Volcanic Geomorphological Classification of The

Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447

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Geomorphology

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Volcanic geomorphological classiﬁcation of the cinder cones of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain)

J. Dóniz-Páez ⁎

Department of Geography and History, University of La Laguna, Campus de Guajara s/n, 38071, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Escuela Universitaria de Turismo Iriarte, adscrita a La Universidad de La Laguna, 38400, Puerto de La Cruz, Tenerife, Spain Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (INVOLCAN), Puerto de La Cruz, Tenerife, Spain article info abstract

Article history: This paper proposes a method to establish a morphological classification of Tenerife's cinder cones on the basis of Received 9 April 2014 a dual analysis of qualitative (existence, geometry and disposition of craters) and quantitative morphometric pa- Received in revised form 29 September 2014 rameters (major and minor diameters and cone elongation, major and minor diameters and crater elongation). Accepted 5 October 2014 The result obtained is a morphological classification of the cinder cones of Tenerife, which can be sub-divided Available online 12 October 2014 into four types: ring-shaped-cones, horseshoe-shaped-volcanoes, multiple volcanoes and volcanoes without crater. In Tenerife there is a clear dominance of horseshoe-shaped volcanoes (69.0%) over ring-shaped cones Keywords: fi Volcanic geomorphology (13.1%), volcanoes without craters (11.4%) and multiple volcanoes (6.4%). The classi cation presented in this Morphological parameters paper is characterized by its simplicity which makes it possible to include all morphological types of volcanoes Morphological classification found in Tenerife. This fact also renders our classification a useful tool to apply in other, both insular and conti- Cinder or scoria cones nental volcanic areas to eventually analyze and systematize the study of eruptive edifices with similar traits. Tenerife © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Spain

1. Introduction maar or maar-diatremes, tuff rings and tuff cones). This classification is primarily based on the morphological aspects and dominant eruption The general characteristics of monogenetic volcanoes have been an- styles of these volcanoes (Tort and Finizola, 2005; Gomez, 2012; alyzed in several works (Wood, 1980a,b; Cas and Wright, 1987; Ollier, Kereszturi and Németh, 2012; Di Traglia et al., 2014). 1988; Romero, 1991, 1992; Francis, 1993; Poblete, 1995; Cárdenas, Rittmann (1963) classifies monogenetic volcanoes such as cinder 1996; Connor and Conway, 2000; Vespermann and Schminke, 2000; cones that release a little amount of basaltic products (lapilli, scoria, Dóniz-Páez, 2004; Favalli et al., 2009; Bemis et al., 2011; Fornaciai bombs, spatter, lavas) (b1km3) at high temperature (1000–1200 °C). et al., 2012; Grosse et al., 2012; Kereszturi and Németh, 2012; The resulting volcanic forms are morphologically homogeneous volca- Becerra-Ramirez, 2013). The studies about the morphology of monoge- noes (Rittmann, 1963; Macdonald, 1972), which are small, and produce netic volcanoes have undergone considerable improvement in recent equally small in volume eruptive products, and therefore, they are con- decades (Di Traglia et al., 2014). Monogenetic volcanoes are the most sidered to be simple. Current research shows that they can be fairly big, common volcanoes on Earth (Wood, 1980a) and appear shaping volca- and/or have erupted through a longer time span, and/or followed some nic fields in different tectonic contexts. These volcanic fields comprise irregular eruptive path (Kereszturi and Németh, 2012; Kereszturi et al., small volcanoes such as cinder or scoria cones, maars, tuff cones, tuff 2013b). These various phenomena resulted and are reflected in their rings, small shield volcanoes and lava domes (Connor and Conway, morphology, this then being far more complex than just a simple cone 2000). These volcanic structures are dominantly mafic in composition with a crater. The shapes of monogenetic volcanoes are the result of and characterized by the short duration of their eruptions, from several complex evolutions (eruptive activity, structural setting and erosion days to a few years (Németh, 2010). Monogentic mafic volcanoes usual- processes) (Di Traglia et al., 2014). In this sense Romero (1991), ly appear on the flanks of composite-stratovolcanoes, like in Etna or Dóniz-Páez (2004) and Becerra-Ramirez (2013) show the geomorpho- Teide, large shield volcanoes, such as Kilauea, or in volcanic rifts, as in logical and structural complexity of cinder or scoria cones. Cumbre Vieja volcano (Connor and Conway, 2000; Geyer and Martí, The cinder cones are formed by near-vent accumulation of tephra 2010). Conventionally, the authors have documented five types of that is characterized by various degrees of agglutination or welding monogenetic volcanoes (lava spatter cones, scoria or cinder cones, (Vespermann and Schminke, 2000; Valentine et al., 2007). The cinder, spatter and lava cones are normally associated with maficmagma,but ⁎ Tel.: +34 922316502x6145. in Tenerife these volcanoes include olivine basalts, olivine-pyroxenic E-mail address: [email protected]. basalts and alkaline basalts with olivine (Barrera et al., 1988). The cinder

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.10.004 0169-555X/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447 433 cones generally constitute elongated edifices, evidenced by both the volcanoes are located is not greater than 25° (Dóniz-Páez, 2011). In gen- number of craters along a fracture and the elongation (Cas and eral, the morphology of the cinder cones corresponds to a truncated Wright, 1987; Francis, 1993; Romero et al., 2000; Dóniz-Páez et al., cone (Macdonald, 1972; Cas and Wright, 1987; Francis, 1993). Never- 2008). Cone elongation represents in turn the distortion factors of the theless, cinder cones are simple because most of them erupted through morphology of the volcano, and the former is obtained by dividing the a limited period of time (days to years). These volcanoes are associated cone major diameter by the cone minor diameter (Romero et al., with explosive fragmentation of low viscosity magmas, among other 2000; Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008). In Tenerife the cones have 1 to 20 craters distinctive traits. and the average elongation index is 1.47 with a maximum of 2.03. These The cinder cones have been categorized using different morpholog- volcanoes are constructed from fractures opened in steep slope areas ical classifications (Thuoret, 1999). Traditionally, these classifications (N10°) (Corazzato and Tibaldi, 2006; Tibaldi and Lagmay, 2006; Favalli (morphogenetic or morphological) only refer to two main morphologi- et al., 2009; Fornaciai et al., 2012), but in Tenerife the slope where the cal categories, namely, ring-shaped cones and horseshoe volcanoes

Fig. 1. A ring-shaped cinder cone in Lanzarote (Canary) (left) and horseshoe volcanoes in El Hierro (Canary) (right). 434 J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447

Fig. 2. Simpliﬁed geological map of Tenerife (modiﬁed from Ancochea et al., 1990).

(Macdonald, 1972; Cas and Wright, 1987)(Fig. 1). Therefore, all those The geomorphological classifications of monogenic volcanism are volcanoes that do not exhibit this morphology correspond to eruptions one of the main objectives of the volcanic geomorphology (Porter, in which some kind of disturbances have occurred (dip of eruptive 1972; Wood, 1980a; Thuoret, 1999; Kereszturi and Németh, 2012; conduit, fracturing system, distinctive eruptive phases, wind effect, Kervyn et al., 2012). The high number of cinder cones on Tenerife and slope, etc.). Nevertheless, it is evident that cinder cones can show their morphological variety (Dóniz-Páez, 2004) render a classification more complex morphologies. In research works dedicated specifically of these volcanoes all the more necessary. The aim of this paper is to to the analysis of scoria cones, differences in shape, size and evolution classify the cinder cones of Tenerife on both qualitative (shape of craters of the monogenetic mafic volcanism have been made clear (Romero, and edifices, etc.) and quantitative (morphometry) bases using mor- 1991; Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008, 2011, 2012; Kereszturi et al., 2012, phological parameters such as major and minor diameters and cone 2013a,b). elongation, major and minor diameters and crater elongation. The The detailed observation of the geomorphological features of the source data used for the spatial localization of cinder cones and the cinder cones of Tenerife Island reveals the morphological variety of morphometric analysis are the digital topography at scale 1:10,000, these volcanoes; for this reason the volcanoes cannot be classified geological maps at scale 1:25,000, geomorphological maps and aerial according to Rittmann's (1963) proposal, because it only considers the photographs at scale 1:30,000 and 1:18,000, and, finally field work most significant volcanic forms. According to Thuoret (1999),tradition- (Dóniz-Páez, 2004 and Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008). The results enable ex- al classifications of cinder cones were based on the type of activity, the trapolation of this geomorphological classification of the cinder cones magma and the emitted products. These classifications have been to other, both insular and continental volcanic areas. progressively improved by bearing in mind a large number of factors. There are geomorphological classifications of the cinder cones depend- 2. Geological and geomorphological setting of Tenerife Island ing on genesis (monogenetic), style (Hawaiian, Strombolian, violent Strombolian) and duration of the eruptions (from a few days to a few Tenerife is the largest (2034 km2) and the highest (3718 m a.s.l.) years and, in rare cases, decades), as well as the nature of the resulting (Fig. 15) among the islands of the Canaries and it hosts various volcanic materials (ash, lapilli, scoria, spatter, lava flows) (Francis, 1993). Other remnants with different ages and geochemistry such as mafic, salic and classifications refer to spatial organization and fractures (Romero, intermediate volcaniclastics (Ancochea et al., 1990)(Fig. 2). The oldest 1991) and tectonic environment (Settle, 1979; Takada, 1994; Corazzato subaerial volcanic rocks (Old Basaltic Series) are found in the three cor- and Tibaldi, 2006; Tibaldi and Lagmay, 2006; Favalli et al., 2009; ners of the island, namely in the Anaga (NE), Teno (NW) and Roque Fornaciai et al., 2012). There are classifications referred to the geomor- del Conde (S) Massifs. Their ages range from 12 Ma for the lower part phologic and morphometric parameters (Bemis, 1995; Dóniz-Páez, of the Roque del Conde up to 4.2 Ma for the Anaga Massif (Ancochea 2004; Inbar et al., 2011; Grosse et al., 2012) and size (Pike, 1978; et al., 1990; Thirlwall et al., 2000). These massifs represent the subaerial Wood, 1980a; Bemis, 1995; Delacour et al., 2007; Dóniz-Páez et al., remains of the main stages of shield volcanism (Thirlwall et al., 2000) 2012). There are also classifications of cinder cones that make reference and were built by Strombolian and/or Hawaiian-type basaltic eruptions to the erosion processes (Wood, 1980b; Dohrenwend et al., 1986; mainly from fissure vents (Martínez-Pisón and Quirantes, 1981). The Hooper and Sheridan, 1998; Dóniz-Páez et al., 2011; Kereszturi and principal rocks appearing are ankaramites, basanites and alkali-basalts, Németh, 2012). although salic materials can also be recognized (Araña, 1995; Martí J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447 435

Fig. 3. Plans of cinder cones: cone (Eco) and crater (Ecr) elongation. and Wolff, 2000). These old volcanic massifs are formed by the superpo- (Araña, 1995; Martí and Wolff, 2000). The Central Complex has an elon- sition of lava flows up to 1000 m thick, with interbedded pyroclastic de- gated morphology (16 × 9 km with a perimeter of 27 km) and a com- posits, all of them intruded by numerous dykes. The steady erosion plex structure resulting from the superposition of different volcanic processes that have affected the massifs have determined their contem- edifices. Most of the eruptions that made room for the Cañadas edifice porary topography and morphology, presently exhibiting numerous ra- were explosive, thus producing a large variety of phonolitic pyroclastic vines, cliffs and beaches. deposits mostly exposed along the southern slopes of Tenerife (Martí Around 3 Ma ago the major volcanic activity shifted to the central et al., 1994; Bryan et al., 1998). part of the island (e.g. Cañadas Series), although minor volcanic activity After the construction of the Cañadas edifice, the Las Cañadas Caldera, also occurred in the Anaga Massif (Las Rosas Volcano) and Teno Massif, an elliptical depression, was formed by multiple processes of vertical col- e.g. El Palmar, Tierra del Trigo, Taco, Aregume and other volcanoes lapse (Araña, 1971; Martí et al., 1994, 1997; Martí and Gudmundsson, (Martí et al., 1994). This phase of volcanism bears witness to the forma- 2000) or by giant landslide processes (Watts and Masson, 1995; tion of more heterogeneous deposits, including mafic and phonolitic Ancochea et al., 1999). The post-caldera volcanic activity is concentrated magmas produced by Strombolian, and sub-Plinian types of eruption on the northern part of the caldera where the Pico Viejo and Teide

Fig. 4. Plans and proﬁles of different cinder cones of Tenerife based on their morphology. 436 J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447

et al., 1990; Galindo et al., 2005). This basaltic volcanism is responsible for the formation of hundreds of monogenetic volcanoes, grouped into three main volcanic rifts (Carracedo, 1994; Geyer and Martí, 2010). The dominance of volcanic processes on the erosive ones determines the existence of volcanoes with soaring topographies that descend from the highest altitude to sea level, identifying in the process slopes that approach N50°. Occasionally, in these slopes deep ravines appear. The form of these morphostructures is defined by the existence of a dor- sal axis concentrating most of the cinder cones, these being surrounded left and right by an area edified on lava flow emissions (NW–SE and NE– SW rift zones). Thus, for instance, on the NE–SW rift, 76 out of the 123 volcanoes are on the axis (Dóniz-Páez, 2009a). In turn, in the south of Tenerife the local morphology is defined by an extensive volcanic field Fig. 5. Morphological classification of cinder cones of Tenerife. that extends NE–SW and NW–SE (Kröchert and Buchner, 2009; Geyer and Martí, 2010; Kereszturi et al., 2013a). stratovolcanoes are situated (Ablay and Martí, 2000). In these stratovolcanoes different materials from distinct eruption dynamics are juxta- 3. Methodology: morphometric analysis of Tenerife cinder cones posed, imbricated and overlapped, making clear their complex geological (Ablay and Martí, 2000) and geomorphological evolution The methodology used in this paper relies on different qualitative and (Martínez-Pisón and Quirantes, 1981). Materials originated from these quantitative morphological parameters referred to the cinder cones. The stratovolcanoes have filled the caldera depression and mostly covered morphological parameters were calculated at 1:10,000 cartography. the northern slopes of the island. Currently volcanic processes continue First, the qualitative morphological parameters refer to the number, ge- being the factors that more aptly describe the topography and the terri- ometry and disposition of craters. The existence or not of craters in a vol- tory of the central Tenerife area. The sector is a very abrupt landscape canic cone was obtained from topographic maps (1:10,000), aerial photo with the highest summits on the island, which coalesce with other en- analysis and field work. The (non) existence of craters allows for a first claves of horizontal topography. The most significant topographical identification between cinder cones with or without craters. The geome- forms are associated with the different eruptions (stratovolcanoes, cal- try–morphology of craters permits us to distinguish between ring- deras, domos, cinder cones, lava flows, etc.) and torrential erosion pro- shaped cones (close craters) and horseshoe-shaped volcanoes (open cra- cesses, slope dynamics and periglaciation. ters). The open crater shows a lack of closure in its cone, either as an ef- Coeval with the construction of the Cañadas edifice, shield basaltic fectofthewindorbecausethelavasbreakapartoftheconeandopenits volcanism continued until the present along rift zones oriented NW– crater down to the flowing slope (Dóniz-Páez, 2011). The combination of SE and NE–SW, and in a more scattered area on the south (Ancochea open and closed craters, in turn, makes room for a difference between

Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of the morphology of the cinder cones of Tenerife. J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447 437

Fig. 7. LiDAR, slope and topography maps (from Visor GrafCan) show the relation between cinder cones with the slope topography. M. Güímar and M. Mostaza are, respectively, ring- shaped and horseshoe volcanoes emplaced on slope b10°. Sietecañadas and Centinela are, respectively, ring- and horseshoe-shaped volcanoes on slopes N10°. multiple scoria cones and other types of cinder cones. Second, the seven to the cone major diameter, and the minor axis corresponds to most effective quantitative parameters for defining the shape of the vol- the cone minor diameter (Porter, 1972; Wood, 1980a). canic edifice have been used in this study (cone major and minor diam- (3) Crater major diameter (Wbcr) and crater minor diameter eters, cone elongation, number of craters, crater major and minor (wscr). Like in cone diameters, craters resemble geometric fig- diameter and crater elongation) (Dóniz-Páez, 2004). From these seven ures and, as a function of theirs, crater major and minor diam- morphological parameters, some of them are used only for the volcanic eters are established (Porter, 1972; Settle, 1979; Wood, edifice (cone major and minor diameters and cone elongation), and 1980a). others refer to the crater of the cone (crater major diameter, crater (4) Cone elongation (Eco) and crater elongation (Ecr). Cone and minor diameter and crater elongation). Delimitation of the base of the crater elongation are, respectively, the distortion factor of the cones has been calculated by manual processes. We are aware that the morphology of the volcano and the crater. These parameters rep- manual delimitation can be influenced by certain subjectivity, for this resent the deviation from the theoretical circumference. The for- reason we used a 1:10,000 cartography in order to minimize errors. Di mer is obtained by dividing the cone major diameter by the cone Traglia et al. (2014) indicated that the automatic boundary delimitation minor diameter, and the latter by dividing the crater major di- of volcanic terrains can be affected by irregular topography, and they ameter by the crater minor diameter (Tibaldi, 1995; Romero propose a semi-automatic delimitation of cinder cone boundaries et al., 2000; Dóniz-Páez, 2004; Corazzato and Tibaldi, 2006; based on the integration of the DEM-derived slope and curvature maps Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008; Grosse et al., 2012; Kervyn et al., 2012) (Di Traglia et al., 2014) as an effective method for obtaining volcano de- (Fig. 3). limitation. This method was already used by Grosse et al. (2009) for the stratovolcanoes. In the analysis of quantitative morphometric parameters (Table 1), The morphological parameters used in this study include the differences in the morphology of the cinder cones of Tenerife were ob- following: tained. The main facts are as follows:

(1) Number of craters (Ncr). Only those craters with a topographical (1) the existence of cinder cones with (88.55% of cones) and without reﬂection 1:10,000 are counted. Aerial photography and ﬁeld crater (11.45% of volcanoes) (Ncr); work have also been used for a correct delimitation of craters. It (2) the existence of cinder cones with closed (13.13% of cones), open is appropriate to emphasize, as well, that we are dealing only (69.02% of volcanoes) and open or closed craters (6.40% of cones) with craters and a crater may contain various vents. (geometry–morphology);

(2) Cone major diameter (Wbco), cone minor diameter (wsco). In (3) the existence of volcanoes with very elongated plans and craters order to obtain these parameters the volcano is compared to a (Eco =N 1.6 and Eco = 1.6) and volcanoes with circular morphol- circumference or an ellipse where the major axis corresponds ogies (Eco = ≤1.6 and Eco = ≤1.6) (Fig. 3); 438 J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447

Fig. 8. Ring-shaped cones: La Atalaya cinder cone, a symmetrical ring cone.

Fig. 9. Ring-shaped cones: Sietecañadas cinder cone, an asymmetrical ring-shaped cone. J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447 439

Fig. 10. Typical horseshoe-shaped cones: Montaña Rasca cinder cone.

Fig. 11. Extended vertex (“tuning fork”): Montaña Chío cinder cone. 440 J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447

Fig. 12. Arched horseshoe cones: Montaña Roja cinder cone.

Fig. 13. El Palmar multiple scoria cones. J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447 441

Fig. 14. Volcano without crater of Montaña Garajao.

Fig. 15. Topographic map of Tenerife and spatial localization of the all cinder cones mentioned in the text. 442 J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447

Table 1 Table 3 Values of morphometric parameters of Tenerife cinder cones. Morphometric parameters and morphology of cinder cones.

Morphometric parameters Average Maximum Minimum Median Morphology of cones N° cones Eco Ecr Ncr

(Wbco), Cone major diameter (m) 537.47 1390 50 500 A1 symmetrical 29 1.1 1.2 1

(wsco), Cone minor diameter (m) 403.21 1080 40 370 A2 asymmetrical 10 1.6 1.8 1.25

(Eco), Cone elongation 1.47 14.89 1 1.247 Total ring-shapes cones 39 1.2 1.4 1.05

(Ncr), Number of craters 1.39 10 0 1 Typical horseshoe 146 1.2 1.8 1.15

(Wbcr), Crater major diameter (m) 331 930 4 300 Extend horseshoe 18 1.8 3.3 1.22

(wscr), Crater minor diameter (m) 188 680 3 160 Arched horseshoe 41 1.8 2.2 1.13

(Ecr), Crater elongation 2.03 13.5 1 1.618 Total horseshoe-shaped 205 1.4 2 1.2 Multiple volcanoes 19 2.6 3.8 2.5 Volcanoes without crater 34 1.4 –– (4) the existence of simple (93.60% of cones) and multiple ediﬁces

(6.40% of volcanoes) (Ncr, Eco and Ecr).

4. Results 10 ka, i.e. the Holocene, while only 14.0% from all the eruptive edifices have ages greater than 100 ka. 4.1. Spatial and temporal distribution of cinder cones in Tenerife The cinder cones of Tenerife are different in age, so it is necessary to point out that the morphometric indexes obtained refer to present The mafic volcanism of Tenerife is responsible for the formation measurements of the cinder cones. In addition, the scarcity of dated of hundreds of monogenetic volcanoes, characterized by effusive- scoria cones on the Island and the contrasting morphoclimatic envi- Hawaiian and explosive Strombolian and violent Strombolian activity ronments (arid, semiarid, humid, high mountain, etc.) where volca- (Dóniz-Páez, 2009a,b) and minor hydrovolcanic eruptions as maars noes are located make it impossible to establish reliable erosion (Caldera del Rey), tuff rings (Montaña Amarilla and Montaña Pelada) rates valid for the whole Tenerife and, therefore to reconstruct the (Carmona et al., 2011) and cinder cones (Montaña Erales) whose tephra original measurements of these volcanoes (Dóniz-Páez and analyses suggest that the eruption style changed progressively from an Romero, 2007; Dóniz-Páez et al., 2011). The correlation of height initial phreatomagmatic phase, through a transitional stage, to one that and diameter of the cone (Hco/(Wb /ws )) is greater when the cin- was entirely Strombolian (Clarke et al., 2009). The materials of these co co der cones are more recent, but the correlations of diameter of crater eruptions cover most of the previous topographic relief and form sever- and the cones ((Wb /ws )/(Wb /ws )) index evolve inversely al volcanic fields: Teno Volcanic Field (TVF), San Lorenzo–Galletas Vol- co co cr cr (Wood, 1980b). The morphometric study of Tenerife's dated volcanoes canic Field (SLGVF), Pedro Gil Volcanic Field (PGVF), Pico Viejo–Teide by age intervals (Pleistocene and Holocene) reveals that both correla- Volcanic Field (PVTVF) and Bilma Volcanic Field (BVF) (Dóniz-Páez, tions do not evolve according to Wood's postulation, but instead evolve 2004, 2005), grouped in three main volcanic rifts (Geyer and Martí, inversely. These aspects preclude the establishment of erosion rates for 2010). These volcanic fields have been differentiated according to Tenerife cinder cones and reconstruction of their morphology, as other their topographic, geological, geomorphological, structural and volcanic authors have already done (Kereszturi and Németh, 2012). evolution (Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008, 2011, 2012). These volcanic fields have different number of cones, different density of cones/km2 and a 4.2. Geomorphological classification of cinder cones in Tenerife different separation index between cones (SIco)(Table 2). The SIco corresponds to the separation distance between one eruptive edifice and The analysis of the number, geometry and disposition of craters (N ) the next, closest one (in meters), measured from the geometric center cr and the study of the morphometric parameters (Wb ,ws , E ,Wb , of the cone up to the geometric center of its nearest neighbor (Settle, co co co cr ws and E ) permit grouping of the cinder cones into four morpholog- 1979; Wood, 1980b; Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008; Inbar et al., 2011). The geo- cr cr ical types (Table 3 and Fig. 4): metric center is defined by the intersection point between cone major and minor diameters. (A) Ring-shaped cones: These cinder cones are characterized by cir-

Only 43 volcanoes have been dated in Tenerife, corresponding to cular or slightly elliptical shape (Eco =1–1.6 and Ecr = ≤1.9) 14.5% of the whole island. Several methods and techniques have been and closed craters. This category can be subdivided into two used to date these ediﬁces: 14C, K/Ar, paleomagnetism and historical subgroups: chronicle, over the latest 500 years, since the time of the conquest of – (A1) Symmetrical ring cones: the plan of the cone (Eco = the Canary Islands, between 1402 and 1496 (Romero, 1991). The time ≤1.2) and crater are of circular or sub-circular shape span covered by dating of the basaltic monogenetic volcanoes is around (Ecr = ≤1.2) and they have one crater (Ncr =1). 791 ka, ranging from 791 ka for Montaña Birmagen, in the NE part of – (A2) Asymmetrical ring cones: the plan of the volcano and the

PGVF, up to 1909 for Chinyero volcano when the last eruption in Tene- crater are slightly elongated in one direction (Eco = ≤1.8 rife Island took place in BVF (Soler and Carracedo, 1986; Romero, 1991; and Ecr = ≤1.8). Asymmetry refers only to these two pa- Castellano, 1996; Carracedo et al., 2003, 2007). Nevertheless, it is worth rameters, without taking into account the existence of noting that most of the dated volcanoes, 72.1%, correspond to the last symmetrical or asymmetrical cross-sections. These volca-

noes have one or more crater (Ncr =1–≥1). (B) Horseshoe-shaped volcanoes: These show open craters. There is Table 2 a wide morphological variety of horseshoe cones due to the num- Physical characteristics of volcanic fields in Tenerife. Note: SIco — mean separation between cones, in meters. ber of intervening factors in the shape of this type of edifice. Mor- phological classifications are based on the symmetry of the plan Volcanic XY Number Density SI (m) Orientation co fi fi field cones cones/km2 of the edi ce, the form con guration of craters and slopes and the size and shape of the opening breaking their flanks. All TVF 315.946 3.136.733 12 0.11 1460 NW–SE PGVF 338.996 3.128.558 123 0.24 752 NE–SW these aspects can be grouped in the crater opening and the mor- BVF 327.664 3.131.126 46 0.24 668 NW–SE phology of the craters (Ecr); three types can be distinguished: PVTVF 354.316 3.134.972 20 0.14 747 NW–SE – (B3) Typical horseshoe-shaped cones: They are characterized SLGVF 338.280 3.106.846 94 0.11 925 NW–SE and by the circular or subcircular shaped plans (Eco = NE–SW ≤1.2), the presence of open central craters (Ncr = ≥1) J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447 443

in one direction (Ecr =1–≤1.9), and usually a narrow Riedel et al., 2003; Kereszturi and Németh, 2012; Rodriguez-Gonzalez way-out pass. et al., 2012). There is a close relation between pre-eruptive topography – (B4) Extended vertex (“tuning fork”) horseshoe cones: These and the shape of volcanic constructs for every morphological type de-

are characterized by elliptical plans (Eco = ≥1.6) devel- scribed (Dóniz-Páez, 2001, 2011): oped due to several (N = ≥1) elongated craters cr (1) Ring- or circular-type cones are located at a lower altitude than (E = ≥2) in favor of pre-eruptive slope or as a conse- cr the other morphological types and always appear in areas of quence of the eruptive activity along the fissure. flat topography. From 39 volcanoes of this type, 94.9% (37 – (B5) Slightly extended vertex horseshoe cones or arched edi- cones) are located on gentle slopes (b10°). The two remaining fices: These are volcanoes with elliptical plans (E = co ring shaped cones are located in sectors exhibiting topography ≥1.6), formed around one or several open craters N10° which corresponds to two asymmetrical ring cones whose (N = ≥1) with elliptical elongated forms (E = ≥2). cr cr morphology can be connected to the asymmetric conduit geom- These cones lack a whole flank that corresponds to half, etry (Riedel et al., 2003)(Fig. 7). or less than approximately half, a truncated-cone edifice. (2) Volcanoes without craters are generally located in places with (C) Multiple volcanoes: These have irregular plans (E = ≥2 and co flat topography, but independently of the altitude. E = ≥3) as a result of complex eruption histories evolving cr (3) Most of the multiple volcanoes are located in the highest altitude both eruptive and effusive processes mostly along a fissure. sectors of Tenerife. It is in these places where the highest concen- This causes the formation of complex monogenetic volcanoes tration of the island volcanism occurs, and where more recent as well leading to coalescent edifices. This type of volcano may eruptions (sub-historical and historical) with a distinct fissure present closed and open craters or even different craters in the character have taken place. same cinder cone (N = N1). Therefore, crater morphology is cr (4) Open horseshoe-shaped volcanoes do not have clear correlations not a determining characteristic, but the several craters and with topography and altitude, so they are spread all over the is- every one may have similarly contributed to the construction of land. However, a relation between slope and crater opening the volcanic edifice. They are the most complex cinder cones does exist: from 205 horseshoe volcanoes, in 95.1% (195 edifices) from a morphological viewpoint. slope is the responsible for the opening of the craters (Dóniz-Páez, (D) Volcanoes without crater: Mountains with a cone truncated 2001, 2011) and only 4.9% (10 cones) are related to other factors shape and plans with a tendency to a perfectly circular shape (Fig. 7), such as normal wind action, vent geometry and inclina- (E = ≤1.2); they lack craters with neither cartographic co tion of eruptive conduit (Dehn, 1995; Kereszturi and Németh, (1:10,000) nor morphological expression. These landforms are 2012; Kereszturi et al., 2012, 2013a,b). a consequence of erosion processes, and correspond to the oldest volcanoes (Gangarro and Marzagan without volcanoes), and the The spatial distribution of volcanic cones, as regards their morpho- accumulation of pyroclastic material (Garañana and Arroyo cin- logical types, shows the influence of previous topography in the shape der cones) (Dóniz-Páez, 2004). of the cinder cones (Dóniz-Páez, 2011). When topography slopes less than 10°, most volcanoes are ring-shaped cones and horseshoe- The application of this morphological classification to the total 297 shaped volcanoes with circular and sub-circular elongations and with cinder cones located on Tenerife shows an overwhelming number of one flank more elevated due to the accumulation of pyroclasts, and to horseshoe-shape volcanoes (N = 205), against a relatively low number the wind direction during the eruption. On the other hand, if the slope of other types including ring-shaped cones (N = 39), multiple volca- is greater than 10°, the monogenic volcanoes tend to form open craters noes (N = 19) as well as volcanoes without crater (N = 34) (Figs. 5 and elongated plans. This fact is in keeping with that stated by Tibaldi and 6). (1995), Tibaldi and Lagmay (2006) and Corazzato and Tibaldi (2006), These data highlight that, in Tenerife, the two morphological types who concluded that for breaking the crater, topography controls the ori- traditionally defined (horseshoe-shaped volcanoes, 69%, and ring- entation of the breach when the regional slope is N10°, but when slope shaped cones, 13%) constitute more than 82% of the volcanoes. Although is b10° the breaching occurs parallel to the magma-feeding fracture that most of the monogenetic volcanoes in Tenerife formed upon fissure controls it. eruptions along the rift zones, the eruptive activity is not continuous along the fissure; that is why individual volcanoes with different mor- 4.2.1. The ring-or circular-type cinder cones phologies are edified. An example in place is the eruption of Laki, The morphological and morphometric analysis of ring-type cones of Iceland between 1783 and 1785 (Thordarson and Self, 1993), or Tenerife shows that these edifices correspond to very simple cones, Timanfaya, Lanzarote between 1730 and 1736 (Carracedo et al., 1994). with circular plans and closed craters. The circular character and the In spite of this, the total number of multiple cones is relatively small, closed shape of the crater are related to several factors: the angle of only 19. This is related to differences in the eruptive activity along the the ballistic trajectories of pyroclastics ejected, scarce pyroclastic dis- fracture, which generates morphologically independent volcanoes that persal, geometry of the eruptive conduit, concentration of explosive cannot be considered as multiple edifices. Thus, Tenerife shows multiple eruptive activity at a point along the volcanic fracture, different dynamic examples, e.g. the triple historical eruption Sietefuentes–Fasnia–Arafo, behavior of volcanic vents, succession of explosive and effusive stages in 1704–1705 which built up three volcanic edifices separated from during an active period, and the topography of the volcanoes emplace- one another along a 13-km fracture (Romero, 1991). In Fasnia volcano, ment area (Dóniz-Páez, 2004; Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008, 2011, 2012; along a 1-km fracture various cinder cones were formed with different Kereszturi and Németh, 2012). morphologies (ring-shaped cones, horseshoe-shaped volcanoes, multi- These are volcanoes with circular morphology, homogeneous slope ple volcanoes and volcanoes without crater). flanks and mostly symmetrical cross-sections. Although these edifices The larger percentage of horseshoe-shaped volcanoes with respect to can have several craters, their ring-shaped morphology is directly relat- ring type cones can be explained by taking into account the previous sur- ed to the concentration of the explosive activity in a specificsectionof face slope and, to a lesser extent, other factors such as prevailing wind di- the eruptive fissure, bringing into existence a unique crater (A1-sym- rection (Montaña Rasca horseshoe-shaped volcano) or actual wind metrical ring-shaped) (Fig. 8) or to several coalescent vents of funnel direction during eruptions (Chinyero horseshoe-shaped volcano), asym- morphology (A2-asymmetrical ring-shaped) (Fig. 9). These main cra- metric conduit geometry (Sietecañadas cinder cone), asymmetric lava ters exhibit circular or slightly elliptical plans. Occasionally, closed spatter accumulations in the crater rim as a collar that eroded in a differ- ring-shaped cones can have eruptive fissures located in the external ential way (Samara scoria cone) (Macgethin et al., 1974; Dehn, 1995; base of the volcanic edifice that emits abundant lava flows. 444 J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447

4.2.2. The horseshoe-shaped cinder cones (Fig. 13). Some 19 edifices (6.4% of Tenerife volcanoes) have been con- Apparently, horseshoe-shaped volcanoes show very simple morpho- structed as a result of the association and juxtaposition of two or more logical features similar to the ring-shaped cones. Nevertheless, the mor- volcanic cones and of the existence of several craters. phology of this type of volcano is more varied than that of ring-shaped The analysis of the number of craters in every morphological type cones. The distinctive feature of this type of volcano is the open main cra- shows that only multiple cinder cones have always more than one crater and the absence of part of their flanks, which is associated with the ter, with variations ranging from a minimum of three craters up to a topographical effect for these 195 volcanoes in slopes N10°, and whose maximum of ten. This large number of craters indicates that their con- lava flows break one of the volcano flanks. For the remaining 10 volca- struction is a result of complex processes along an eruptive fissure, noes located in sectors whose slope is b10°, the wind is the factor that which together determines the final irregular flanks, and irregularly conditions the breach of the crater. They have circular or elongated shaped plans and craters. Thus, these volcanoes have much more irreg- plans, as a consequence of their construction from several vents. ular morphologies than ring-shaped or horseshoe-shaped volcanoes. The absence of a part of their flanks can be due to either the lack of The morphological features of multiple volcanoes depend on a com- construction or to their truncation by subsequent emissions of lava bination of several factors, such as fissure, dynamic eruption or slope sur- flows. In both cases, the open character of the craters is related to several face (Romero, 1991, 1992). Given the fact that the plan of these factors, such as wind blowing during the eruption, the inclination of the volcanoes directly relies on the fracture system, this factor can be consid- substratum, the alternation of explosive and effusive phases, and the ge- ered as the main cause for the shape of these volcanoes. The morpholog- ometry and orientation of feeder dyke (Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008; Bemis ical characterization of multiple volcanoes in Tenerife reveals that the et al., 2011; Kereszturi and Németh, 2012; Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., higher the complexity is, the lower the concentration of volcanic activity 2012). According to the morphological variety, three morphological along the fracture, and the higher the difference in altitude of the many sub-types of horseshoe-shaped volcanoes have been established: typical craters appearing on it. (Fig. 10), tuning-fork horseshoe volcanoes (Fig. 11) and arched cones (Fig. 12). This classification was used to define historical Canarian horse- 4.2.4. Volcanoes without crater shoe volcanoes (Romero, 1991, 1992), and was later applied more specif- Sometimes volcanic cones without a visible crater can also be found. ically to those of Lanzarote (Romero, 2003), Tenerife (Dóniz-Páez, 2004) These edifices are composed by pyroclastic rocks (ash, lapilli, scoria, and more recently to those in Calatrava Volcanic Region (Central Iberian) bombs, etc.). The morphological observations made in the Canarian Ar- (Becerra-Ramirez, 2013). chipelago indicate that they do not have visible crater because of many Typical horseshoe-shaped volcanoes (146) constitute the 71.2% of the reasons, such as erosion products covering the craters (Fig. 14)(Criado, volcanic cones of this category, followed by the arched volcanoes (20%) 1984), or craters covered by eruptive products from other recent volca- and tuning fork edifices (8.8%). It is worth noting that, in first place, typical noes nearby (Romero, 1991, 1992). Once analyzed, the frequent locali- horseshoe-shaped volcanoes add up to 49.2% of all volcanoes of the island, zation of volcanoes without craters close to more recent eruptive being the most representative morphology of basaltic monogenic volca- edifices in Tenerife reveals that some 64.7% (22 volcanoes) show that nism of Tenerife, something similar to what happens in other locations their craters have been filled by volcanic products from close eruptions, like Lanzarote (Romero, 2003), Calatrava (Becerra-Ramirez), Etna while 35.3% (12 volcanoes) lack a proper crater, erased by the erosive (Corazzato and Tibaldi, 2006). In second place, tuning fork edifices, or ex- action. Nonetheless, independently of their origin, these constructions tended vertex horseshoe-shaped volcanoes, correspond to the least rep- are characterized by sub-elliptical plans, with an average elliptical resentative sub-type (6.1%), as it is also the case in the Calatrava index of 1.4, and preferred locations on areas of flat topography. Volcanic Region (Becerra-Ramirez, 2013). Last, arched edifices, with 41 fi samples, constitute the 13.8% of the edi ces of the whole island, being 5. Discussion the second category most representative of Tenerife volcanoes. Taking into account the variety of factors intervening in the final 4.2.3. Multiple volcanoes shape of the volcanic edifices (Riedel et al., 2003; Rodríguez et al., Multiple volcanoes are those with more than one single cone (ring- 2010; Bemis et al., 2011; Inbar et al., 2011; Kereszturi and Németh, shaped or open horseshoe-shaped volcanoes) or crater (open or close) 2012; Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al., 2012), as well the enormous

Fig. 16. Different classifications of cinder cones (modified after Becerra-Ramirez, 2013). J. Dóniz-Páez / Geomorphology 228 (2015) 432–447 445 difficulties in establishing simple morphological models for all the mor- and slightly extended vertex horseshoe-shaped volcanoes or phological variables present in monogenic volcanoes, it has been decid- arched edifices), (iii) multiple edifices, and (iv) volcanoes without ed to use a simple typology that has the traditional classification as a craters. starting point (Fig. 16). This typology is, on the one hand, easy to use, (6) The relative importance of each morphostructural category in the and on the other, representative of the main qualitative and quantitative whole population of Tenerife volcanoes is different: there is a very morphological features of the monogenic basaltic cones of Tenerife high predominance (82.1%) of the two classical morphologies of (Dóniz-Páez et al., 2008). the monogenic basaltic volcanoes, such as open horseshoe- It is evident that the classification proposed here is a simplification of shaped, 69.0%, and ring-shaped, 13.1%, followed by pyroclastics the morphological features observed in this type of volcano with respect mountains, 11.5%, and last, the multiple volcanic edifices, 6.4%. to other classifications previously established. It is also evident that this (7) There seems to be a good correlation between topographic fea- simplicity is what makes it useful to apply to other volcanic regions. The tures where volcanoes are located, their morphometric character- morphological classification proposed has been carried out attending istics, and their resulting morphology. Ring-shaped volcanoes and not only to exclusive factors appearing in Tenerife, but to general factors pyroclastic mountains, morphologically more homogeneous, are on volcanic processes that are also present in other volcanic regions. In mostly emplaced in areas of gentle slopes (N10°) and small height this sense, for instance, the morphological classification of Tenerife his- differences having the lowest morphometric indexes; on the torical volcanoes, based on fissure system and eruptive dynamics other hand, morphologically more heterogeneous eruptive edi- (Romero, 1992), is too specific to be applied to the totality of cinder fices, like open horseshoe-shaped volcanoes and multiple edifices, cones on the island. Such a limitation made room for the need to pro- are mostly located in areas with rough topography and having the pose a morphological classification of cinder cones able to encapsulate highest morphometric indexes. (non-) historical volcanoes. (8) In general, and taking into account the morphological complexity, Despite being a simple classification, the method adopted here a ranking of morphostructural categories can be established, from summarizes the most significant morphostructural features of more to less complex arrangements as multiple edifices, open monogenic basaltic volcanoes located in Tenerife. It is a morpholog- horseshoe-shaped volcanoes, ring-shaped cones and volcanoes ical classification that permits grouping of all the monogenic basaltic without craters. volcanoes of the island. Thus, it constitutes a valid classification that (9) The classification proposed in this paper is simple, easy to use and can be extrapolated to the analysis and systematization of cinder or valid because it includes the entire population of the 297 mono- scoria cones with similar characteristics situated in volcanic islands genic volcanoes of Tenerife studied. This also makes this classifica- or in continental volcanic fields. Such a method has been applied to tion suitable to be applied to other similar volcanoes within 111 monogenetic volcanoes in Calatrava volcanic region, a continen- volcanic fields worldwide. tal field which revealed the following results: 66 volcanoes without crater, 19 horseshoe-shaped ones, 16 ringed-shaped cones, and fi- Acknowledgements nally, 10 multiple volcanoes (Becerra-Ramirez, 2013). These data show that the classification can be applied to other volcanic fields, This paper has been funded by the project VOLTEC-3T, supported by and that the results are highly valid. In Calatrava volcanic region, OAPN of the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Nutrition, and Environ- 60% of cinder cones lack craters, which pinpoints the existence of a ment. The English revision was provided by P. Carmona, Department less recent volcanism (Cebriá et al., 2011). of English and German Languages, University of La Laguna (Spain). We are aware that monogenetic volcanism is present in different The author is grateful to K. Németh and an anonymous reviewer for pre- tectonic settings, diverse magma compositions (mafic or salic), and dif- cious suggestions and comments that have contributed to the improve- ferent volcanic fields (flank and platforms; island or continental, etc.), ment of this article. A. 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