e r L a h m u n g . Z e i t s c h r i f t f ü r P s y c h o l o g i e u n d N e u r o l o g i e , 1 0 , 2 1 4 2 2 7 .

M c C a r t h y , R . & W a r r i n g t o n , E . K . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A t w o r o u t e m o d e l o f s p e e c h p r o d u c t i o n : E v i d e n c e f r o m a p h a s i a . B r a i n , 1 0 7 , 4 6 3 4 8 5 .

M c D o n a l d , S . , T a t e , R . L . , & R i g b y , J . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . E r r o r t y p e s i n i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : A q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 2 5 , 2 5 0 2 7 0 .

M e h l e r , M . F . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . V i s u o i m i t a t i v e a p r a x i a . N e u r o l o g y , 3 7 , 1 2 9 .

M o t o m u r a , N . & Y a m a d o r i , A . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . A c a s e o f i d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a w i t h i m p a i r m e n t o f o b j e c t u s e a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n o f o b j e c t p a n t o m i m e . C o r t e x , 3 0 , 1 6 7 1 7 0 .

O c h i p a , C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . I d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a : A d e f i c i t i n t o o l s e l e c t i o n a n d u s e . A n n a l s o f N e u r o l o g y , 2 5 , 1 9 0 1 9 3 .

O c h i p a , C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . C o n c e p t u a l a p r a x i a i n A l z h e i m e r ' s D i s e a s e . B r a i n , 1 1 5 , 1 0 6 1 1 0 7 1 . O c h i p a , C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . C o n d u c t i o n a p r a x i a . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 5 7 , 1 2 4 1 1 2 4 4 .

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A l l p o r t , D . A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . D i s t r i b u t e d m e m o r y , m o d u l a r s u b s y s t e m s a n d d y s p h a s i a . I n S . N e w m a n , & R . E p s t e i n , ( E d s . ) , C u r r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s i n d y s p h a s i a . N e w Y o r k : C h u r c h i l l L i v i n g s t o n e .

B a r b i e r i , C . & D e R e n z i , E . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e e x e c u t i v e a n d i d e a t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s o f a p r a x i a . C o r t e x , 2 4 , 5 3 5 4 5 3 .

B e a u v o i s , M . F . , S a i l l a n t , B . , M e i n i n g e r , V . , & L h e r m i t t e , F . ( 1 9 7 8 ) . B i l a t e r a l t a c t i l e a p h a s i a : A t a c t o v e r b a l d y s f u n c t i o n . B r a i n , 1 0 1 , 3 8 1 4 0 1 .

C a r a m a z z a , A . , H i l l i s , A . E . , R a p p , B . C . , & R o m a n i , C . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e m u l t i p l e s e m a n l i e s h y p o t h e s i s : M u l t i p l e c o n f u s i o n s ? C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 7 , 1 6 1 1 8 9 .

C o s l e t t , H . B . & S a f f r a n , E . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . P r e s e r v e d o b j e c t r e c o g n i t i o n a n d r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n i n o p t i c a p h a s i a . B r a i n , 1 1 2 , 1 0 9 1 1 1 1 0 .

D e n e s , G . & S e m e n z a , C . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . A u d i t o r y m o d a l i t y s p e c i f i c a n o m i a : E v i d e n c e f r o m a c a s e s t u d y o f p u r e w o r d d e a f n e s s . C o r t e x , 1 1 , 4 0 1 4 1 1 .

D e R e n z i , E . & L u c c h e l l i , F . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . 1 d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 1 1 , 1 1 7 3 1 1 8 3 .

D e R e n z i , E . , P i e c z u r o , 0 . & V i g n o l o , L . A . ( 1 9 6 8 ) . 1 d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a : A q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 6 , 4 1 5 2 .

F a r a h , M . J . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . V i s u a l a g n o s i a . C a m b r i d g e , M a s s : M I T P r e s s .

F a r a h , M . J . & W a l l a c e , M . A . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . S e m a n t i c a l l y b o u n d e d a n o m i a : I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e n e u r a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f n a m i n g . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 3 0 , 6 0 9 6 2 1 .

F o s t e r , N . L . , C h a s e , T . N . , M a n s i , L . , B r o o k s , R . , F e d i o , P . , P a t r o n a s , N . J . & D i c h i r o , G . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . C o r t i c a l a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n A l z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . A n n a l s o f N e u r o l o g y , 1 6 , 6 4 9 6 5 4 .

F o u n d a s , A . , M a c a u l e y , B . L . , R a y m e r , A . M . , M a h e r , L . M . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . E c o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f l i m b a p r a x i a : E v i d e n c e f r o m m e a l t i m e b e h a v i o r . J o u r n a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 , 6 2 6 6 .

F r e u n d , C . S . ( 1 8 8 9 ) . Ü b e r o p t i s c h e A p h a s i e u n d S e e l e n b l i n d h e i t . A r c h i v f u r P s y c h i a t r i e u n d N e r v e n k r a n k h e i t e n , 2 0 , 2 7 6 2 9 7 , 3 7 1 4 1 6 .

F u n n e l l , E . & A l l p o r t , A . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . N o n l i n g u i s t i c c o g n i t i o n a n d w o r d m e a n i n g s : N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f c o m m o n m e c h a n i s m s . I n A . A l l p o r t , D . G . M a c k a y , P r i n z , W . , & E . S c h e e r e r , ( E d s . ) , L a n g u a g e p e r c e p t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n . L o n d o n : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

H a r t , J . , B e m d t , R . S . , & C a r a m a z z a , A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . C a t e g o r y s p e c i f i c n a m i n g d e f i c i t f o l l o w i n g c e r e b r a l i n f a r c t i o n . N a t u r e , 3 1 6 , 4 2 9 4 4 0 .

H e i l m a n , K . M . , M a h e r , L . M . , G r e e n w a l d , M . L . , & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . C o n c e p t u a l a p r a x i a f r o m l a t e r a l i z e d l e s i o n s . N e u r o l o g y , 4 5 , A 2 6 6 ( s u p p l e m e n t ) .

H e i l m a n , K . M . , & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . L i m b a p r a x i a . I n K . M . H e i l m a n , & E . V a l e n s t e i n , ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y ( 3 r d e d . ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

H i l l i s , A . E . & C a r a m a z z a , A . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . C a t e g o r y s p e c i f i c n a r r r i n g a n d c o m p r e h e n s i o n i m p a i r m e n t : A d o u b l e d i s s o c i a t i o n . B r a i n , 1 1 4 , 2 0 8 1 2 0 9 4 .

H i l l i s , A . E . & C a r a m a z z a , A . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . C o g n i t i v e a n d n e u r a l m e c h a n i s m s u n d e r l y i n g v i s u a l a n d s e m a n t i c p r o c e s s i n g : 1 m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m " o p t i c a p h a s i a . " J o u r n a l o f C o g n i t i v e N e u r o s c i e n c e , 7 , 4 5 7 4 7 8 .

H i l l i s , A . E . , R a p p , B . , R o m a n i , C . , & C a r a m a z z a , A . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . S e l e c t i v e i m p a i r m e n t o f s e m a n l i e s i n l e x i c a l p r o c e s s i n g . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 7 , 1 9 1 2 4 3 .

I o r i o , L . , F a l a n g a , A . , F r a g a s s i , N . A . , & G r o s s i , D . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . V i s u a l a s s o c t a h v e a g n o s i a a n d o p t i c a p h a s i a . A s i n g l e c a s e s t u d y a n d a r e v i e w o f t h e s y n d r o m e s . C o r t e x , 2 8 , 2 3 3 7 .

L i e p m a n n , H . ( 1 9 0 5 ) . Ü b e r S t o r u n g e n d e s H a n d e i n s b e i G e h i r n k r a n k e n . B e r l i n : K a r g e r .

O c h i p a , C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . I d e a t i o n a l a p r a x . i a : A d e f i c i t i n t o o l s e l e c t i o n a n d u s e . A n n a l s o f N e u r o l o g y , 2 5 , 1 9 0 1 9 3 .

O c h i p a , C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . C o n c e p t u a l a p r a x i a i n A 1 z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . B r a i n , 1 1 5 , 1 0 6 1 1 0 7 1 .

P a i v i o , A . ( 1 9 7 1 ) . l m a g e r y a n d v e r b a l p r o c e s s e s . N e w Y o r k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t , a n d W i n s t o n . P a i v i o , A . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . M e n t a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s : A d u a l c o d i n g a p p r o a c h . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

P o e c k , K . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . I d e a t i o n a l a p r a x . i a . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , 2 3 0 , 1 5 .

R a p c s a k , S . Z . , C r o s w e l l , S . C . , & R u b e n s , A . B . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . A p r a x i a i n A l z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . N e u r o l o g y , 3 9 , 6 6 4 6 6 9 .

R a t c l i f f , G . & N e w c o m b e , F . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . O b j e c t r e c o g n i t i o n : S o m e d e d u c t i o n s f r o m t h e c l i n i c a l e v i d e n c e . I n A . W . E l l i s . ( E d . ) , N o r m a l i t y a n d p a t h o l o g y i n c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n s . L o n d o n : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

R a y m e r , A . M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . D i s s o c i a t i o n s o f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e : E v i d e n c e f r o m A l z h e i m e r ' s D i s e a s e . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a .

R a y m e r , A . M . , G r e e n w a l d , M . L . , R i c h a r d s o n , M . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . O p t i c a p h a s i a a n d o p t i c a p r a x i a : T h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l N e u r o p s y c h o / o g y , 1 4 , 3 9 6 ( a b s t r a c t ) .

R i d d o c h , M . J . & H u m p h r e y s , G . W . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . V i s u a l o b j e c t p r o c e s s i n g i n o p t i c a p h a s i a : A c a s e o f s e m a n t i c a c c e s s a g n o s i a . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 4 , 1 3 1 1 8 5 .

R i d d o c h , M . J . , H u m p h r e y s , G . W . , C o l t h e a r t , M . , & F u n n e l l , E . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . S e m a n t i c s y s t e m s o r s y s t e m ? N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e r e e x a m i n e d . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 5 , 3 2 5 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , O c h i p a , C . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . A c o g n i t i v e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l m o d e l o f l i m b p r a x i s . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 8 , 4 4 3 4 5 8 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , O c h i p a , C . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 7 ) . A c o g n i t i v e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l m o d e l o f l i m b p r a x i s a n d a p r a x i a . I n L . J . G . R o t h i , & K . M . H e i l m a n , ( E d s . ) , A p r a x i a : T h e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y o f a c t i o n . H o v e , U K : P s y c h o l o g y P r e s s .

R o y , E . A . & S q u a r e , P . A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . C o m m o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e s t u d y o f l i m b , v e r b a l a n d o r a l a p r a x i a . I n E . A . R o y , ( E d . ) , A d v a n c e s i n p s y c h o l o g y ( V o l . 2 3 ) . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f a p r a x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s ( p p . 1 1 1 1 6 2 ) . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

S c h w a r t z , M . F . , M a r i n , O . S . M . , & S a f f r a n , E . M . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . D i s s o c i a t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n i n d e m e n t i a : A c a s e s t u d y . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 7 , 2 7 7 3 0 6 .

S e y m o u r , P . H . K . ( 1 9 7 3 ) . A m o d e l f o r r e a d i n g , n a m i n g a n d c o m p a r i s o n . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o / o g y , 6 4 , 3 5 4 9 .

S h a l l i c e , T . ( 1 9 8 8 a ) . F r o m n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y t o m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e . N e w Y o r k : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

S h a l l i c e , T . ( 1 9 8 8 b ) . S p e c i a l i s a t i o n w i t h i n t h e s e m a n t i c s y s t e m . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o / o g y , 5 , 1 3 3 1 4 2 .

W a r r i n g t o n . E . K . & M c C a r t h y , R . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . C a t e g o r y s p e c i f i c a c c e s s d y s p h a s i a . B r a i n , 1 0 6 , 8 5 9 8 7 8 .

W a r r i n g t o n , E . K . & M c C a r t h y , R . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . C a t e g o r i e s o f k n o w l e d g e : F u r t h e r f r a c t i o n a t i o n s a n d a n a t t e m p t e d i n t e g r a t i o n . B r a i n , 1 1 0 , 1 2 7 3 1 2 9 6 .

W a r r i n g t o n , E . K . & S h a l l i c e , T . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . C a t e g o r y s p e c i f i c s e m a n t i c i m p a i r m e n t s . B r a i n , 1 0 7 , 8 2 9 8 5 4 . 6 Chapter 6. Limb Praxis Assessment

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Foundas, A. L., Raymer, A., Maher, L. M., Rothi, L. J. G., & Heilman, K. M. (1993). Recovery in ideomotor apraxia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 15, 44.

Greenwa1d, M. L., Rothi, L. J. G., Maher, L. M., Ochipa, C., Chatteljee, A., & Heilman, K. M. ( 1992). Concrete object errors in praxis performance. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14, 379.

He1m-Estabrooks, N. (1992). Test of oral and limb apraxia. Chicago: Riverside Publishing Company.

Klima, E. & Bellugi, U. (1979). The signs oflanguage. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Liepmann, H. (1900). Das Krankheitsbild der Apraxie (Motorische Asymbolie), Monatschriftfür Psychiatrie und Neurologie, 8, 15-44 (Translated in 1977. The syndrome of apraxia (motor asymboly) based on a case ofunilateral apraxia. In D. A. Rottenberg & F. H. Hochberg (Eds.) Neurological classics in modern translation. pp. 155-1244. NewYork: Macmillan.

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O c h i p a , C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . I d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a : A d e f i c i t i n t o o l s e l e c t i o n a n d u s e . A n n a l s o f N e u r o l o g y , 2 5 , 1 1 5 , 1 9 0 1 9 3 .

O c h i p a , C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . C o n c e p t u a l a p r a x i a i n A l z h e i m e r ' s D i s e a s e . B r a i n , 1 1 5 , 1 0 6 1 1 0 7 1 .

O c h i p a , C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . C o n d u c t i o n a p r a x i a . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y , a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 5 7 , 1 2 4 1 1 2 4 4 .

R a y m e r , A . M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . D i s s o c i a t i o n s o f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e : E v i d e n c e f r o m A l z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , G a i n e s v i l l e , F l o r i d a .

R a y m e r , A . M . , A d a i r , J . C . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . A n o t h e r c a s e o f c o n d u c t i o n a p r a x i a a n d i t s t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . J o u r n a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 , 1 4 9 .

R a y m e r , A . , G r e e n w a l d , M . , R i c h a r d s o n , M . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . O p t i c a p h a s i a a n d o p t i c a p r a x i a : T h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 1 4 , 3 9 6 .

R a y m e r , A . M . , M a h e r , L . M . , F o u n d a s , A . , H e i l m a n , K . M . , & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f b o d y p a r t a s t o o l e r r o r s i n l i m b a p r a x i a . J o u r n a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , 2 , 2 7 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A c q u i s i t i o n a n d r e t e n t i o n o f g e s t u r e i n a p r a x i c p a t i e n t s . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 3 , 4 2 6 4 3 2 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , M a c k , L . , V e r f a e l l i e , M . , B r o w n , P . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . I d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : E r r o r p a t t e m a n a l y s i s . A p h a s i o l o g y , 2 , 3 8 1 3 8 8 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , R a y m e r , A . M . , O c h i p a , C . , M a h e r , L . M . , G r e e n w a l d , M . L . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . F l o r i d a A p r a x i a B a t t e r y ( E x p e r i m e n t a l e d ) . U n p u b l i s h e d .

S t o k o e , W . C . ( 1 9 6 0 ) . S i g n l a n g u a g e s t r u c t u r e : A n o u t l i n e o f t h e v i s u a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n d e a f . S t u d i e s i n L i n g u i s t i c s , ( O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r s , 8 ) . This page intentionally left blank 7 Chapter 7. Management and Treatment of Limb Apraxia

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B o r o d J . C . , F i t z p a t r i c k , P . M . , H e l m E s t a b r o o k s , N . , & G o o d g l a s s , H . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i m b a p r a x i a a n d t h e s p o n t a n e o u s u s e o f c o m m u n i c a t i v e g e s t u r e i n a p h a s i a . D r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 1 0 , 1 2 1 1 3 1 .

C h r i s t o p o u l o u , C . & B o n v i l l i a n , J . D . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . S i g n l a n g u a g e , p a n t o m i m e a n d g e s t u r a l p r o c e s s i n g i n a p h a s i c p e r s o n s : A r e v i e w . J o u r n a l o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n D i s o r d e r s , 1 8 , 1 2 0 .

C o d e , C . & G a u n t , C . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . T r e a t i n g s e v e r e s p e e c h a n d l i m b a p r a x i a i n a c a s e o f a p h a s i a . D r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f D i s o r d e r s o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n , 2 1 , 1 1 2 0 .

C o e l h o , C . A . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . A c q u i s i t i o n a n d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f s i m p l e m a n u a 1 s i g n g r a m m a r s b y a p h a s i c s u b j e c t s . J o u r n a l o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n D i s o r d e r s , 2 3 , 3 8 3 4 0 0 .

C o e l h o , C . A . & D u f f y , R . J . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . S i g n a c q u i s i t i o n i n t w o a p h a s i c s u b j e c t s w i t h l i m b a p r a x i a . A p h a s i o l o g y , 4 , 1 8 . C u b e l l i , R . , T r e n t i n i , P . , & M o n t a g n a , C . G . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . R e e d u c a t i o n o f g e s t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n a c a s e o f c h r o n i c g l o b a l a p h a s i a a n d l i m b a p r a x i a . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 8 , 3 6 9 3 8 0 .

D a v i s , G . A . & W i l c o x , M . J . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A d u l t a p h a s i a r e h a b i l i t a t i o n : A p p l i e d p r a g m a t i c s . S a n D i e g o , C A : C o l l e g e H i l i P r e s s , I n c .

D e R e n z i , E . , F a g l i o n i , P . , L o d e s a n i , M . , & V e c c h i , A . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . P e r f o r m a n c e o f l e f t b r a i n d a m a g e d p a t i e n t s o n i m i t a t i o n o f s i n g l e m o v e m e n t s a n d m o t o r s e q u e n c e s : F r o n t a l a n d p a r i e t a l i n j u r e d p a t i e n t s c o m p a r e d . C o r t e x , 1 9 , 3 3 3 3 4 3 .

D e R e n z i , E . , M o t t i , F . , & N i c h e l l i , P . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . I m i t a t i n g g e s t u r e s : A q u a n t i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y , 3 7 , 6 1 0 .

D u f f y , R . J . & D u f f y , J . R . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . T h r e e s t u d i e s o f d e f i c i t s i n p a n t o m i m e e x p r e s s i o n a n d p a n t o m i m e r e c o g n i t i o n i n a p h a s i a . J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g R e s e a r c h , 4 6 , 7 0 8 4 .

D u f f y R . , D u f f y , J . , & P e a r s o n , K . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . P a n t o m i m e r e c o g n i t i o n i n a p h a s i a . J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g R e s e a r c h , 1 8 , 1 1 5 1 3 2 .

F e y e r e i s e n , P . , B a r t e r , D . , G o o s s e n s , M . , & C l e r e b a u t , N . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . G e s t u r e s a n d s p e e c h i n r e f e r e n t i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n b y a p h a s i c s u b j e c t s : C h a n n e l u s e a n d e f f i c i e n c y . A p h a s i o l o g y , 2 , 2 1 3 2 .

F o u n d a s , A . L . , M a c a u l e y , B . C . , R a y m e r , A . M . , M a h e r , L . M . , H e i l m a n , K . M . , & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . E c o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f l i m b a p r a x i a : E v i d e n c e f r o m m e a l t i m e b e h a v i o r . J o u r n a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 , 6 2 6 6 .

F o u n d a s , A . , R a y m e r , A . M . , M a h e r , L . M . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . R e c o v e r y i n i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . J o u r n a l o f C i i n i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 1 5 , 4 4 .

G e s c h w i n d , N . ( 1 9 6 5 ) . D i s c o n n e x i o n s y n d r o m e s i n a n i m a l s a n d m a n . D r a i n , 8 8 , 2 3 7 2 9 4 , 5 8 5 6 4 4 .

G e s c h w i n d , N . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e a p r a x i a s : N e u r a l m e c h a n i s m s o f d i s o r d e r s o f 1 e a r n e d m o v e m e n t . A m e r i c a n S c i e n t i s t , 6 3 , 1 8 8 1 9 5 .

G l o s s e r , G . , W i e n e r , M . , & K a p l a n , E . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . C o m m u n i c a t i v e g e s t u r e s i n a p h a s i a . D r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 2 7 , 3 4 5 3 5 9 .

G o o d g l a s s , H . & K a p l a n , E . ( l ' i 6 3 ) . D i s t u r b a n c e o f g e s t u r e a n d p a n t o m i m e i n a p h a s i a . D r a i n , 8 6 , 7 0 3 7 2 0 .

H a n l o n , R . E . , B r o w n , J . W . , & G e r s t m a n , L . J . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . E n h a n c e m e n t o f n a m i n g i n n o n f l u e n t a p h a s i a t h r o u g h g e s t u r e . D r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 3 8 , 2 9 8 3 1 4 .

H e i l m a n , K . M . & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . A p r a x i a . I n K . M . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y ( 3 r d e d . ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

H e i 1 m a n , K . M . , R o t h i , L . J . , & V a l e n s t e i n , E . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . T w o f o r m s o f i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . N e u r o l o g y , 3 2 , 3 4 2 3 4 6 .

H e l m E s t a b r o o k s , N . , F i t z p a t r i c k , P . M . , & B a r r e s i , B . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . V i s u a l a c t i o n t h e r a p y f o r g l o b a l a p h a s i a . J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g D i s o r d e r s , 4 7 , 3 8 5 3 8 9 .

H e r m a n n , M . , R e i c h l e , T . , L u c i u s H o e n e , G . , W a l l e s c h , C . W . , & J o h a n n s e n H o r b a c h ( 1 9 8 8 ) . N o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a s a c o m p e n s a t o r y s t r a t e g y f o r s e v e r e l y n o n f l u e n t a p h a s i c s ? A q u a n t i t a t i v e a p p r o a c h . D r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 3 3 , 4 1 5 4 .

K e a r n s , K . P . , S i m m o n s , N . N . , & S i s t e r h e n , C . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . G e s t u r a l s i g n ( A m e r I n d ) a s a f a c i l i t a t o r o f v e r b a l i z a t i o n i n p a t i e n t s w i t h a p h a s i a . I n R . B r o o k s h i r e ( E d . ) , C l i n i c a l a p h a s i o l o g y c o n f e r e n c e p r o c e e d i n g s . M i n n e a p o l i s : B R K P u b l i s h e r s .

K e r t e s z , A . & F e r r o , J . M . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . L e s i o n s i z e a n d l o c a t i o n i n i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 0 7 , 9 2 1 9 3 3 .

K e r t e s z , A . , F e r r o , J . M . , & S h e w a n , C . M . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A p r a x i a a n d a p h a s i a : T h e f u n c t i o n a l a n a t o m i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e i r d i s s o c i a t i o n . N e u r o l o g y , 3 4 , 4 0 4 7 .

K e r t e s z , A . & H o o p e r , P . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . P r a x i s a n d l a n g u a g e : T h e e x t e n t a n d v a r i e t y o f a p r a x i a i n a p h a s i a . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 0 , 2 7 5 2 8 6 .

K i r s h n e r , H . S . & W e b b , W . G . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . S e l e c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e a u d i t o r y v e r b a l m o d a l i t y i n a n a c q u i r e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n d i s o r d e r : B e n e f i t f r o m s i g n l a n g u a g e t h e r a p y . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 1 3 , 1 6 1 1 7 0 .

L e M a y , A . , D a v i d , R . & T h o m a s , A . P . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e u s e o f s p o n t a n e a u s g e s t u r e b y a p h a s i c p a t i e n t s . A p h a s i o l o g y , 2 , 1 3 7 1 4 5 .

L i e p m a n n , H . ( 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e s y n d r o m e o f a p r a x i a ( m o t o r a s y m b o l y ) b a s e d o n a c a s e o f u n i l a t e r a l a p r a x i a . ( T r a n s l a t i o n f r o m M o n a t s c h r i f t f ü r P s y c h i a t r i e u n d N e u r o l o g i e , 1 9 0 7 . ) I n D . A . R o t t e n b e r g & F . H . H o c h b e r g ( E d s . ) , N e u r o l o g i c a l c / a s s i c s i n m o d e r n t r a n s l a t i o n . N e w Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n P u b l i s h i n g C o .

M a h e r , L . M . , R a y m e r , A . M . , F o u n d a s , A . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i i m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . P a t t e r n s o f r e c o v e r y i n i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , C i n c i n n a t i , O H .

M a h e r , L . M . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & G r e e n w a l d , M . L . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . T r e a t m e n t o f g e s t u r e i m p a i r m e n t : A s i n g l e c a s e . A S H A , 3 3 , 1 9 5 .

M a y e r , N . H . , R e e d , E . , S c h w a r t z , M . F . , M o n t g o m e r y , M . , & P a l m e r , C . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . B u t t e r i n g a h o t c u p o f c o f f e e : A n a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f e r r o r s o f a c t i o n i n p a t i e n t s w i t h b r a i n d a m a g e . I n D . E . T u p p e r & K . D . C i c e r o n e ( E d s . ) , T h e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , ( V o l . 2 ) . A s s e s s m e n t a n d b a s i c c o m p e t e n c i e s . N o r w e l l , M A : K l u w e r A c a d e m i c P u b l i s h i n g .

M c D o n a l d , S . , T a t e , R . C . , & R i g b y , J . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . E r r o r t y p e s i n i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : A q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 2 5 , 2 5 0 2 7 0 .

M c R e y n o l d s , L V . & K e a r n s , K . P . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . S i n g l e s u b j e c t e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n s i n c o m m u n i c a t i v e d i s o r d e r s . A u s t i n , T E : P r o e d .

O c h i p a , C . , M a h e r , L . M . , & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . T r e a t m e n t o f i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . J o u r n a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , 2 , 1 4 9 .

P i l g r i m , E . & H u m p h r e y s , G . W . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . R e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f a c a s e o f i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . I n M . J . R i d d o c h & G . W . H u m p h r e y s ( E d s . ) , C o g n i t i v e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y a n d c o g n i t i v e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . H o v e , U K : L a w r e n c e E r l b a u m A s s o c i a t e s L t d .

P o e c k , K . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . C l u e s t o t h e n a t u r e o f d i s r u p t i o n s t o I i m b p r a x i s . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f a p r a x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s . N e w Y o r k : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

P o i z n e r , H . , S o e c h t i n g , J . F . , B r a c e w e l l , M . R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . D i s r u p t i o n o f h a n d a n d j o i n t k i n e m a t i c s i n l i m b a p r a x i a . S o c i e t y f o r N e u r o s c i e n c e , 1 5 , 4 8 1 .

Q u i n t a n a , L . A . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . C o g n i t i v e a n d p e r c e p t u a l e v a l u a t i o n a n d t r e a t m e n t . I n C . A . T r o m b l y ( E d . ) , O c c u p a t i o n a l t h e r a p y f o r p h y s i c a / d y s f u n c t i o n . B a l t i m o r e , M D : W i l l i a m s a n d W i l k i n s .

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H e i l m a n , K . M . & R o t h i , L . G . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A p r a x i a . I n K . M . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y ( p p . 1 3 1 1 5 0 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

H e i l m a n , K . & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . A p r a x i a . I n K . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y ( p p . 1 4 1 1 6 4 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

H o l m e s , G . ( 1 9 3 9 ) . T h e c e r e b e l l u m o f m a n . B r a i n , 6 2 , 1 3 1 .

J e n n i n g s , P . J . & P o i z n e r , H . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . C o m p u t e r g r a p h i e m o d e l i n g a n d a n a l y s i s I I : t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d i n t e r a c t i v e a n a l y s i s . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o s c i e n c e M e t h o d s , 2 4 , 4 5 5 5 .

K o t h a r i , A . P o i z n e r , H . , & F i g e l , T . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . T h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s f o r s t u d i e s o f n e u r a l d i s o r d e r s o f m o v e m e n t . S P I E V i s u a l D a t a I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 1 6 6 8 , 8 2 9 2 .

M o r a s s o , P . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . T h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l a r m t r a j e c t o r i e s . B i o l o g i c a l C y b e r n e t i c s , 4 8 , 1 8 7 1 9 4 .

P o i z n e r , H . C l a r k , M . , M e r i a n s , A . S . , M a c a u l e y , B . , R o t h i , L . , & H e i l m a n , K . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . J o i n t c o o r d i n a t i o n d e f i c i t s i n l i m b a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 1 8 , 2 2 7 2 4 2 .

P o i z n e r , H . , M a c k , L . , V e r f a e l l i e , M . , R o t h i , L . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . T h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l C o m p u t e r g r a p h i e a n a l y s i s o f a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 1 3 , 8 5 1 0 1 .

P o i z n e r , H . & S o e c h t i n g , J . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . N e w s t r a t e g i e s f o r s t u d y i n g h i g h e r I e v e l m o t o r d i s o r d e r s . I n D . M a r g o l i n ( E d s . ) , C o g n i t i v e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y i n c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e ( p p . 4 3 5 4 6 4 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e ~ s .

P o i z n e r , H . , W o o t e n , E . , & S a l o t , D . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . C o m p u t e r g r a p h i e m o d e l i n g a n d a n a l y s i s : A s y s t e m f o r t r a c k i n g a r m m o v e m e n t i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e . B e h a v i o r R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s I n s t r u m e n t s a n d C o m p u t e r s , 1 8 ( 5 ) , 4 2 7 4 3 3 .

R a p c s a k , S . , O c h i p a , C . , A n d e r s o n , K . , & P o i z n e r , H . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . P r o g r e s s i v e i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : E v i d e n c e f o r a s e l e c t i v e i m p a i r m e n t o f t h e a c t i o n p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 2 7 , 2 1 3 2 3 6 .

R o t h i , L . G . & H e i l m a n , K . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A c q u i s i t i o n a n d r e t e n t i o n o f g e s t u r e s b y a p r a x i c p a t i e n t s . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 3 , 4 2 6 4 3 7 .

R o t h i , L . G . J . , M a c k , L . , V e r f a e l l i e , M . , B r o w n , P . , & H e i l m a n , K . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . I d e o m o t o r A p r a x i a : E r r o r p a t t e r n a n a l y s i s . A p h a s i o l o g y , 2 , 3 8 1 3 8 8 .

S o e c h t i n g , J . & R o s s , B . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . P s y c h o p h y s i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c o o r d i n a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h u m a n a r m o r i e n t a t i o n . N e u r o s c i e n c e , 1 3 , 5 9 5 6 0 4 .

S o e c h t i n g , J . F . & T e r z u o l o , C . A . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . A n a l g o r i t h m f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f c u r v i l i n e a r w r i s t m o t i o n i n a n a r b i t r a r y p l a n e i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e . N e u r o s c i e n c e , 1 9 , 1 3 9 3 1 4 0 5 .

V i v i a n i , P . & T e r z u o l o , C . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . T r a j e c t o r y d e t e r m i n e s m o v e m e n t d y n a m i c s . N e u r o s c i e n c e , 7 , 4 3 1 4 3 7 .

W o l t r i n g , H . J . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . O n m e t h o d o l o g y i n t h e s t u d y o f h u m a n m o v e m e n t . I n H . W h i t i n g ( E d . ) , H u m a n m o t o r a c t i o n s : B e r n s t e i n r e a s s e s s e d A m s t e r d a m : E l s e v i e r S c i e n c e . This page intentionally left blank 9 Chapter 9. Representations of Actions in Ideomotor Limb Apraxia: Clues from Motor Programming and Control

A l e x a n d e r , M . P . , B a k e r , E . , N a e s e r , M . A . , K a p l a n , E . , & P a l u m b o , C . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d n e u r o a n a t o m i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . B r a i n , J J 5 , 8 7 1 0 7 .

B e r n s t e i n , N . ( 1 9 6 7 ) . T h e c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d r e g u l a t i o n o f m o v e m e n t s . L o n d o n : P e r g a m o n .

C o h e n , A . , I v r y , R . l . , & K e e l e , S . W . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . A t t e n t i o n a n d s t r u c t u r e i n s e q u e n c e l e a m i n g . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y : L e a r n i n g , M e m o r y , a n d C o g n i t i o n , 1 6 , 1 7 3 0 .

D e e , H . L . , B e n t o n , A . L . , & V a n A l l e n , M . W . ( 1 9 7 0 ) . A p r a x i a i n r e l a t i o n t o h e m i s p h e r i c l o c u s o f l e s i o n a n d a p h a s i a . T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y o f N e u r o l o g y , 9 5 , 1 4 7 1 5 0 .

D e R e n z i , E . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . M e t h o d s o f l i m b a p r a x i a e x a m i n a t i o n a n d t h e i r b e a r i n g o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d i s o r d e r . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f a p r a x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s ( p p . 4 5 6 4 ) . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

D e R e n z i , E . , F a g l i o n i , P . , L o d e s a n i , M . , & V e c c h i , A . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . P e r f o r m a n c e o f l e f t b r a i n d a m a g e d p a t i e n t s o n i m i t a t i o n o f s i n g l e m o v e m e n t s a n d m o t o r s e q u e n c e s . F r o n t a l a n d p a r i e t a l i n j u r e d p a t i e n t s c o m p a r e d . C o r t e x , 1 9 , 3 3 3 3 4 3 .

D e R e n z i , E . & L u c c h e l l i , F . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . J d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a . B r a i n , l l l , 1 1 7 3 1 1 8 5 .

D u f f y , R . J . & D u f f y , J . R . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . A n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f b o d y p a r t a s o b j e c t ( B P O ) r e s p o n s e s i n n o r m a l a n d b r a i n d a m a g e d a d u l t s . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 1 0 , 2 2 0 2 3 6 .

E s s e n s , P . J . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . H i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t e m p o r a l p a t t e m s . P e r c e p t i o n & P s y c h o p h y s i c s , 4 0 , 6 9 7 3 .

F i s k , J . D . , & G o o d a l e , M . A . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e e f f e c t s o f u n i l a t e r a l b r a i n d a r n a g e o n v i s u a l l y g u i d e d r e a c h i n g : H e m i s p h e r i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d e f i c i t . E x p e r i m e n t a l B r a i n R e s e a r c h , 7 2 , 4 2 5 4 3 5 .

F i t t s , P . M . ( 1 9 5 4 ) . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f t h e h u m a n m o t o r s y s t e m i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e a m p l i t u d e o f m o v e m e n t . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 4 7 , 3 8 1 3 9 1 .

F r a n k s , I . M . & V a n D o n k e l a a r , P . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e e f f e c t s o f d e m a n d i n g t e m p o r a l a c c u r a c y o n t h e p r o g r a m m i n g o f s i m p l e t a p p i n g s e q u e n c e s . A c t a P s y c h o l o g i c a , 7 4 , 1 1 4 . N

G e o r g o p o u 1 o s , A . P . , A s h e , A . . S m y r n i s , N . , & T a i r a , M . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e m o t o r c o r t e x a n d t h e c o d i n g o f f o r c e . S c i e n c e , 2 5 6 , 1 6 9 2 1 6 9 5 .

G e s c h w i n d , N . ( 1 9 6 5 ) . D i s c o n n e c t i o n s y n d r o m e s i n a n i m a 1 s a n d m a n . B r a i n , 8 8 , 2 3 7 2 9 4 .

G o o d a 1 e , M . A . & M i 1 n e r , A . D . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . S e p a r a t e v i s u a 1 p a t h w a y s f o r p e r c e p t i o n a n d a c t i o n . T r e n d s i n N e u r o s c i e n c e s , 1 5 , 2 0 2 5 .

G o o d a 1 e , M . A . , P e l i s s o n , D . , & P r a b 1 a n c , D . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . L a r g e a d j u s t m e n t s i n v i s u a l l y g u i d e d r e a c h i n g d o n o t d e p e n d o n v i s i o n o f t h e h a n d o r p e r c e p t i o n o f t a r g e t d i s p l a c e m e n t . N a t u r e , 3 2 0 , 7 4 8 7 5 0 .

G o o d g 1 a s s , H . & K a p l a n , E . ( 1 9 6 3 ) . D i s t u r b a n c e o f g e s t u r e a n d p a n t o m i m e i n a p h a s i a . B r a i n , 2 6 , 7 0 3 7 2 0 .

G o o d g l a s s , H . & K a p l a n , E . ( 1 9 7 2 ) . T h e a s s e s s m e n t o f a p h a s i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : L e a a n d F e b i g e r .

G o r d o n , P . C . & M e y e r , D . E . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . H i e r a r c h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s p o k e n s y l l a b l e o r d e r . I n A . A l l p o r t , D . G . M a c K a y , W . P r i n z , & E . S c h e e r e r ( E d s . ) , L a n g u a g e p e r c e p t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n ( p p . 4 4 5 4 6 2 ) . N e w Y o r k : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

H a a l a n d , K . Y . & F l a h e r t y , D . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f l i m b a p r a x i a e r r o r s m a d e b y p a t i e n t s w i t h l e f t v s . r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e d a m a g e . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 3 , 3 7 0 3 8 4 .

H a a l a n d , K . Y . & H a r r i n g t o n , D . L . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . H e m i s p h e r i c c o n t r o 1 o f t h e i n i t i a 1 a n d c o r r e c t i v e c o m p o n e n t s o f a i m i n g m o v e m e n t s . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 7 , 9 6 1 9 6 9 .

H a a l a n d , K . Y . & H a r r i n g t o n , D . L . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . C o m p l e x m o v e m e n t b e h a v i o r : T o w a r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o r t i c a l a n d s u b c o r t i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s i n r e g u l a t i n g c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s . I n G . R . H a r n m o n d ( E d . ) , C e r e b r a / c o n t r o l o f s p e e c h a n d l i m b m o v e m e n t s ( p p . 1 6 9 2 0 0 ) . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

H a a l a n d , K . Y . & H a r r i n g t o n , D . L . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . L i m b s e q u e n c i n g d e f i c i t s a f t e r l e f t b u t n o t r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e d a r n a g e . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 2 4 , 1 0 4 1 2 2 .

H a a 1 a n d , K . Y . , H a r r i n g t o n , D . L . , & G r i c e , J . W . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . E f f e c t s o f a g i n g o n p l a n n i n g a n d i m p 1 e m e n t i n g a r m m o v e m e n t s . P s y c h o l o g y a n d A g i n g , 8 , 6 1 7 6 3 2 .

H a m m o n d , G . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . H e m i s p h e r i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e m p o r a l r e s o l u t i o n . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 1 , 9 5 1 1 8 .

H a r r i n g t o n , D . L . & H a a l a n d , K . Y . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . P r o g r a m m i n g s e q u e n c e s o f h a n d p o s t u r e s . J o u r n a l o f M o t o r B e h a v i o r , 1 9 , 7 7 9 5 .

H a r r i n g t o n , D . L . & H a a l a n d , K . Y . ( 1 9 9 l a ) . H e m i s p h e r i c s p e c i a l i z a t i o n f o r m o t o r s e q u e n c i n g : A b n o r m a l i t i e s i n I e v e l s o f p r o g r a m m i n g . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 9 , 1 4 7 1 6 3 .

H a r r i n g t o n , D . L . & H a a l a n d , K . Y . ( 1 9 9 1 b ) . S e q u e n c i n g i n P a r k i n s o n ' s d i s e a s e : A b n o r m a l i t i e s i n p r o g r a m m i n g a n d c o n t r o l l i n g m o v e m e n t . B r a i n , 1 1 4 , 9 9 1 1 5 .

H a r r i n g t o n , D . L . & H a a l a n d , K . Y . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . M o t o r s e q u e n c i n g w i t h l e f t h e m i s p h e r e d a m a g e . A r e s o m e c o g n i t i v e d e f i c i t s s p e c i f i c t o l i m b a p r a x i a ? B r a i n , 1 1 5 , 8 5 7 8 7 4 .

H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . A p r a x i a . I n K . M . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y ( p p . l 5 9 1 8 5 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s

H e i 1 m a n , K . M . , R o t h i , L . J . , & V a 1 e n s t e i n , E . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . T w o f o r m s o f i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . N e u r o l o g y , 3 2 , 3 4 2 3 4 6 .

I v r y , R . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . C e r e b e l l a r i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e e x p l i c i t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n . I n P . T a l l a l , A . M . G a l a b u r d a , R . R . L l i n a s , & C . v o n E u t e r ( E d s . ) , T e m p o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g i n t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m ( p p . 2 1 4 2 3 0 ) . N e w Y o r k : A n n a l s o f t h e N e w Y o r k A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s .

J a s o n , G . W . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . P e r f o r m a n c e o f m a n u a l c o p y i n g t a s k s a f t e r f o c a l c o r t i c a l l e s i o n s . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 4 , 1 8 1 1 9 1 .

J e a n n e r o d , M . ( 1 9 8 6 a ) . M e c h a n i s m s o f v i s u o m o t o r c o o r d i n a t i o n : A s t u d y i n n o r m a l a n d b r a i n d a r n a g e d s u b j e c t s . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 4 , 4 1 7 8 . 1 4 5

J e a n n e r o d , M . ( 1 9 8 6 b ) . T h e f o r m a t i o n o f f i n g e r g r i p d u r i n g p r e h e n s i o n . A c o r t i c a l l y m e d i a t e d v i s u o m o t o r p a t t e m . B e h a v i o r a l B r a i n R e s e a r c h , 1 9 , 9 9 1 1 6 .

J e a n n e r o d , M . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e n e u r a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f g o a l d i r e c t e d m o v e m e n t s . O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s .

J e a n n e r o d , M . , M i c h e l , F . , & P r a b l a n c , C . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e c o n t r o l o f b a n d m o v e m e n t s i n a c a s e o f h e m i a n e s t h e s i a f o l l o w i n g a p a r i e t a l l e s i o n . B r a i n , 1 0 7 , 8 9 9 9 2 0 .

K e e l e , S . W . ( 1 9 6 8 ) . M o v e m e n t c o n t r o l i n s k i l l e d p e r f o r m a n c e . P s y c h o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n , 7 0 , 3 8 7 4 0 3 .

K e e l e , S . W . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . S e q u e n c i n g a n d t i m i n g i n s k i l l e d p e r c e p t i o n a n d a c t i o n : A n o v e r v i e w . I n A . A l l p o r t , D . G . M a c K a y , W . P r i n z , & E . S c h e e r e r ( E d s . ) , L a n g u a g e p e r c e p t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n : R e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n l i s t e n i n g . s p e a k i n g , r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g ( p p . 4 6 3 4 8 7 ) . N e w Y o r k : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

K e e l e , S . W . , C o h e n , A . , & I v r y , R . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . M o t o r p r o g r a m s : C o n c e p t s a n d i s s u e s . I n M . J e a n n e r o d ( E d . ) , A t t e n t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e X I J J : M o t o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l ( p p . 7 7 1 1 0 ) . H i l l s d a l e N J : L a w r e n c e E r l b a u m A s s o c i a t e s I n c .

K e e l e , S . W . & I v r y , R . I . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . M o d u l a r a n a l y s i s o f t i m i n g i n m o t o r s k i l l . I n G . H . 8 o w e r ( E d . ) , T h e p s y c h o l o g y o f l e a r n i n g a n d m o t i v a t i o n , ( V o l . 2 1 , p p . 1 8 3 2 2 8 ) . N e w Y o r k : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

K e e l e , S . W . & I v r y , R . I . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . D o e s t h e c e r e b e l l u m p r o v i d e a c o m m o n c o m p u t a t i o n f o r d i v e r s e t a s k s ? A t i m i n g h y p o t h e s i s . A n n a l s o f t h e N e w Y o r k A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s , 6 0 8 , 1 7 9 2 0 7 .

K e l s o , J . A . S . & T u l l e r , 8 . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A d y n a m i c a l b a s i s f o r a c t i o n s y s t e m s . I n M . S . G a z z a n i g a ( E d . ) , H a n d b o o k o f c o g n i t i v e n e u r o s c i e n c e ( p p . 3 2 1 3 5 6 ) . N e w Y o r k : P l e n u m P r e s s .

K e l s o , J . A . S . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . D y n a m i c P a t t e r n s : T h e S e l f O r g a n i z a t i o n o f B r a i n a n d B e h a v i o r . C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : M I T P r e s s .

K e r r , 8 . ( 1 9 7 8 ) . T a s k f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e s e l e c t i o n a n d p r e p a r a t i o n f o r v o l u n t a r y m o v e m e n t s . I n G . E . S t e l m a c h ( E d . ) , I n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g i n m o t o r c o n t r o l a n d l e a r n i n g ( p p . 5 5 6 9 ) . N e w Y o r k : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

K i m u r a , D . ( 1 9 7 7 ) . A c q u i s i t i o n o f a m o t o r s k i l l a f t e r l e f t h e m i s p h e r e d a m a g e . B r a i n , 1 0 0 , 5 2 7 5 4 2 .

K i m u r a , D . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . L e f t h e m i s p h e r e c o n t r o l o f o r a l a n d b r a c h i a l m o v e m e n t s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n . P h i l o s o p h i c a l T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y o f L o n d o n , 8 2 9 8 , 1 3 5 1 4 9 .

K i m u r a , D . & A r c h i b a l d , Y . ( 1 9 7 4 ) . M o t o r f u n c t i o n s o f t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e . B r a i n , 9 7 , 3 3 7 3 5 0 .

K l e i s ! , K . ( 1 9 3 4 ) . G e h i r n p a t h o l o g i e . L e i p z i g : 8 a r t h .

K o l b , 8 . & M i l n e r , 8 . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . P e r f o r m a n c e o f c o m p l e x a r m a n d f a c i a l m o v e m e n t s a f t e r f o c a l b r a i n l e s i o n s . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 1 9 , 4 9 1 5 0 3 .

K o l b , 8 . & W h i s h a w , I . Q . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . C a n t h e s t u d y o f p r a x i s i n a n i m a l s a i d i n t h e s t u d y o f a p r a x i a o f h u m a n s ? I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f a p r a x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s ( p p . 2 0 3 2 2 4 ) . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

L a s h l e y , K . S . ( 1 9 5 1 ) . T h e p r o b l e r n o f s e r i a l o r d e r i n b e h a v i o r . I n L . A . J e f f r e s s ( E d . ) , C e r e b r a / m e c h a n i s m s i n b e h a v i o r ( p p . 1 1 2 1 3 6 ) . N e w Y o r k : W i l e y .

L e h m k u h l , G . & P o e c k , K . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . A d i s t u r b a n c e i n t h e c o n c e p t u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a c t i o n s i n p a t i e n t s w i t h i d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a . C o r t e x , 1 7 , 1 5 3 1 5 8 .

L e h m k u h l , G . , P o e c k , K . , & W i l l m e s , K . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . I d e e m o t o r a p r a x i a a n d a p h a s i a : A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t y p e s a n d m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a p r a x i c s y m p t o m s . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 1 , 1 9 9 2 1 2 .

L i e p m a n n , H . ( 1 9 0 8 ) . D r e i A u f s a t z e a u s d e m A p r a x i e g e b i e t . B e r l i n : K a r g e r .

L i e p m a n n , H . ( 1 9 1 3 ) . M o t o r a p h a s i a , a n a r t h r i a , a n d a p r a x i a . T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e 1 7 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o f M e d i c i n e , S e c t i o n X I , P a r t 2 ( p p . 9 7 1 0 6 ) . L o n d o n . N

L u r i a , A . R . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . D i s t u r b a n c e s o f h i g h e r c o r t i c a l f u n c t i o n s w i t h l e s i o n s o f t h e s e n s o r i m o t o r r e g i o n s . H i g h e r c o r t i c a l f u n c t i o n s i n m a n ( p p . 1 8 9 2 4 5 ) . N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s .

M a c K a y , D . G . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A t h e o r y o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t i l n i n g o f a c t i o n w i t h i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s e q u e n c i n g d i s o r d e r s . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f a p r a x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s ( p p . 2 6 7 3 0 8 ) . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

M a r t e n i u k , R . G . , L e a v i t t , J . L . , M a c K e n z i , C . L . , & A t h e n e s , S . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . F u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n g r a s p a n d I r a n s p o r t c o m p o n e n t s i n a p r e h e n s i o n t a s k . H u m a n M o v e m e n t S c i e n c e , 9 , 1 4 9 1 7 6 .

M a r t e n i u k . R . G . , M a c K e n z i , C . L . , J e a n n e r o d , M . , A t h e n e s , S . , & D u g a s , C . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . C o n s t r a i n t s o n h u m a n a r m m o v e m e n t t r a j e c t o r i e s . C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g y , 4 1 , 3 6 5 3 7 8 .

M a r t i n , J . G . ( 1 9 7 2 ) . R h y t h m i c ( h i e r a r c h i c a l ) v e r s u s s e r i a l s t r u c t u r e i n s p e e c h a n d o t h e r b e h a v i o r . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e v i e w , 7 9 , 4 8 7 5 0 9 .

M e y e r , D . E . , A b r a m s , R . A . , K o m b l u m , S . , W r i g h t , C . E . , & S m i t h , J . E . K . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . O p t i m a l i t y i n h u m a n m o t o r p e r f o r m a n c e : I d e a l c o n t r o l o f r a p i d a i m e d m o v e m e n t s . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e v i e w , 9 5 , 3 4 0 3 7 0 .

M i s h k i n , M . , U n g e r l e i d e r , L . G . , & M a c k o , K . A . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . O b j e c t v i s i o n a n d s p a t i a l v i s i o n : T w o c o r t i c a l p a t h w a y s ? T r e n d s i n N e u r o s c i e n c e s , 6 , 4 1 4 4 1 7 .

M o t o m u r a , N . , S e o , T . , A s a b a , H . , & S a k a i , T . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . M o t o r l e a r n i n g i n i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f N e u r o s c i e n c e , 4 7 , 1 2 5 1 3 0 .

M o z a z , M . J . , P e n a , J . , B a r r a q u e r , L . L . , M a r t i , J . , & G o l d s t e i n , L . H . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . U s e o f b o d y p a r t a s o b j e c t i n b r a i n d a m a g e d s u b j e c t s . T h e C l i n i c a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i s t , 7 , 3 9 4 7 .

P e t r i d e s , M . & M i l n e r , B . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . D e f i c i t s o n s u b j e c t o r d e r e d t a s k s a f t e r f r o n t a l a n d t e m p o r a l l o b e I e s i o n s i n m a n . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 0 , 2 4 9 2 6 2 .

P o e c k , K . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . C l u e s t o t h e n a t u r e o f d i s r u p t i o n s t o l i m b p r a x i s . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f a p r a . x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s ( p p . 9 9 I ! O ) . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

P o e c k , K . & L e h r n k u h l , G . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . I d e a t o r y a p r a x i a i n a l e f t h a n d e d p a t i e n t w i t h r i g h t s i d e d b r a i n I e s i o n . C o r t e x , 1 6 , 2 7 3 2 8 4 .

P o v e l , D . J . & C o l l a r d , R . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . S t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s i n p a t t e r n e d f i n g e r t a p p i n g . A c t a P s y c h o / o g i c a , 5 2 , 1 0 7 1 2 3 .

P r a b l a n c , C . , P e l i s s o n , D . , & G o o d a l e , M . A . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . V i s u a l c o n t r o l o f r e u e h i n g m o v e m e n t s w i t h o u t v i s i o n o f t h e l i m b : I . R o l e o f r e t i n a l f e e d b a c k o f t a r g e t p o s i t i o n i n g u i d i n g t h e h a n d . E x p e r i m e n t a l B r a i n R e s e a r c h , 6 2 , 2 9 3 3 0 2 .

R e s t l e , F . & B r o w n , E . R . ( 1 9 7 0 ) . S e r i a l p a t t e r n l e a r n i n g . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o / o g y , 8 3 , 1 2 0 1 2 5 .

R o l a n d , P . E . , L a r s e n , B . , L a s s e n , N . A . , & S k i n h o j , E . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . S u p p l e m e n t a r y m o t o r a r e a a n d o t h e r c o r t i c a l a r e a s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f v o l u n t a r y m o v e m e n t s i n m a n . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o p h y s i o l o g y , 4 3 , 1 1 8 1 3 6 .

R o s e n b a u m , D . A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . M o t o r p r o g r a m m i n g : A r e v i e w a n d s c h e d u l i n g t h e o r y . I n H . H e u e r , U . K l e i n b e c k , & K . H . S c h m i d t ( E d s . ) , M o t o r b e h a v i o r : P r o g r a m m i n g , c o n t r o l , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n ( p p . 1 3 3 ) . B e r l i n : S p r i n g e r V e r l a g .

R o s e n b a u m , D . A . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . H u m a n m o t o r c o n t r o l . S a n D i e g o : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

R o s e n b a u m , D . A . , I n h o f f , A . W . , & G o r d o n , A . M . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . C h o o s i n g b e t w e e n m o v e m e n t s e q u e n c e s : A h i e r a r c h i c a l e d i t o r m o d e l . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y : G e n e r a l , 1 1 3 , 3 7 2 3 9 3 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . A c q u i s i t i o n a n d r e t e n t i o n o f g e s t u r e s b y a p r a x i c p a t i e n t s . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 3 , 4 2 6 4 3 7 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , M a c k , L . , V e r f a e l l i e , M . , B r o w n , P . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . I d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : E r r o r p a t t e r n a n a l y s i s . A p h a s i o l o g y . 2 , 3 8 1 3 8 8 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , O c h i p a , C . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . A c o g n i t i v e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l m o d e l o f l i m b p r a x i s . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 8 , 4 4 3 4 5 8 . 9 . R E P R E S E N T A T I O N S O F A C T I O N 1 4 7

R o y , E . A . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . A c t i o n s e q u e n c i n g a n d l a t e r a l i z e d c e r e b r a l d a m a g e : E v i d e n c e f o r a s y m m e t r i e s i n c o n t r o l . I n J . L o n g & A . B a d d e l e y ( E d s . ) , A t t e n t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e I X ( p p . 4 8 7 4 9 8 ) . H i l l s d a l e , N J : L a w r e n c e E r l b a u m A s s o c i a t e s I n c .

R o y , E . A . & E l l i o t t , D . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . M a n u a l a s y m m e t r i e s i n a i m e d m o v e m e n t s . Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 4 1 A , 5 0 1 5 1 6 .

R o y , E . A . & S q u a r e , P . A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . C o m m o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e s t u d y o f l i m b , v e r b a l a n d o r a l a p r a x i a . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a / s t u d i e s o f a p r a x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s ( p p . 1 1 1 1 5 9 ) . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

R o y , E . A . , & S q u a r e S t o r e r , P . A . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . E v i d e n c e f o r c o m m o n e x p r e s s i o n s o f a p r a x i a . I n G . R . H a r n m o n d ( E d . ) , C e r e b r a / c o n t r o l o f s p e e c h a n d l i m b m o v e m e n t s ( p p . 4 7 7 5 0 2 ) . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

R o y , E . A . , S q u a r e , P . A . , A d a m s , S . , & F r i e s e n , H . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . E r r o r / m o v e m e n t n o t a t i o n s y s t e m s i n a p r a x i a . R e c h e r e h e s S e m i o t i q u e s / S e m i o t i c s 1 n q u i r y , 5 , 4 0 2 4 1 2 .

R o y , E . A . , S q u a r e S t o r e r , P . , H o g g , S . , & A d a m s , S . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . A n a l y s i s o f t a s k d e m a n d s i n a p r a x i a I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f N e u r o s c i e n c e , 5 6 , 1 7 7 1 8 6 .

R u m e l h a r t , D . E . & N o r r n a n , D . A . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . S i m u l a t i n g a s k i l l e d t y p i s t : A s t u d y o f s k i l l e d c o g n i t i v e m o t o r p e r f o r r n a n c e . C o g n i t i v e S c i e n c e , 6 , 1 3 6 .

S e i t z , R . J . , R o l a n d , E . , B o h m , C . , G r e i t z , T . , & S t o n e E l a n d e r , S . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . M o t o r l e a m i n g i n m a n : A p o s i t r o n e m i s s i o n t o m o g r a p h i c s t u d y . N e u r o r e p o r t , 1 , 5 7 6 0 .

S h i m a m u r a , A . P . , J a n o w s k y , J . S . , & S q u i r e , L . R . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . M e m o r y f o r t h e t e m p o r a l o r d e r o f e v e n t s i n p a t i e n t s w i t h f r o n t a l l o b e l e s i o n s a n d a r n n e s i c p a t i e n t s . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 8 , 8 0 3 8 1 3 .

S i t t i g , 0 . ( 1 9 3 1 ) . Ü b e r A p r a x i e . B e r l i n : K a r g e r .

S t e m b e r g , S . , M o n s e l l , S . , K n o l l , R . L . , & W r i g h t , C . E . ( 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e l a t e n c y a n d d u r a t i o n o f r a p i d m o v e m e n t s e q u e n c e s : C o m p a r i s o n s o f s p e e c h a n d t y p e w r i t i n g . I n G . E . S t e 1 m a c h ( E d . ) , I n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g i n m o t o r c o n t r o l a n d / e a r n i n g ( p p . 1 1 8 1 5 2 ) . N e w Y o r k : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

S u m m e r s , J . J . & B u m s , B . D . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . T i m i n g i n h u m a n m o v e m e n t s e q u e n c e s . I n R . A . B l o c k ( E d . ) , C o g n i t i v e m o d e l s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a / t i m e ( p p . 1 8 1 2 0 6 ) . H i l l s d a l e N J : L a w r e n c e E r l b a u m A s s o c i a t e s I n c .

S u m m e r s , J . J . , S a r g e n t , G . l . , & H a w k i n s , S . R . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . R h y t h m a n d t h e t i m i n g o f m o v e m e n t s e q u e n c e s . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h , 4 6 , 1 0 7 1 1 9 .

T z e n g , O . J . L . & W a n g , W . S . Y . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . S e a r c h f o r a c o m m o n n e u r o c o g n i t i v e m e c h a n i s m f o r l a n g u a g e a n d m o v e m e n t s . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f P h y s i o l o g y , 1 5 , R 9 0 4 R 9 1 1 .

W a l l a c e , S . A . & N e w e l l , K . M . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . V i s u a l c o n t r o l o f d i s c r e t e a i m i n g m o v e m e n t s . Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y A , 3 5 , 3 1 1 3 2 1 .

W i c k e n s , J . , H y l a n d , B . , & A n s o n , G . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . C o r t i c a l c e l l a s s e m b 1 i e s : A p o s s i b 1 e m e c h a n i s m f o r m o t o r p r o g r a m s . J o u r n a l o f M o t o r B e h a v i o r , 2 6 , 6 ~ 2 . This page intentionally left blank 10 Chapter 10. Disorders of Writing

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D e g o s , J . D . , G r a y , F . , L o u a m , F . , A n s q u e r , J . C . , P o i r i e r , J . , & B a r b i z e t , J . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . P o s t e r i o r c a l l o s a l i n f a r c t i o n : C l i n i c o p a t h o l o g i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s . B r a i n , 1 1 0 , 1 1 5 5 1 1 7 1 .

E l l i s , A . W . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . S p e l l i n g a n d w r i t i n g ( a n d r e a d i n g a n d s p e a k i n g ) . I n A . W . E l l i s ( E d . ) , N o r m a l i t y a n d p a t h o l o g y i n c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n s . L o n d o n : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

E l l i s , A . W . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . N o r m a l w r i t i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d p e r i p h e r a l a c q u i r e d d y s g r a p h i a s . L a n g u a g e a n d C o g n i t i v e P r o c e s s e s , 3 , 9 9 1 2 7 .

E l l i s , A . W . Y o u n g , A . W . , & F l u d e , B . M . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . " A f f e r e n t d y s g r a p h i a " i n a p a t i e n t a n d i n n o r m a l s u b j e c t s . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 4 , 4 6 5 4 8 6 .

E x n e r , S . ( 1 8 8 1 ) . U n t e r s u c h u n g e n ü b e r d i e L o c a l i s a t i o n d e r F u n c t i o n e n i n d e r G r a s s h i r n r i n d e d e s M e n s c h e n . W i e n : W . B r a u n m ü l l e r .

F r i e d m a n , R . B . & A l e x a n d e r , M . P . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . W r i t t e n s p e l l i n g a g r a p h i a . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 3 6 , 5 0 3 5 1 7 .

G e l b , I . J . ( 1 9 6 3 ) . A s t u d y o f w r i t i n g . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s .

G e r s h , F . & D a m a s i o , A . R . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . P r a x i s a n d w r i t i n g o f t h e J e f t h a n d m a y b e s e r v e d b y d i f f e r e n t c a l l o s a l p a t h w a y s . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y , 3 8 . 6 3 4 6 3 6 .

G e s c h w i n d , N . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e a p r a x i a s : N e u r a l m e c h a n i s m s o f d i s o r d e r s o f J e a r n e d m o v e m e n t . A m e r i c a n S c i e n t i s t , 6 3 , 1 8 8 1 9 5 .

G e s c h w i n d , N . & K a p l a n , E . ( 1 9 6 2 ) . A h u m a n c e r e b r a l d e c o n n e c t i o n s y n d r o m e : A p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t . N e u r o l o g y , 1 2 , 6 7 5 6 8 5 .

G i l m a n , S . , B l o e d e l , J . R . & L e c h t e n b e r g , R . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . D i s o r d e r s o f t h e c e r e b e l l u m . P h i l a d e l p h i a : F . A . D a v i s .

G o l d b e r g , G . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . S u p p l e m e n t a r y m o t o r a r e a s t r u c t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n : R e v i e w a n d h y p o t h e s e s . B e h a v i o r a / a n d B r a i n S c i e n c e s , 8 , 5 6 7 6 1 6 .

G o l d e n b e r g , G . , W i m m e r , A . , H o l z n e r , F . , & W e s s e l y , P . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A p r a x i a o f t h e l e f t l i m b s i n a c a s e o f c a l l o s a l d i s c o n n e c t i o n : t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f m e d i a l f r o n t a l l o b e d a m a g e . C o r t e x , 2 1 , 1 3 5 1 4 8 .

G o l d s t e i n , K . ( 1 9 4 8 ) . L a n g u a g e a n d l a n g u a g e d i s t u r b a n c e . N e w Y o r k : G r u n e & S t r a t t o n .

G o o d m a n , R . A . & C a r a m a z z a , A . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . D i s s o c i a t i o n o f s p e l l i n g e r r o r s i n w r i t t e n a n d o r a l s p e l l i n g : T h e r o J e o f a l l o g r a p h i c c o n v e r s i o n i n w r i t i n g . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 3 , 1 7 9 2 0 6 .

G o r d i n i e r , H . C . ( 1 8 9 9 ) . A c a s e o f b r a i n t u m o r a t t h e b a s e o f t h e s e c o n d J e f t f r o n t a l c o n v o l u t i o n . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f M e d i c a l S c i e n c e , 1 1 7 , 5 2 6 5 3 5 .

G r a f f R a d f o r d , N . R . , W e l s h , K . , & G o d e r s k y , J . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . C a l l o s a l a p r a x i a . N e u r o l o g y , 3 7 , 1 0 0 1 0 5 .

H e i l b r o n n e r , K . ( 1 9 0 6 ) . Ü b e r i s o l i e r t e a p r a k t i s c h e A g r a p h i e . M ü n c h e n e r m e d i z i n i s c h e W o c h e n s c h r i f t , 5 3 , 1 8 9 7 1 9 0 1 .

H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . A p r a x i a . I n K . M . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

H e i l m a n , K . M . , C o y l e , J . M . , G o n y e a , E . F . , & G e s c h w i n d , N . ( 1 9 7 3 ) . A p r a x i a a n d a g r a p h i a i n a J e f t h a n d e r . B r a i n , 9 6 , 2 1 2 8 .

H e i l m a n , K . M . , G o n y e a , E . F . , & G e s c h w i n d , N . ( 1 9 7 4 ) . A p r a x i a a n d a g r a p h i a i n a r i g h t h a n d e r . C o r t e x , 1 0 , 2 8 4 2 8 8 .

H e i l m a n , K . M . , & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A p r a x i a . I n K . M . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

H e n s c h e n , S . E . ( 1 9 2 2 ) . K l i n i s c h e u n d a n a t o m i s c h e B e i t r a g e z u r P a t h o l o g i e d e s G e h i r n s , ( V o l . 7 ) . S t o c k h o l m : N o r d i s k a B o k h a n d e l n .

H o d g e s , J . R . ( 1 9 9 I ) . P u r e a p r a x i c a g r a p h i a w i t h r e c o v e r y a f t e r d r a i n a g e o f a l e f t f r o n t a l c y s t . C o r t e x , 2 7 , 4 6 9 4 7 3 .

H o l m e s , G . ( 1 9 3 9 ) . T h e c e r e b e l l u m o f m a n . B r a i n , 6 2 , 1 3 0 .

K a l m u s , H . , F r y , D . B . , & D e n e s , P . ( 1 9 6 0 ) . E f f e c t s o f d e l a y e d v i s u a l c o n t r o l o n w r i t i n g , d r a w i n g a n d t r a c i n g . L a n g u a g e a n d S p e e c h . 3 , 9 6 1 0 8 .

K a p u r , N . & L a w t o n , N . F . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . D y s g r a p h i a f o r l e t t e r s : A f o r m o f m o t o r m e m o r y d e f i c i t . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y a n d P s y e h i a t r y , 4 6 , 5 7 3 5 7 5 .

K a r t s o u n i s , L . D . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . S e l e c t i v e l o w e r c a s e I e t t e r i d e a t i o n a l d y g r a p h i a . C o r t e x , 2 8 , 1 4 5 1 5 0 .

K a w a m u r a , M . , H i r a y a m a , K . , & Y a m a m o t o , H . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . D i f f e r e n t i n t e r h e m i s p h e r i c t r a n s f e r o f K a n j i a n d K a n a w r i t i n g e v i d e n c e d b y a c a s e w i t h l e f t u n i l a t e r a l a g r a p h i a w i t h o u t a p r a x i a . B r a i n , I I 2 , 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 8 .

K a z u i , S . & S a w a d a , T . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . C a l l o s a l a p r a x i a w i t h o u t a g r a p h i a . A n n a l s o f N e u r o l o g y , 3 3 , 4 0 1 4 0 3 .

K i n s b o u r n e , M . & R o s e n f i e l d , D . B . ( 1 9 7 4 ) . A g r a p h i a s e l e c t i v e f o r w r i t t e n s p e l l i n g : A n e x p e r i m e n t a l c a s e s t u d y . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , I , 2 1 5 2 2 5 .

L a m b e r t , J . , V i a d e r , F . , E u s t a c h e , F . , & M o r i n , P . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . C o n t r i b u t i o n t o p e r i p h e r a l a g r a p h i a : A c a s e o f p o s t a l l o g r a p h i c i m p a i r m e n t ? C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y e h o l o g y , 1 1 , 3 5 5 5 .

L a u r i t z e n , M . , H e n r i k s e n , L . , & L a s s e n , N . A . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . R e g i o n a l c e r e b r a l b l o o d f l o w d u r i n g r e s t a n d s k i l l e d b a n d m o v e m e n t s b y X e n o n 1 3 3 i n h a l a t i o n a n d e m i s s i o n c o m p u t e r i s e d t o m o g r a p h y . J o u r n a l o f C e r e b r a / B l o o d F l o w a n d M e t a b o l i s m , I , 3 8 5 3 8 9 .

L e b r u n , Y . ( 1 9 7 6 ) . N e u r o l i n g u i s t i c m o d e l s o f l a n g u a g e a n d s p e e c h . I n H . W h i t a k e r & H . A . W h i t a k e r ( E d s . ) , S t u d i e s i n n e u r o l i n g u i s t i c s , ( V o l . l ) . N e w Y o r k : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

L e b r u n , Y . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . D i s t u r b a n c e s o f w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e a n d a s s o c i a t e d a b i l i t i e s f o l l o w i n g d a r n a g e t o t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e . A p p l i e d P s y e h o l i n g u i s t i c s , 6 , 2 3 1 2 6 0 . L e i g u a r d a R . , S t a r k s t e i n , S . , & B e r t h i e r , M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . A n t e r i o r c a l l o s a l h e m o r r h a g e : A p a r t i a l i n t e r h e m i s p h e r i c d i s c o n n e c t i o n s y n d r o m e . B r a i n , I I 2 , 1 0 1 9 1 0 3 7 .

L e s s e r , R . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . S u p e r i o r o r a l t o w r i t t e n s p e l l i n g : E v i d e n c e f o r s e p a r a t e b u f f e r s ? C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y e h o l o g y , 7 , 3 4 7 3 6 6 .

L e v i n e , D . N . , M a n i , R . B . , & C a l v a n i o , R . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . P u r e a g r a p h i a a n d G e r s t m a n n ' s s y n d r o m e a s a v i s u o s p a t i a l l a n g u a g e d i s s o c i a t i o n : A n e x p e r i m e n t a l c a s e s t u d y . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 3 5 , 1 7 2 1 9 6 .

L e v y , J . , N e b e s , R . D . , & S p e r r y , R . W . ( 1 9 7 1 ) . E x p r e s s i v e l a n g u a g e i n t h e s u r g i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d m i n o r h e m i s p h e r e . C o r t e x , 7 , 4 9 5 8 .

L i e p m a n n , H . ( 1 9 2 0 ) . A p r a x i e . E r g e b n i s s e d e r G e s a m t e n M e d i z i n , I , 5 1 6 5 4 3 .

L i e p m a n n , H . , & M a a s , 0 . ( 1 9 0 7 ) . F a l l v o n L i n k s s e i t i g e r A g r a p h i e u n d A p r a x i e b e i r e c h s s e i t i g e r L ä h m u n g . J o u r n a l f ü r P s y c h o l o g i e u n d N e u r o l o g i e , I O , 2 1 4 2 2 7 .

M a r c i e , P . & H e c a e n , H . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . A g r a p h i a : w r i t i n g d i s o r d e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u n i l a t e r a l c o r t i c a l l e s i o n s . I n K . M . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i e a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

M a r g o l i n , D . l . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . R i g h t h e m i s p h e r e d o m i n a n c e f o r p r a x i s a n d l e f t h e m i s p h e r e d o m i n a n c e f o r s p e e c h i n a l e f t h a n d e r . N e u r o p s y e h o l o g i a , I 8 , 7 1 5 7 1 9 .

M a r g o l i n , D . I . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y o f w r i t i n g a n d s p e l l i n g : S e m a n t i c , p h o n o l o g i c a l , m o t o r a n d p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s e s . Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , 3 6 A , 4 5 9 4 8 9 .

M a r g o l i n , D . l . & B i n d e r , L . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . M u l t i p l e c o m p o n e n t a g r a p h i a i n a p a t i e n t w i t h a t y p i c a l c e r e b r a l d o m i n a n c e : A n e r r o r a n a l y s i s . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 2 2 , 2 6 4 0 .

M a r g o l i n , D . l . & W i n g , A . M . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . A g r a p h i a a n d m i c r o g r a p h i a : C l i n i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f m o t o r p r o g r a m m i n g a n d p e r f o r m a n c e d i s o r d e r s . A c t a P s y e h o l o g i c a , 5 4 , 2 6 3 2 8 3 .

M a r s d e n , C . D . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e m y s t e r i o u s m o t o r f u n c t i o n o f t h e b a s a l g a n g l i a : T h e R o b e r t W a r t e n b e r g L e c t u r e . N e u r o l o g y , 3 2 , 5 1 4 5 3 9 .

M a z z i o t t a , J . C . , P h e l p s , M . E . , & W a p e n s k i , J . A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . H u m a n c e r e b r a l m o t o r s y s t e m m e t a b o l i c r e s p o n s e s i n h e a l t h a n d d i s e a s e . J o u r n a l o f C e r e b r a / B l o o d F l o w a n d M e t a b o l i s m , S u p p l e m e n t I , S 2 1 3 S 2 1 4 .

M c L e n n a n , J . E . , N a k a n o , K . , T y l e r , H . R . , & S c h w a b , R . S . ( 1 9 7 2 ) . M i c r o g r a p h i a i n P a r k i n s o n ' s d i s e a s e . J o u r n a l o f t h e N e u r o l o g i e a l S e i e n c e s , I 5 , 1 4 1 1 5 2 .

M e r t o n , P . A . ( 1 9 7 2 ) . H o w w e c o n t r o l t h e c o n t r a c t i o n o f o u r m u s c l e s . S e i e n l i f t e A m e r i c a n , 2 2 6 , 3 0 3 7 . 7 1

M o r t o n , J . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e I o g o g e n m o d e l a n d O r t h o g r a p h i e s t r u c t u r e . I n U . F r i t h ( E d . ) , C o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s i n s p e l l i n g , L o n d o n : A c a d e m i c P r e s s .

N i e l s e n , J . M . ( 1 9 4 6 ) . A g n o s i a , a p r a x i a , a p h a s i a : T h e i r v a l u e i n c e r e b r a l l o c a l i s a t i o n . N e w Y o r k : P a u l B . H o e b e r .

O g l e , J . W . ( 1 8 6 7 ) . A p h a s i a a n d a g r a p h i a . R e p o r t o f t h e M e d i c a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l o f S a i n t G e a r g e ' s H o s p i t a l ( L o n d o n ) , 2 , 8 3 1 2 2 .

P a n d y a , D . N . & S e l t z e r , B . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e t o p o g r a p h y o f c o m m i s s u r a l f i b r e s . I n F . L e p o r e , P t i t o , M . , & J a s p e r , H . H . ( E d s . ) , T w o h e m i s p h e r e s O n e b r a i n : F u n c t i o n s o f t h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m . N e w Y o r k : A l a n R . L i s s .

P a p a g n o , C . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . A c a s e o f p e r i p h e r a l d y s g r a p h i a . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 9 , 2 5 9 2 7 0 .

P a t t e r s o n , K . & W i n g , A . M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . P r o c e s s e s i n h a n d w r i t i n g : A c a s e f o r c a s e . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 6 . 1 2 3 .

P i t r e s , A . ( 1 8 8 4 ) . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u r l ' a g r a p h i e . R e v u e d e M e d i c i n e , 4 , 8 5 5 8 7 3 .

P u t n a m , J . J . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e s e a r c h f o r m o d e r n h u m a n s . N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h i e , 1 7 4 , 4 3 8 4 7 7 .

R a p c s a k , S . Z . , B e e s o n , P . M . , & R u b e n s , A . B . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . W r i t i n g w i t h t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 4 1 , 5 1 0 5 3 0 .

R a p c s a k , S . Z . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . A p r a x i a i n a p a t i e n t w i t h a t y p i c a l c e r e b r a l d o m i n a n c e . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 6 , 4 5 0 4 6 3 .

R i s s e , G . L . , G a t e s , J . L u n d , G . M a x w e l l , R . , & R u b e n s , A . B . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . I n t e r h e m i s p h e r i c t r a n s f e r i n p a t i e n t s w i t h i n c o m p l e t e s e c t i o n o f t h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m : A n a t o m i c a l v e r i f i c a t i o n w i t h m a g n e t i c r e s o n a n c e i m a g i n g . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y , 4 6 . 4 3 7 4 4 3 .

R o e l t g e n , D . P . & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . A p r a c t i c a g r a p h i a i n a p a t i e n t w i t h n o r m a l p r a x i s . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 1 8 , 3 5 4 6 .

R o s a , A . , D e m i a t i , M . , C a r t z , L . , & M i z o n , J . P . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . M a r c h i a f a v a B i g n a m i d i s e a s e , s y n d r o m e o f i n t e r h e m i s p h e r i c d i s c o n n e c t i o n , a n d r i g h t h a n d e d a g r a p h i a i n a l e f t h a n d e r . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y , 4 8 , 9 8 6 9 8 8 .

R o t h i , L . J . & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . A l e x i a a n d a g r a p h i a w i t h s p a r e d s p e l l i n g a n d I e t t e r r e c o g n i t i o n a b i l i t i e s . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 1 2 , 1 1 3 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . A p r a x i a . I n K . M . H e i l m a n & E . V a l e n s t e i n ( E d s . ) , C l i n i c a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , O c h i p a , C . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . A c o g n i t i v e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l m o d e l o f p r a x i s . C o g n i t i v e N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 8 , 4 4 3 4 5 8 .

R u b e n s , A . B . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . A p h a s i a w i t h i n f a r c t i o n i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e a n t e r i o r c e r e b r a l a r t e r y . C o r t e x , 1 1 , 2 3 9 2 5 0 .

R u b e n s , A . B . , G e s c h w i n d , N . , M a h o w a l d , M . W . , & M a s t r i , A . ( 1 9 7 7 ) . P o s t t r a u m a t i c c e r e b r a l h e m i s p h e r i c d i s c o n n e c t i o n s y n d r o m e . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y , 3 4 , 7 5 0 7 5 5 .

S a s s o o n , R . , N i m m o S m i t h , I . , & W i n g , A . M . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . A n a n a l y s i s o f c h i l d r e n ' s p e n h o l d s . I n H . S . R . K a o , G . P . V a n G a l e n , & R . H o o s a i n ( E d s . ) , G r a p h o n o m i c s : C o n t e m p o r a r y r e s e a r c h i n h a n d w r i t i n g . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

S m i t h , W . M . , M c C r a r y , J . W . , & S m i t h , K . U . ( 1 9 6 0 ) . D e l a y e d v i s u a l f e e d b a c k a n d b e h a v i o r . S c i e n c e , 1 3 2 , 1 0 1 3 1 0 1 4 .

S m y t h , M . M . & S i l v e r s , G . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . F u n c t i o n s o f v i s i o n i n t h e c o n t r o l o f h a n d w r i t i n g . A c t a P s y c h o l o g i c a , 6 5 , 4 7 6 4 .

S u g i s h i t a , M . , T o y o k u r a , Y . , Y o s h i o k a , M . , & Y a m a d a , R . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . U n i l a t e r a l a g r a p h i a a f t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e p o s t e r i o r h a l f o f t h e t r u n c u s o f t h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 9 , 2 1 5 2 2 5 .

S w e e t , W . H . ( 1 9 4 1 ) . S e e p i n g i n t r a c r a n i a l a n e u r y s m s i m u l a t i n g n e o p l a s m . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 4 5 , 8 6 1 0 4 .

T a n a k a , Y . , I w a s a , H . , & O b a y a s h i , T . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . R i g h t h a n d a g r a p h i a a n d I e f t h a n d a p r a x i a f o l l o w i n g c a l l o s a l d a r n a g e i n a r i g h t h a n d e r . C o r t e x , 2 6 , 6 6 5 6 7 1 .

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A d a m s , S . G . , M c N e i l , M . R . , & W e i s m e r , G . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . S p e e c h m o v e m e n t v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n n e u r o g e n i c s p e e c h d i s o r d e r s . J o u r n a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g A s s o c i a t i o n , 3 1 , 1 1 3 .

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A 1 a j o u a n i n e , T . , O m b r e d a n e , A . , & D u r a n d , M . ( 1 9 3 9 ) . L e s y n d r o m e d e d e s i n t e g r a t i o n p h o n e t i q u e d a n s / ' a p h a s i e . P a r i s : M a s s o n .

A l b e r t , M . L . , S p a r k s , R . W . , & H e l m , N . A . ( 1 9 7 3 ) . M e l o d i e I n t o n a t i o n T h e r a p y f o r a p h a s i a . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y , 2 9 , 1 3 0 1 3 1 .

A l e x a n d e r , M . P . , B e n s o n , D . F . , & S t u s s , D . T . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . F r o n t a l I o b e s a n d l a n g u a g e . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 3 7 , 6 5 6 6 9 1 .

A t e n , J . L . , J o h n s , D . L . , & D a r l e y , F . L . ( 1 9 7 1 ) . A u d i t o r y p e r c e p t i o n o f s e q u e n c e d w o r d s i n a p r a x i a o f s p e e c h . J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g R e s e a r c h , 1 4 , 1 3 1 1 4 3 .

B a s s o , A . , L u z z a t t i , C . , & S p i n n l e r , H . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . I s i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a t h e o u t c o m e o f d a r n a g e t o w e l l d e f i n e d r e g i o n s o f t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e ? N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f C A T c o r r e l a t i o n . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y , a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 4 3 , 1 1 8 1 2 6 .

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B e l l u g i , U . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e s t r u c t u r i n g o f l a n g u a g e : C l u e s f r o m s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n s i g n e d a n d s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . I n U . B e l l u g i & M . S t u d d e r t K e n n e d y ( E d s . ) , S i g n e d a n d s p o k e n l a n g u a g e : B i o l o g i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s o n l i n g u i s t i c f o r m , ( p p . 1 1 5 1 4 0 ) . D a h l e m K o n f e r e n z e n , W e i n h e i m / D e e r f i e l d B e a c h , F L : V e r l a g C h e m i e .

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B l u m s t e i n , S . ( 1 9 7 3 b ) . S o m e p h o n o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a p h a s i c s p e e c h . I n H . G o o d g l a s s & S . S l u m s t e i n ( E d s . ) , P s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s a n d a p h a s i a . B a l t i m o r e : J o h n H o p k i n s .

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B u c k i n g h a r n , H . W . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . E x p l a n a t i o n o f a p r a x i a w i t h c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e c o n c e p t o f a p r a x i a o f s p e e c h . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 8 , 2 0 2 2 2 6 .

B u c k i n g h a m , H . W . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e m e c h a n i s m s o f p h o n e r n i c p a r a p h a s i a . C l i n i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s a n d P h o n e t i c s , 6 ( 1 a n d 2 ) , 4 1 6 3 .

B u c k i n g h a m , H . W . & Y u l e , G . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . P h o n e m i c f a 1 s e e v a l u a t i o n : T h e o r e t i c a l a n d c l i n i c a l a s p e c t s . C l i n i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s a n d P h o n e t i c s , 1 ( 2 ) , 1 1 3 1 2 5 .

C a n t e r , G . J . ( 1 9 6 9 ) . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y v e r b a l a p r a x i a o n o u t p u l d i s t u r b a n c e s i n a p h a s i c s y n d r o m e s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o t h e _ A m e r i c a n S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g A s s o c i a t i o n , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s .

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D a r l e y , F . L . , A r o n s o n , A . E . , & B r o w n , J . R . ( 1 9 7 5 b ) . M o t o r S p e e c h D i s o r d e r s A u d i a T a p e s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : W . B . S a u n d e r s .

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A g o s t o n i , C . , C o l e t t i , A . , O r l a n d o , G . , & T r e d i c i , G . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . A p r a x i a i n d e e p c e r e b r a l l e s i o n s . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y , a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 4 6 , 8 0 4 8 0 8 .

A l b e r t , M . L . , F e l d r n a n , R . G . , & W i l l i s , A . L . ( 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e " s u b c o r t i c a l d e m e n t i a " o f p r o g r e s s i v e s u p r a n u c l e a r p a l s y . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y , a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 3 7 , 1 2 1 1 3 0 .

A l e x a n d e r , G . E . , D e L o n g , M . R . , & S t r i c k , P . L . ( 1 9 8 6 ) P a r a l l e l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n a l l y s e g r e g a t e d c i r c u i t s l i n k i n g b a s a l g a n g l i a a n d c o r t e x . A n n u a l R e v i e w o f N e u r o s c i e n c e , 9 , 3 5 7 3 8 1 . 3 9

A l e x a n d e r , M . P . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . S p e e c h a n d l a n g u a g e d e f i c i t s a f t e r s u b c o r t i c a l l e s i o n s o f t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e : A c l i n i c a l , e r , P E T s t u d y . I n G . V a l l a r , S . F . e a p p a , & e . W . W a l l e s c h ( E d s . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u b c o r t i c a l l e s i o n s ( p p . 4 5 5 4 7 7 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

A l e x a n d e r , M . P . & L o V e r m e , S . R . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . A p h a s i a a f t e r l e f t h e m i s p h e r i c i n t r a c e r e b r a l h e m o r r h a g e . N e u r o l o g y , 3 0 , 1 1 9 3 1 2 0 2 .

A l e x a n d e r , M . P . , N a e s e r , M . , & P a l u m b o , e . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . e o r r e l a t i o n s o f s u b c o r t i c a l e r l e s i o n s i t e s a n d a p h a s i a p r o f i l e s . B r a i n , 1 1 0 , 9 6 1 9 9 1 .

A s a n u m a , e . , A n d e r s e n , R . A . , & e o w a n , W . M . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e t h a 1 a m i c r e 1 a t i o n s o f t h e c a u d a l i n f e r i o r p a r i e t a l l o b u l e a n d t h e l a t e r a l p r e f r o n t a l c o r t e x i n m o n k e y s : D i v e r g e n t c o r t i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s f r o m c e l l c l u s t e r s i n t h e m e d i a l p u l v i n a r n u c l e u s . J o u r n a l o f C a m p a r a l i v e N e u r o l o g y , 2 4 1 , 3 5 7 3 8 1 .

B a s s o , A . & D e l l a S a l a , S . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . I d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a a r i s i n g f r o m a p u r e l y d e e p l e s i o n . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y , a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 4 9 , 4 5 8 .

B a s s o , A . , L u z z a t t i , e . , & S p i n n l e r , H . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . I s i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a t h e o u t c o m e o f d a r n a g e o f w e l l d e f i n e d r e g i o n s o f t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e ? J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y , a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 4 3 , 1 1 8 1 2 6 .

B e c h t e r e v a , N . P . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . S o m e g e n e r a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e h u m a n b r a i n f u n c t i o n i n g . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o p h y s i o l o g y , 5 , 2 3 5 2 5 1 .

B r o w n , R . G . & M a r s d e n , e . D . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . ' S u b c o r t i c a l d e m e n t i a ' : T h e n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e . N e u r o s c i e n c e , 2 5 , 3 6 3 3 8 7 .

B r u n n e r , R . J . , K o r n h u b e r , H . H . , S e e m u l l e r , E . , S u g e r , G . , & W a l l e s c h , e . W . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . B a s a l g a n g l i a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n l a n g u a g e p a t h o l o g y . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 1 6 , 2 8 1 2 9 9 . e a p p a , S . F . & V i g n o l o , L . A . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . " T r a n s c o r t i c a l " f e a t u r e s o f a p h a s i a f o l l o w i n g l e f t t h a l a m i c h e m o r r h a g e . C o r t e x , 1 5 , 1 2 1 1 3 0 . e o h e n , N . J . & S q u i r e , L . R . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . P r e s e r v e d l e a r n i n g a n d r e t e n t i o n o f p a t t e r n a n a l y z i n g s k i l l i n a m n e s i a : D i s s o c i a t i o n o f k n o w i n g h o w a n d k n o w i n g t h a t . S c i e n c e , 2 1 0 , 2 0 7 2 1 0 . e o o p e r , I . S . , R i k l a n , M . , S t e l l a r , S . , W a l t z , J . M . , L e v i t a , E . , R i b e r a , V . A . , & Z i m m e r m a n , J . ( 1 9 6 8 ) . A m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f n e u r o s u r g i c a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n i n b i l a t e r a l p a r k i n s o n i s m . J o u r n a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n G e r i a t r i c s S o c i e t y , 1 6 , 1 1 7 7 1 3 0 6 . e r o s s o n , B . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . R o l e o f t h e d o m i n a n t t h a l a m u s i n l a n g u a g e : A r e v i e w . P s y c h o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n , 9 6 , 4 9 1 5 1 7 . e r o s s o n , B . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . S u b c o r t i c a l f u n c t i o n s i n l a n g u a g e : A w o r k i n g m o d e l . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 2 5 , 2 5 7 2 9 2 . e r o s s o n , B . ( 1 9 9 2 a ) . I s t h e s t r i a t u m i n v o l v e d i n l a n g u a g e ? I n G . V a l l a r , S . F . e a p p a , & e . W . W a l l e s c h ( E d s . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u b c o r t i c a l l e s i o n s ( p p . 2 6 8 2 9 3 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . e r o s s o n , B . ( 1 9 9 2 b ) . S u b c o r t i c a l f u n c t i o n s i n l a n g u a g e a n d m e m o r y . N e w Y o r k : G u i l f o r d P r e s s . e r o s s o n , B . , P a r k e r , J . e . , W a r r e n , R . L . , K e p e s , J . J . , K i m , A . K . , & T u l l e y , R . e . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . A c a s e o f t h a l a m i c a p h a s i a w i t h p o s t m o r t e m v e r i f i c a t i o n . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 2 9 , 3 0 1 3 1 4 .

C u d e i r o , J . , G o n z a l e z , F . , P e r e z , R . , A l o n s o , J . M . , & A c u n a , C . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . D o e s t h e p u l v i n a r L P c o m p l e x c o n t r i b u t e t o m o t o r p r o g r a m m i n g ? B r a i n R e s e a r c h , 4 8 4 , 3 6 7 3 7 0 . d e I a M o n t e , S . , W e l l s , S . E . , H e d l e y W h y t e , T . , & G r o w d o n , J . H . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . N e u r o p a t h o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n P a r k i n s o n ' s d e m e n t i a a n d P a r k i n s o n ' s p l u s A l z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . A n n a l s o f N e u r o l o g y , 2 6 , 3 0 9 3 2 0 .

D e l l a S a l a , S . , B a s s o , A . , L a i a c o n a , M . , & P a p a g n o , C . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . S u b c o r t i c a l l o c a l i z a t i o n o f i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : A r e v i e w a n d a n e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y . I n G . V a l l a r , S . F . e a p p a , & e . W . W a l l e s c h ( E d s . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u b c o r t i c a l l e s i o n s ( p p . 3 5 7 3 8 0 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

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J o n e s , E . G . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e t h a l a m u s . N e w Y o r k : P l e n u m P r e s s . K e r t e s z , A . & F e r r o , J . M . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . L e s i o n s i z e a n d l o c a t i o n i n i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 0 7 , 9 2 1 9 3 3 .

K o o i s t r a , C . A . , R o t h i , L . J . G . , M a c k , L . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . S u b c o r t i c a l a p h a s i a . U n p u b l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t .

L a s s e n N . A . , S k y h o j O l s e n , T . , H a j g a a r d , K . , & S h r i v e r , E . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . I n c o m p l e t e i n f a r c t i o n : A C T n e g a t i v e i r r e v e r s i b l e i s c h e m i c b r a i n l e s i o n . J o u r n a l o f C e r e b r a [ B l o o d F l o w a n d M e t a b o l i s m , 3 ( S u p p l e m e n t 1 ) , S 6 0 2 S 6 0 3 .

L e n t i , C . & B i a n c h i n i , E . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d n e u r o r a d i o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f a c a s e o f e a r l y o n s e t H u n t i n g t o n ' s c h o r e a . D e v e l o p m e n t a l M e d i c i n e a n d C h i l d N e u r o l o g y , 3 5 , 1 0 0 7 1 0 1 4 .

M a n d e l ! , A . M . & A l b e r t , M . L . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . H i s t o r y o f s u b c o r t i c a l d e m e n t i a . I n J . L . C u m m i n g s , S u b c o r t i c a l d e m e n t i a ( p p . 1 7 3 0 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

M a r s d e n , C . D . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . F u n c t i o n o f t h e b a s a l g a n g l i a a s r e v e a l e d b y c o g n i t i v e a n d m o t o r d i s o r d e r s i n P a r k i n s o n ' s d i s e a s e . C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f t h e N e u r o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , 1 1 , 1 2 9 1 3 5 .

M a r s d e n , C . D . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . W h a t d o t h e b a s a l g a n g l i a t e l ! p r e m o t o r c o r t i c a l a r e a s ? I n C i b a F o u n d a t i o n S y m p o s i u m 1 3 2 , M o t o r a r e a s o f t h e c e r e b r a l c o r t e x ( p p . 2 8 2 3 0 0 ) . N e w Y o r k : W i l e y .

M a r t o n e , M . , B u t t e r s , N . , P a y n e , M . , B e c k e r , J . T . , & S a x , D . S . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . D i s s o c i a t i o n s b e t w e e n s k i l l l e a m i n g a n d v e r b a l r e c o g n i t i o n i n a r n n e s i a a n d d e m e n t i a . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y , 4 1 , 9 6 5 9 7 0 . M c C o r r n i c k , D . A . & F e e s e r , H . R . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . F u n c t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f b u r s t f i r i n g a n d s i n g l e s p i k e a c t i v i t y i n l a t e r a l g e n i c u l a t e r e l a y n e u r o n s . N e u r o s c i e n c e , 3 9 , 1 0 3 1 1 3 .

M c F a r 1 i n g , D . , R o t h i , L . J . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . T r a n s c o r t i c a l a p h a s i a f r o m i s c h a e m i c i n f a r c t s o f t h e t h a l a m u s : A r e p o r t o f t w o c a s e s . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y , a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 4 5 , 1 0 7 1 1 2 .

M c H u g h , P . R . & F o l s t e i n , M . F . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . P s y c h i a t r i e s y n d r o m e s o f H u n t i n g t o n ' s c h o r e a : A c l i n i c a l a n d p h a r m a c o l o g i c s t u d y . I n D . F . B e n s o n & D . B l u m e r ( E d s . ) , P s y c h i a t r i e a s p e c t s o f n e u r o l o g i c d i s e a s e ( p p . 2 6 7 2 8 5 ) . N e w Y o r k : G r u n e & S t r a t t o n .

M i n k , J . W . & T h a c h , W . T . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . B a s a l g a n g l i a m o t o r c o n t r o l . I I I . P a l l i d a l a b l a t i o n : N o r m a l r e a c t i o n t i m e , m u s c l e c o c o n t r a c t i o n , a n d s l o w m o v e m e n t . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o p h y s i o l o g y , 6 5 , 3 3 0 3 5 1 .

M i t c h e l l , I . J . , J a c k s o n , A . , S a m b r o o k , M . A . , & C r o s s m a n , A . R . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e r o t e o f t h e s u b t h a l a m i c n u c l e u s i n e x p e r i m e n t a l c h o r e a . B r a i n , 1 1 2 , 1 5 3 3 1 5 4 8 .

N a d e a u , S . E . & C r o s s o n , B . ( i n p r e s s ) . S u b c o r t i c a l a p h a s i a . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e .

N a d e a u , S . E . , R o e l t g e n , D . P . , S e v u s h , S . , B a l l i n g e r , W . E . , & W a t s o n , R . T . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . A p r a x i a d u e t o a p a t h o l o g i c a l l y d o c u m e n t e d t h a l a m i c i n f a r c t i o n . N e u r o l o g y , 4 4 , 2 1 3 3 2 1 3 7 .

P a i l l a r d , J . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . A p r a x i a a n d t h e n e u r o p h y s i o l o g y o f m o t o r c o n t r o l . P h i l o s o p h i c a l T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y o f L o n d o n B , 2 9 8 , 1 1 1 1 3 4 . P a r e n t , A . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . C a r p e n t e r ' s h u m a n n e u r o a n a t o m y ( 9 t h e d . ) . B a 1 t i m o r e : W i l l i a m s & W i 1 k i n s .

P e n f i e 1 d , W . & R o b e r t s , L . ( 1 9 5 9 ) . S p e e c h a n d b r a i n m e c h a n i s m s . P r i n c e t o n , N J : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

P e n n e y , J . B . J r . & Y o u n g , A . B . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . S t r i a t a 1 i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s a n d b a s a l g a n g l i a f u n c t i o n . M o v e m e n t D i s o r d e r s , 1 , 3 1 5 .

R a y m e r , A . M . , M o b e r g , P . J . , C r o s s o n , B . , N a d e a u , S . E . , & R o t h i , L . J . G . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . L e x i c a l d e f i c i t s i n t w o c a s e s o f t h a l a m i c l e s i o n . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 1 4 , 3 3 3 4 .

R i l e y , D . E . , L a n g , A . E . , L e w i s , A . , R e s c h , L . , A s h b y , P . , H o m y k i e w i c z , 0 . , & B l a c k , S . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . C o r t i c a l b a s a 1 g a n g l i o n i c d e g e n e r a t i o n . N e u r o l o g y , 4 0 , 1 2 0 3 1 2 .

R o l l s , E . T . & J o h n s t o n e , S . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . N e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f s t r i a t a l f u n c t i o n . I n G . V a l l a r , S . F . C a p p a , & C . W . W a l l e s c h ( E d s . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u b c o r t i c a l l e s i o n s ( p p . 6 1 9 7 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

R o t h i , L . J . G . & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . I d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : G e s t u r a t l e a r n i n g a n d m e m o r y . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s i n a p r a x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s ( p p . 6 5 7 4 ) . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

R o t h i , L . J . G . , K o o i s t r a , C . , H e i l m a n , K . M . , & M a c k , L . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . S u b c o r t i c a l i d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 1 0 , 4 8 . R o t h i , L . J . G . , M a c k , L . , V e r f a e l l i e , M . , B r o w n , P . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . I d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : E r r o r p a t t e r n a n a l y s i s . A p h a s i o l o g y , 2 , 3 8 1 3 8 8 .

R u m e l h a r t , D . E . , M c C i e l l a n d , J . L . , & t h e P O P R e s e a r c h G r o u p . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . P a r a l l e l D i s t r i b u t e d P r o c e s s i n g : E x p l o r a t i o n s i n t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e o f c o g n i t i o n ( V o l ) . C a m b r i d g e , M A : M I T P r e s s .

S a r n r a , K . , R i k l a n , M . , L e v i t a , E . , Z i m m e r m a n , J . , W a l t z , J . M . , B e r g m a n n , L . , & C o o p e r , I . S . ( 1 9 6 9 ) . L a n g u a g e a n d s p e e c h c o r r e l a t e s o f a n a t o m i c a l l y v e r i f i e d l e s i o n s i n t h a l a m i c s u r g e r y f o r p a r k i n s o n i s m . J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h a n d H e a r i n g R e s e a r c h , 1 2 , 5 1 0 5 4 0 .

S a n g u i n e t i , I . , A g o s t o n i , E . , A i e l l o , U . , A p a l e , P . , B o g l i u n , G . , & T a g l i a b u e , M . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . A p h a s i a a n d a p r a x i a c a u s e d b y i s c h e m i c d a r n a g e t o t h e w h i t e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e d o m i n a n t h e m i s p h e r e . I t a l i a n J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , 1 0 , 9 7 1 0 0 .

S a x , D . S . , O ' D o n n e l l , B . , B u t t e r s , N . , M e n z e r , L . , M o n t g o m e r y , K . , & K a y n e , H . L . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . C o m p u t e d t o m o g r a p h i c , n e u r o l o g i c , a n d n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o r r e l a t e s o f H u n t i n g t o n ' s d i s e a s e . I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f N e u r o s c i e n c e , 1 8 , 2 1 3 6 .

S c h a l t e n b r a n d , G . ( 1 9 6 5 ) . T h e e f f e c t s o f s t e r e o t a c t i c e l e c t r i c a l S t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e d e p t h o f t h e b r a i n . B r a i n , 8 8 , 8 3 5 8 4 0 .

S c h a l t e n b r a n d , G . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e e f f e c t s o n s p e e c h a n d l a n g u a g e o f s t e r e o t a c t i c a l s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e t h a l a m u s a n d c o r p u s c a U o s u m . B r a i n a n d L a n g u a g e , 2 , 7 0 7 7 .

S h e l t o n , P . A . & K n o p m a n , D . S . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . I d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a i n H u n t i n g t o n ' s d i s e a s e . A r c h i v e s o f N e u r o l o g y , 4 8 , 3 5 4 1 .

S h u r e n , J . E . , M a h e r , L . M . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e r o t e o f t h e p u l v i n a r i n i d e o m o t o r p r a x i s . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o l o g y , N e u r o s u r g e r y , a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 5 7 , 1 2 8 2 1 2 8 3 .

S k y h o j O i s e n , T . , B r u h n , P . , & O b e r g , R . G . E . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . C o r t i c a l h y p o p e r f u s i o n a s a p o s s i b l e c a u s e o f " s u b c o r t i c a l a p h a s i a " . B r a i n , 1 0 9 , 3 9 3 4 1 0 .

S o k o l o f f , L . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . B r a i n e n e r g y m e t a b o l i s m : C e l l b o d y o r s y n a p s e ( D i s c u s s i o n ) . I n D . J . C h a d w i c k & J . W b e l a n ( E d s . ) , E x p l o r i n g f u n c t i o n a l a n a t o m y w i t h p o s i t r o n t o m o g r a p h y ( p p . 4 3 5 1 ) . N e w Y o r k : W i l e y .

S q u i r e , L . R . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . M e m o r y a n d b r a i n . N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

S q u i r e , L . R . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . D e c l a r a t i v e a n d n o n d e c l a r a t i v e m e m o r y : M u l t i p l e b r a i n s y s t e m s s u p p o r t i n g l e a r n i n g a n d m e m o r y . J o u r n a l o f C o g n i t i v e N e u r o s c i e n c e , 4 , 2 3 2 2 4 3 .

S q u i r e , L . R . & Z o l a M o r g a n , S . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e m e d i a l t e m p o r a l l o b e m e m o r y s y s t e m . S c i e n c e , 2 5 3 , 1 3 8 0 1 3 8 6 .

S t e r i a d e , M . , D o m i c h , L . , & O a k s o n , G . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . R e t i c u l a r i s t h a l a m i n e u r o n s r e v i s i t e d : A c t i v i t y c h a n g e s d u r i n g s h i f t s i n s t a t e s o f v i g i l a n c e . T h e J o u r n a l o f N e u r o s c i e n c e , 6 , 6 8 8 1 . S t r i c k , P . L . , D u m , R . P . , & P i c a r d , N . ( 1 9 9 5 ) . M a c r o o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c i r c u i t s c o n n e c t i n g t h e b a s a l g a n g l i a w i t h m o t o r c o r t i c a l a r e a s . I n J . C . H o u k , J . L . D a v i s , & D . G . B e i s e r ( E d s . ) , M o d e l s o f i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g i n t h e b a s a l g a n g l i a ( p p . 1 1 7 1 3 0 ) . C a m b r i d g e , M A : M I T P r e s s .

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D a r l e y , F . L . , A r o n s o n , A . E . , & B r o w n , J . R . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . M o t o r s p e e c h d i s o r d e r s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : W . B . S a u n d e r s .

D e n c k l a , M . B . ( 1 9 7 3 ) . D e v e l o p m e n t o f s p e e d i n r e p e t i t i v e a n d s u c c e s s i v e f i n g e r m o v e m e n t s i n n o r m a l c h i l d r e n . D e v e l o p m e n t a l M e d i c i n e a n d C h i l d N e u r o l o g y , 1 5 , 6 3 5 6 4 5 .

D e n c k l a , M . B . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . D e v e l o p m e n t a l d y s p r a x i a : T h e c l u m s y c h i l d . I n M . D . L e v i n e & P . S a t z ( E d s . ) , M i d d l e c h i l d h o o d : D e v e l o p m e n t a n d d y s f u n c t i o n . B a l t i m o r e : U n i v e r s i t y P a r k P r e s s .

D e n c k l a , M . B . & R o e l t g e n , D . P . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . D i s o r d e r s o f m o t o r f u n c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l . I n I . R a p i n & S . J . S e g a l o w i t z ( E d s . ) , H a n d b o o k o f n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , V o l u m e 6 : C h i l d N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y . A m s t e r d a m : E l s e v i e r S c i e n c e .

D e n c k l a , M . B . & R u d e l , R . G . ( 1 9 7 8 ) . A n o m a l i e s o f m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t i n h y p e r a c t i v e b o y s . A n n a l s o f N e u r o l o g y , 3 , 2 3 1 2 3 3 .

D e R e n z i , E . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . M e t h o d s o f l i m b a p r a x i a e x a m i n a t i o n a n d t h e i r b e a r i n g o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d i s o r d e r . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f a p r a . x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

D e R e n z i , E . , P i e c z u r o , A . , & V i g n o l o , L . ( 1 9 6 6 ) . I d e a t i o n a l a p r a x i a : A q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 6 , 4 1 5 2 .

D e u e l , R . K . & D o a r , B . P . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . D e v e l o p m e n t a l m a n u a l d y s p r a x i a : A l e s s o n i n m i n d a n d b r a i n . J o u r n a l o f C h i l d N e u r o l o g y , 7 , 9 9 1 0 3 .

D e w e y , D . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . P r a x i s a n d s c q u e n c i n g s k i l l s i n c h i l d r e n w i t h s e n s o r i m o t o r d y s f u n c t i o n . D e v e l o p m e n t a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 7 , 1 9 7 2 0 6 .

D e w e y , D . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . E r r o r a n a l y s i s o f l i m b a n d o r o f a c i a l p r a x i s i n c h i l d r e n w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l m o t o r d e f i c i t s . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 2 3 , 2 0 3 2 2 1 .

D e w e y , D . & K a p l a n , B . J . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . A n a l y s i s o f p r a x i s t a s k d e m a n d s i n t h e a s s e s s m c n t o f c h i l d r e n w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l m o t o r d e f i c i t s . D e v e l o p m e n t a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 8 , 3 6 7 3 7 9 .

D e w e y , D . , R o y , E . A . , S q u a r e S t o r e r , P . A . , & H a y d e n , D . 1 9 8 8 ) . L i m b a n d o r a l p r a x i c a b i l i t i e s i n c h i l d r e n w i t h v e r b a l s e q u c n c i n g d e f i c i t s . D e v e l o p m e n t a l M e d i c i n e a n d C h i l d N e u r o l o g y , 3 0 , 7 4 3 7 5 1 .

F l e t e h e r J . M . & T a y l o r , H . G . ( 1 9 8 4 ) N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o c h i l d r e n : T o w a r d s a d e v e l o p m e n t a l n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y , 6 , 3 9 5 6 .

F o r d , F . R . ( 1 9 6 6 ) . D i s e a s e s o f t h e n e r v a u s s y s t e m i n i n f a n c y , c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e ( 5 t h e d . ) . S p r i n g f i e l d : T h o m a s .

G e s c h w i n d , N . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e a p r a x i a s : N e u r a l m e c h a n i s m s o f d i s o r d e r s o f l e a r n e d m o v e m e n t s . A m e r i c a n S c i e n t i s t , 6 3 , 1 8 8 1 9 5 .

G o o d g l a s s , H . & K a p l a n , E . ( 1 9 6 3 ) . D i s t u r b a n c e o f g e s t u r e a n d p a n t o m i m e i n a p h a s i a . B r a i n , 8 6 , 7 0 3 7 2 0 .

G o r d o n , N . S . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f m o t o r s k i l l s . B r a i n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , 1 , 3 6 .

G u b b a y , S . S . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e c / u m s y c h i l d : A s t u d y o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l a p r a . x i c a n d a g n o s i c a t a . x i a . L o n d o n : W . B . S a u n d e r s .

G u b b a y , S . S . , E l l i s , E . , W a l t o n , J . N . , & C o u r t , S . D . M . ( 1 9 6 5 ) . C l u m s y c h i l d r e n : A s t u d y o f a p r a x i c a n d a g n o s i c d e f i c i t s i n 2 1 c h i l d r e n . B r a i n , 8 8 , 2 9 5 3 1 2 .

H e n d e r s o n , S . E . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e a s s e s s m e n t o f c l u m s y c h i l d r e n : O l d a n d n e w a p p r o a c h e s . J o u r n a l o f C h i l d P s y c h o l o g y a n d P s y c h i a t r y , 2 8 , 5 1 1 5 2 7 .

H e n d e r s o n , S . E . & H a l l , D . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . C o n c o m i t a n t s o f c l u m s i n e s s i n y o u n g s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . D e v e l o p m e n t a l M e d i c i n e a n d C h i l d N e u r o l o g y , 2 4 , 4 4 8 4 6 0 .

H u l m e , C . , B i g g e r s t a f f , A . , M o r a n , G . , & M c K i n l a y , I . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . V i s u a l , k i n a e s t h e t i c a n d c r o s s m o d a l j u d g e m e n t s o f l e n g t h b y n o r m a l a n d c l u m s y c h i l d r e n . D e v e l o p m e n t a l M e d i c i n e a n d C h i l d N e u r o l o g y , 2 4 , 4 6 1 4 7 1 .

I v r y , R . & K e e l e , S . W . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . T i m i n g f u n c t i o n s o f t h e c e r e b e l l u m . J o u r n a l o f C o g n i t i v e N e u r o s c i e n c e , 1 , 1 3 6 1 5 2 .

K a p l a n , E . ( 1 9 6 8 ) . G e s t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i m p l e m e n t u s a g e : A n o r g a n i s m i c d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t u d y . U n p u b l i s h e d P h D d i s s e r t a t i o n , C 1 a r k U n i v e r s i t y . 2 6 7

K e r t e s z , A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A p r a x i a a n d a p h a s i a : A n a t o m i c a l a n d c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f a p r a x i a a n d r e / a t e d d i s o r d e r s . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

K i m u r a , D . ( 1 9 7 7 ) . A c q u i s i t i o n o f a m o t o r s k i l l a f t e r l e f t h e m i s p h e r e d a m a g e . B r a i n , 1 0 0 , 5 2 7 5 4 2 .

K o o l s , J . A . & T w e e d i e , D . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . D e v e l o p m e n t o f p r a x i s i n c h i l d r e n . P e r c e p t u a l a n d M o t o r S k i l l s , 4 0 , 1 1 1 9 .

K n u c k e y , N . W . , A p s i m o n , T . T . , & G u b b a y , S . S . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . C o m p u t e r i z e d a x i a l t o m o g r a p h y i n c l u m s y c h i l d r e n w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l a p r a x i a a n d a g n o s i a B r a i n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , 5 , 1 4 1 9 .

L e n n o x , L . , C e r m a k , S . A . , & K o o m a r , J . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . P r a x i s a n d g e s t u r e c o m p r e h e n s i o n i n 4 , 5 , a n d 6 y e a r o l d s . A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f O c c u p a t i o n a l T h e r a p y , 4 2 , 9 9 I 0 4 .

L e s n y , I . A . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . D e v e l o p m e n t a l d y s p r a x i a d y s g n o s i a a s a c a u s e o f c o n g e n i t a l c h i l d r e n ' s c l u m s i n e s s . B r a i n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , 2 , 6 9 7 1 .

L u n d y E k m a n , L . , I v r y , R . , K e e l e , S . , & W o o l l a c o t t , M . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . T i m i n g a n d f o r c e c o n t r o l d e f i c i t s i n c l u m s y c h i l d r e n . J o u r n a l o f C o g n i t i v e N e u r o s c i e n c e , 3 , 3 6 7 3 7 6 .

L u r i a , A . R . ( 1 9 6 6 ) . H i g h e r c o r t i c a / f u n c t i o n s i n m a n . N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s .

M i l l e r , N . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . D y s p r a x i a a n d i t s m a n a g e m e n t . R o c k v i l l e , M D : A s p e n P u b l i s h e r s .

N a s s , R . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . O n t o g e n e s i s o f h e m i s p h e r i c s p e c i a l i z a t i o n : A p r a x i a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o n g e n i t a l l e f t h e m i s p h e r e l e s i o n s . P e r c e p t u a l a n d M o t o r S k i l l s , 5 7 , 7 7 5 7 8 2 . O r t o n , S . T . ( 1 9 3 7 ) . R e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , a n d s p e e c h p r o b l e m s i n c h i l d r e n . N e w Y o r k : N o r t o n .

O v e r t o n , W . F . & J a c k s o n , J . P . ( 1 9 7 3 ) . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i m a g i n e d o b j e c t s i n a c t i o n s e q u e n c e s : A d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t u d y . C h i / d D e v e l o p m e n t , 4 4 , 3 0 9 3 1 4 .

P o i z n e r , H . , M a c k , L . , V e r f a e l l i e , M . , G o n z a l e z R o t h i , L . J . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . T h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l C o m p u t e r g r a p h i e a n a l y s i s o f a p r a x i a . B r a i n , 1 1 3 , 8 5 1 0 I .

R a a d e , A . S . , R o t h i , L . G . , & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b u c c o f a c i a l a n d l i m b a p r a x i a . B r a i n a n d C o g n i t i o n , 1 6 , 1 3 0 1 4 6 .

R e u b e n , R . N . & B a k w i n , H . ( 1 9 6 8 ) . D e v e l o p m e n t a l c l u m s i n e s s . P e d i a t r i c C l i n i c s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , 1 5 , 6 0 1 6 1 0 .

R o t h i , L . J . G . & H e i l m a n , K . M . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . I d e o m o t o r a p r a x i a : G e s t u r e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d m e m o r y . I n E . A . R o y ( E d . ) , N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a / s t u d i e s o f a p r a x i a a n d r e l a t e d d i s o r d e r s . A m s t e r d a m : N o r t h H o l l a n d .

R o y , E . A . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . A c t i o n s e q u e n c i n g a n d l a t e r a l i z e d c e r e b r a l d a m a g e : E v i d e n c e f o r a s y m m e t r i e s i n c o n t r o l . I n J . L o n g & A . B a d d e l e y ( E d s . ) , A t t e n t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e I X . H i l l s d a l e , N J : L a w r e n c e E r l b a u m A s s o c i a t e s I n c .

R o y , E . A . , S q u a r e , P . A . , A d a m s , S . , & F r i e s e n , H . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . E r r o r / m o v e m e n t n o t a t i o n s y s t e m s i n a p r a x i a . S e m i o t i c l n q u i r y , 5 , 4 0 2 4 1 4 .

R u d e l , R . G . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . D e f i n i t i o n o f d y s l e x i a : L a n g u a g e a n d m o t o r d e f i c i t s . I n F . H . D u f f y & N . G e s c h w i n d ( E d s . ) , D y s l e x i a : A n e u r o s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h t o c l i n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n . B o s t o n : L i t t l e , B r o w n a n d C o m p a n y .

S t e l m a c h , G . E . & W o r r i n g h a m , C . J . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f i s o m e t r i c f o r c e i n P a r k i n s o n ' s d i s e a s e . N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i a , 2 6 , 9 3 1 0 3 .

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