Imperialism in China

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Imperialism in China Imperialism in China Unit 5: Imperialism Opium Wars Opium Trade in China ● Emperor Qianlong restricted foreign trade to one single location at Canton (Guangzhou) in southern China ● Britain ran heavy trade deficits with China; could only trade with silver ○ Feared they would run out of silver ● Britain owned massive opium (highly addictive product from the opium poppy) industry in India ○ Opium began being mixed with tobacco for smoking; increased demand ■ High demand for opium in China = Britain trading opium for goods instead of silver ● Qing banned opium as addiction spread Trade Rules in China for Foreigners 1. No foreign warships may sail inside the Bogue [i.e., the harbor approach to Canton city] 2. Neither foreign women nor firearms may be brought into the factories [i.e., the warehouse complex reserved for foreign traders within the harbor but outside Canton city walls] 3. foreign ships must not enter into direct communication with the Chinese people and merchants without the immediate supervision (of a native Chinese) 4. Each factory [each trading nation had its own 'factory'] is restricted for its service to 8 Chinese (irrespective of the number of its occupants) . 5. Foreigners may not communicate with Chinese officials except through the proper channel of the Co-hong Trade Rules in China for Foreigners 6. Foreigners are not allowed to row boats freely in the river . .On the 8th, 18th, and 28th days of the moon 'they may take the air . All ships' boats passing the Custom-houses on the river must be detained and examoined, to guard against guns, swords, or firearms being furtively carried in them. On the 8th, 18th, and 28th days of the moon these foreign barbarians may visit the Flower Gardens and the Honam Joss-house, but not in droves of over ten at one time. If the ten should presume to enter villages, public places, or bazaars, punishment will be inflicted upon the (interpreter) who accompanies them 7. Foreign trade must be conducted through the hong merchants. Foreigners living in the factories must not move in and out too frequently, although they may walk freely within a hundred yards of their factories . 8. Foreign traders must not remain in Canton after the trading season [which lasted from October to May each year] . they should return home or go to Macao [the Portuguese enclave at the mouth of the harbor] 9. Foreigners may neither buy Chinese books, nor learn Chinese [difficult to accept that this restriction could be enforced!] 10. The hong merchants shall not go into debt to foreigners Year Amount of opium imported to China from India (1 chest = 140 lbs) 1773 1,000 chests 1790 4,000 chests 1824 10,000 chests 1828 18,000 chests 1839 40,000 chests 1865 76,000 chests 1884 81,000 chests (peak) “Opium has a very violent effect. When an addict smokes it, it rapidly makes him extremely excited and capable of doing anything he pleases. But before long, it kills him. Opium is a poison, undermining our good customs and morality. Its use is prohibited by law. Now the commoner...dares to bring it into the Forbidden City. Indeed, he flouts the law! He should be turned over to the Board of Punishment, and should be tried and severely sentenced. However, recently the purchases and eaters of opium have become numerous. Deceitful merchants buy and sell it to gain profit. The customs house at the Ch'ung-wen Gate was originally set up to supervise the collection of imports (it had no responsibility with regard to opium smuggling). If we confine our search for opium to the seaports, we fear the search will not be sufficiently thorough. We should also order the general commandant of the police and police- censors at the five gates to prohibit opium and to search for it at all gates. If they capture any violators, they should immediately punish them and should destroy the opium at once. As to Kwangtung and Fukien, the provinces from which opium comes, we order their viceroys, governors, and superintendents of the maritime customs to conduct a thorough search for opium, and cut off its supply. They should in no ways consider this order a dead letter and allow opium to be smuggled out!” - Emperor Jiaqing, 1810 Opium Smuggling and First Opium War ● With ban in place, Britain began illegally smuggling opium into China ● Chinese officials demanded British at Canton surrender all opium ○ 21,306 chests (~3,000,000 lbs) destroyed ● Britain demanded repayment for destruction of property ● Chinese refusal led to First Opium War ○ Easy victory for British; military technology far ahead ○ Peace treaty increased trading ports from 1 → 5 ○ Also carved up Shanghai and Hong Kong into spheres of influence Treaty of Nanjing The Treaty of Nanjing was signed by Chinese officials at gunpoint and gave Britain: ● an excellent deep-water port at Hong Kong; ● a huge indemnity (compensation) to be paid to the British government and merchants; ● five new Chinese treaty ports at Guangzhou (Canton), Shanghai, Xiamen (Amoy), Ningbo, and Fuzhou, where British merchants and their families could reside; ● extraterritoriality for British citizens residing in these treaty ports, meaning that they were subject to British, not Chinese, laws; and ● a “most favoured nation” clause that any rights gained by other foreign countries would automatically apply to Great Britain as well. Century of Humiliation ● British felt the Qing were not fulfilling the treaty; Qing officials avoided diplomatic meetings ● British and French launched Second Opium War and captured Beijing ● Chinese gov’t signed a new treaty to end the war ○ Gave foreigners 11 more trading ports ○ Christian missionaries flooded into China ○ Opium trade formally legalized ● Humiliating defeats in Opium Wars forced the Qing to reevaluate their place in the world ○ “If you are backward, you will take a beating.” ● Not all British supported Opium Wars ○ Many British citizens and politicians believed opium trade to be evil Tai Ping Rebellion The Tai Ping Rebellion (1850-1864) ● Lasted 14 years ● Bloodiest civil war in history ○ 20-70 million casualties ● Largest war of the 1800s ● Greatly weakened Qing Dynasty and proved they could not control things from Beijing Hong Xiuquan ● Christian convert (failed civil service candidate) ○ Received visions from God telling him to save China (and that he was Jesus’ brother) ○ Argued for massive land and political reform; anti-Manchu and anti-Confucian ○ Popular among poor farmers and laborers The Taiping Tianguo ● Means, “Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace” ● Expanded north along the Yangtze River ○ More than 1 million followers by 1850 ● Qing government persecutes group leading to civil war The Rebellion ● Hong’s capital = Nanking ○ Defeated Qing in several battles early on, but never took Beijing ○ Conquered huge amounts of territory ○ Civilians often caught in crossfire ● Hong nearly assassinated by his commander-in-chief in 1853; began ordering numerous executions ○ Broke through siege of Nanking, but were defeated in Shanghai in 1860 End of the Rebellion ● Qing victorious, but further weakened ● Helped by foreign soldiers ● 1864- Hong dies from food poisoning (possibly committed suicide) ○ Fighting continued years after his death Tai Ping Rebellion Aftermath ● Overwhelming casualties (20-30 million) ● Qing government never fully recovered ○ Reform attempted in 1890s, but was too late ● Warlords with own armies spread across China ● Early roots of communism introduced The Boxer Rebellion The Boxers ● Europeans and Americans gradually imposed their demands and beliefs on the Chinese people ○ People feel bullied, Qing unable to stop them ● In reaction, rural Chinese formed secret spiritual/martial arts society (The Righteous and Harmonious Fists) to resist foreign influence; called “Boxers” by Westerners ○ Extremely anti-foreigner, anti-Christian ● Boxers attracted many young men to their cause, began targeting missionaries and converts ○ Were well-organized, but poorly armed (still used swords and polearms) The Boxer Rebellion ● Boxers killed thousands of foreigners, missionaries, and Chinese converts to Christianity between 1899-1901 ○ Qing empress unofficially supported Boxers at first ● In response, Eight-Nation Alliance sent ~50,000 troops to stop Boxers ○ Empress sent Qing army to block foreign troops (not all Qing officials supported the empress) ● Rebellion crushed by Eight-Nation Alliance in Beijing; capital occupied for a year after ○ 100,000 Chinese civilians dead ○ Beijing countryside looted by foreign troops, many atrocities ○ China forced to pay massive reparations (payments to make amends for wrongdoing) ● Boxer Rebellion failure = death knell of the Qing dynasty ○ Qing collapse ~10 years later Soldiers of the Eight-Nation Alliance *Russia missing U.K. U.S. Australia British Germany France Austria- Italy Japan India Hungary .
Recommended publications
  • Beijing City Day Tour to Forbidden City and Temple of Heaven
    www.lilysunchinatours.com Beijing City Day Tour to Forbidden City and Temple of Heaven Basics Tour Code: LCT - BJ - 1D - 04 Duration: 1 Day Attractions: Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, Summer Palace, Tian’anmen Square Overview: Embark on a journey to four major classic attractions in Beijing in a single day. Take the morning to explore the palatial and extravagant Forbidden City and the biggest city square in the world - Tian’anmen Square. In the afternoon, head for the old royal garden of Summer Palace and Temple of Heaven, the very place where emperors from Ming and Qing Dynasties held grand sacrifice ceremonies to the heaven. Highlights Stroll on the Tian’anmen Square and listen to the stories behind all the monuments, gates, museums and halls. Marvel at the exquisite Forbidden City - the largest palace complex in the world. Enjoy a peaceful time in Summer Palace. Meet a lot of Beijing local people in Temple of Heaven; Satisfy your tongue with a meal full of Beijing delicacies. Itinerary Date Starting Time Destination Day 1 09:00 a.m Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, Summer Palace, Tian’anmen Square After breakfast, your tour expert and guide will take you to the first destination of the day - Tel: +86 18629295068 1 Email: [email protected][email protected] www.lilysunchinatours.com Tian’anmen Square. Seated in the center of Beijing, the square is well-known to be the largest city square in the world. The fact is the Tian’anmen Square is also a witness of numerous historical events and changes. At present, the square has become a place hosting a lot of monuments, museums, halls and the grand celebrations and military parades.
    [Show full text]
  • Spectacle, Speculation, and the Hyperspace of Sovereignty
    8 Hyperbuilding: Spectacle, Speculation, and the Hyperspace of Sovereignty Aihwa Ong The Chinese love the monumental ambition …. CCTV headquarters is an ambi- tious building. It was conceived at the same time that the design competition for Ground Zero took place – not in backward-looking US, but in the parallel universe of China. In communism, engineering has a high status, its laws resonating with Marxian wheels of history. Rem Koolhaas and OMA (2004: 129) Urban Spectacles The proliferation of metropolitan spectacles in Asia indexes a new cultural regime as major cities race to attain even more striking skylines. Beijing’s cluster of Olympic landmarks, Shanghai’s TV tower, Hong Kong’s forest of corporate towers, Singapore’s Marina Sands complex, and super-tall Burj Khalifa in Dubai are urban spectaculars that evoke the “technological sublime.” Frederic Jameson famously made the claim that the postmodern sublime has dissolved Marxian historical consciousness, but nowhere did he consider the role of architectural sublime in indexing a different kind of historical consciousness, one of national arrival on the global stage (Jameson 1991: 32–8). Despite the 2008–9 economic downturn, Shanghai’s urban transformation for the 2010 World Expo will exceed Beijing’s makeover for the 2008 Olympics.1 Spectacular architecture is often viewed as the handiwork of corporate capital in the colonization of urban markets. For instance, Anthony King and Abidin Kusno, writing about “On Be(ij)ing in the world,” argue that the rise of cutting-edge buildings in Beijing is an instantiation of postmodern globalization transforming the Chinese capital into a “transnational Worlding Cities: Asian Experiments and the Art of Being Global, First Edition.
    [Show full text]
  • Qing (Manchu) Dynasty 1644 -1910
    5/3/2012 Qing (Manchu) Dynasty 1644 -1910 Qing 1644-1910 Qing 1644-1910 Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1912) Ming dynasty fell in 1644 amid peasant uprisings and Manchu invasion Manchu and Han Chinese 1 5/3/2012 Politics Manchus rule - not Han Chinese strongly resisted by native Han Chinese 2 % of the pop. of China was Manchu Manchus ruled using Chinese system but Chinese were forbidden to hold high national offices. Continued Confucian civil service system. The Neo-Confucian philosophy - obedience of subject to ruler continued Qing 1644-1910 Manchu Qing expansion conquered Outer Mongolia and into central Asia, Taiwan and Tibet. First dynasty to eliminate all danger to China from across its land borders. Largest land area of any Chinese state Qing 1644-1910 Qing 1644-1910 2 5/3/2012 Economy Built large public buildings and public irrigation, walls, gates and other infrastructure. Light taxes to win popularity with people Commerce and international trade grew enormously especially with Japan and Europe Exported porcelain, Silk and spices through maritime trade and Silk Road Qing 1644-1910 Religion Neo-Confucianism important Buddhism, Taoism and ancestor worship continue Christianity grew rapidly until the outlawing of Christianity in the 1830s-40s Catholic and Protestant missionaries built churches and spread education throughout rural and urban China Qing 1644-1910 Social Han Chinese discriminated against all Han men to wear their hair braided in the back, which they found humiliating forbid women to bind their feet but repealed the rule in 1688 since they couldn't enforce it Manchus were forbidden to engage in trade or manual labor.
    [Show full text]
  • The Evil Trade That Opened China to the West
    CHARM 2007 The Evil Trade that Opened China to the West Shirley Ye Sheng, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, USA Eric H. Shaw, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, USA CHINA’S PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE This paper examines the effects of the Opium Wars on the opening of trade with China during the mid 1800s. Also Having risen to the heights of a great civilization, examined are the economic, social and political believing her self the celestial center of the earth—the consequences of these wars. The lessons learned from the Middle Kingdom—with nothing to learn from foreigners, opium trade still shapes China’s world view and dealings China went into a self imposed isolation. This false sense of with the West. superiority was shattered by the Opium Wars of the nineteenth century, started by foreigners under the guise of trade who were anxious to steal the fabled riches of the INTRODUCTION Orient. These wars exposed China’s weak social, economic and political structures. The humiliation suffered in losing the Opium Wars forced China to learn from the West. Until the opium Wars, most Chinese believed that Subsequently, China has moved from a peasant economy to heaven was round and produced a circular projection on a a brief bout with capitalism in the early twentieth century, to square Earth. This circular projection on earth was China. political and economic communism at mid-century, to its Outside the circle, other countries made up the corners of current state—a mixed communist polity and capitalist square earth. People living in these foreign countries at the economy.
    [Show full text]
  • Voyages & Travel
    VOYAGES & TRAVEL CATALOGUE 1485 MAGGS BROS. LTD. atalogue is a selection of fty or so travel items to celebrate the rm’s moving Cinto its new premises at Bedford Square. In recent times we have structured travel catalogues by region, but here we hark back to some of the early, great Maggs catalogues and have ordered the items chronologically. We have tried to represent each area of the globe, from the discoveries in both poles, the Far East, the Middle East, the Paci c and the Americas. Among Cover image: item 25; Company School the highlights, are the two early manuscript leaves documenting Marco Polo’s travels to China and, particularly, Tibet. ere is a stunning mid-eighteenth MAGGS BROS. LTD. 48 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DR century view of Rio de Janeiro by the Baron de Breteuil, Telephone: ++ () a signi cant album of Indian watercolours executed by Facsimile: ++ () Company School artists, and a vast trove of manuscript Email: [email protected] and photographic material assembled by Charles Tennant for his landmark work on Ceylon. e Arctic is represented by the likes of Arthur Dobbs and John Rae while the Antarctic includes a rare copy of James Weddell’s Observations… and two of Herbert Ponting’s beautiful photographs. We look forward to welcoming you to the new shop as we commence the next phase of our history. © Maggs Bros. Ltd. 2017 Design by Radius Graphics Printed and Bound by The Gomer Press, Ceredigion An Original 14th Century Manuscript of an Important Section of Marco Polo’s Travels POLO (Marco). [Two original th century manuscript leaves, on vellum, containing the text of seven chapters of Marco Polo’s landmark description of his travels to Asia, including his description of Tibet].
    [Show full text]
  • Warfare in a Fragile World: Military Impact on the Human Environment
    Recent Slprt•• books World Armaments and Disarmament: SIPRI Yearbook 1979 World Armaments and Disarmament: SIPRI Yearbooks 1968-1979, Cumulative Index Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation Other related •• 8lprt books Ecological Consequences of the Second Ihdochina War Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Environment Publish~d on behalf of SIPRI by Taylor & Francis Ltd 10-14 Macklin Street London WC2B 5NF Distributed in the USA by Crane, Russak & Company Inc 3 East 44th Street New York NY 10017 USA and in Scandinavia by Almqvist & WikseH International PO Box 62 S-101 20 Stockholm Sweden For a complete list of SIPRI publications write to SIPRI Sveavagen 166 , S-113 46 Stockholm Sweden Stoekholol International Peace Research Institute Warfare in a Fragile World Military Impact onthe Human Environment Stockholm International Peace Research Institute SIPRI is an independent institute for research into problems of peace and conflict, especially those of disarmament and arms regulation. It was established in 1966 to commemorate Sweden's 150 years of unbroken peace. The Institute is financed by the Swedish Parliament. The staff, the Governing Board and the Scientific Council are international. As a consultative body, the Scientific Council is not responsible for the views expressed in the publications of the Institute. Governing Board Dr Rolf Bjornerstedt, Chairman (Sweden) Professor Robert Neild, Vice-Chairman (United Kingdom) Mr Tim Greve (Norway) Academician Ivan M£ilek (Czechoslovakia) Professor Leo Mates (Yugoslavia) Professor
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 31 Notes: Societies at Crossroads
    Chapter 31 Notes: Societies at Crossroads Chapter Outline I. Introduction: Ottoman empire, Russia, China, and Japan A. Common problems 1. Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats 2. Internal weakness due to economic problems, financial difficulties, and corruption B. Reform efforts 1. Attempts at political and educational reform and at industrialization 2. Turned to western models C. Different results of reforms 1. Ottoman empire, Russia, and China unsuccessful; societies on the verge of collapse 2. Reform in Japan was more thorough; Japan emerged as an industrial power II. The Ottoman empire in decline A. The nature of decline 1. Military decline since the late seventeenth century a. Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training b. Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined c. Provincial governors gained power, private armies 2. Extensive territorial losses in nineteenth century a. Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia; western frontiers to Austria; Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia b. Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed campaign in 1798 (a) Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful, modern army (b) Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an autonomous province 3. Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century a. Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin b. Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods c. Heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest d. Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882 4. The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy a. Extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire b.
    [Show full text]
  • Journey to Dunhuang: Buddhist Art of the Silk Road Caves
    The Newsletter | No.73 | Spring 2016 56 | The Portrait Journey to Dunhuang: Buddhist art of the Silk Road caves During World War II, James C. M. Lo (1902–1987), a photojournalist for the Central News Agency, and his wife Lucy 劉氏·羅先 arrived at Dunhuang. James Lo had taken a year’s leave to photograph the Buddhist cave temples at Mogao and at nearby Yulin. Lucy was also a photographer, and together they made the arduous journey in 1943. They systematically produced over 2500 black and white photographs that record the caves as they were in the mid-20th century. FOONG Ping 1 2 Seattle Asian Art Museum, Foster Galleries 4 By the end of the Tang dynasty, the cliff face at Mogao was 5 March – 12 June 2016 completely covered with caves. Since no new caves could be Journey to Dunhuang is organized in cooperation opened, donors paid for existing ones to be redecorated and with the Princeton University Art Museum and – and infamous forger – Zhang Daqian (1899-1983), Fig 1 (above their portraits would sometimes be added to the cave walls. the P.Y. and Kinmay W. Tang Center for East Asian Art who was at Dunhuang repairing and making replicas of Mogao left): View of the Some Lo photographs document how walls were deeply scored murals. He helped the Los form their collection of manuscript Northern Mogao during renovations, in preparation for a new, smooth surface THE LO PHOTOGRAPHIC ARCHIVE is a feat of ingenuity, fragments and a few carry both their seals. For Zhang, Dunhuang Caves, Photograph of white gaolin clay; to James these scorings formed patterns of organization, and sheer courage.
    [Show full text]
  • Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881
    China and the Modern World: Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881 The East India Company’s steamship Nemesis and other British ships engaging Chinese junks in the Second Battle of Chuenpi, 7 January 1841, during the first opium war. (British Library) ABOUT THE ARCHIVE China and the Modern World: Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881 is digitised from the FO 17 series of British Foreign Office Files—Foreign Office: Political and Other Departments: General Correspondence before 1906, China— held at the National Archives, UK, providing a vast and significant primary source for researching every aspect of Chinese-British relations during the nineteenth century, ranging from diplomacy to trade, economics, politics, warfare, emigration, translation and law. This first part includes all content from FO 17 volumes 1–872. Source Library Number of Images The National Archives, UK Approximately 532,000 CONTENT From Lord Amherst’s mission at the start of the nineteenth century, through the trading monopoly of the Canton System, and the Opium Wars of 1839–1842 and 1856–1860, Britain and other foreign powers gradually gained commercial, legal, and territorial rights in China. Imperial China and the West provides correspondence from the Factories of Canton (modern Guangzhou) and from the missionaries and diplomats who entered China in the early nineteenth century, as well as from the envoys and missions sent to China from Britain and the later legation and consulates. The documents comprising this collection include communications to and from the British legation, first at Hong Kong and later at Peking, and British consuls at Shanghai, Amoy (Xiamen), Swatow (Shantou), Hankow (Hankou), Newchwang (Yingkou), Chefoo (Yantai), Formosa (Taiwan), and more.
    [Show full text]
  • TITLE Secret World of the Forbidden City: Splendors from Imperial China, 1644-1911 and Change and Continuity: Chinese Americans in California
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 480 599 SO 035 272 TITLE Secret World of the Forbidden City: Splendors from Imperial China, 1644-1911 and Change and Continuity: Chinese Americans in California. Exhibition Information and Curriculum Guide for Teachers Grades 2-11. PUB DATE 2000-00-00 NOTE 101p.; Prepared by the Oakland Museum of California Education Department. Color transparencies may not reproduce adequately. AVAILABLE FROM Oakland Museum of California, 100 Oak Street, Oakland, CA 94607-4892. Tel: 510-238-2200; Web site: http://www.museumca.org/exhibit/exhib_forbiddencity.html. PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Teacher (052) EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Area Studies; *Art Education; *Chinese Americans; *Chinese Culture; Curriculum Enrichment; Educational Resources; Elementary Secondary Education; Exhibits; Foreign Countries; Global Education; *Museums; State Standards; *Visual Arts IDENTIFIERS California; *China; *Chinese Art; Chinese Civilization; Cultural Resources ABSTRACT The materials in this curriculum guide were designed to prepare teachers and students in grades 2-11 for the "Secret World of the Forbidden City: Splendors from China's Imperial Palace 1644-1911" exhibition at the Oakland Museum of California Education Department, to inform teachers and students about Imperial China, and to illuminate the continuing traditions of U.S. Chinese people in California. The guide includes a detailed table showing grade level recommendations and connections to the State of California Content Standards and Visual Arts Framework.
    [Show full text]
  • Making the Palace Machine Work Palace Machine the Making
    11 ASIAN HISTORY Siebert, (eds) & Ko Chen Making the Machine Palace Work Edited by Martina Siebert, Kai Jun Chen, and Dorothy Ko Making the Palace Machine Work Mobilizing People, Objects, and Nature in the Qing Empire Making the Palace Machine Work Asian History The aim of the series is to offer a forum for writers of monographs and occasionally anthologies on Asian history. The series focuses on cultural and historical studies of politics and intellectual ideas and crosscuts the disciplines of history, political science, sociology and cultural studies. Series Editor Hans Hågerdal, Linnaeus University, Sweden Editorial Board Roger Greatrex, Lund University David Henley, Leiden University Ariel Lopez, University of the Philippines Angela Schottenhammer, University of Salzburg Deborah Sutton, Lancaster University Making the Palace Machine Work Mobilizing People, Objects, and Nature in the Qing Empire Edited by Martina Siebert, Kai Jun Chen, and Dorothy Ko Amsterdam University Press Cover illustration: Artful adaptation of a section of the 1750 Complete Map of Beijing of the Qianlong Era (Qianlong Beijing quantu 乾隆北京全圖) showing the Imperial Household Department by Martina Siebert based on the digital copy from the Digital Silk Road project (http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/II-11-D-802, vol. 8, leaf 7) Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout isbn 978 94 6372 035 9 e-isbn 978 90 4855 322 8 (pdf) doi 10.5117/9789463720359 nur 692 Creative Commons License CC BY NC ND (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0) The authors / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2021 Some rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, any part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise).
    [Show full text]
  • The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900
    07-02574 China Relief Cover.indd 1 11/19/08 12:53:03 PM 07-02574 China Relief Cover.indd 2 11/19/08 12:53:04 PM The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900 prepared by LTC(R) Robert R. Leonhard, Ph.D. The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory This essay reflects the views of the author alone and does not necessarily imply concurrence by The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) or any other organization or agency, public or private. About the Author LTC(R) Robert R. Leonhard, Ph.D., is on the Principal Professional Staff of The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory and a member of the Strategic Assessments Office of the National Security Analysis Department. He retired from a 24-year career in the Army after serving as an infantry officer and war planner and is a veteran of Operation Desert Storm. Dr. Leonhard is the author of The Art of Maneuver: Maneuver-Warfare Theory and AirLand Battle (1991), Fighting by Minutes: Time and the Art of War (1994), The Principles of War for the Informa- tion Age (1998), and The Evolution of Strategy in the Global War on Terrorism (2005), as well as numerous articles and essays on national security issues. Foreign Concessions and Spheres of Influence China, 1900 Introduction The summer of 1900 saw the formation of a perfect storm of conflict over the northern provinces of China. Atop an anachronistic and arrogant national government sat an aged and devious woman—the Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi.
    [Show full text]