Dynamic Games Under Bounded Rationality
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Game Theory 2: Extensive-Form Games and Subgame Perfection
Game Theory 2: Extensive-Form Games and Subgame Perfection 1 / 26 Dynamics in Games How should we think of strategic interactions that occur in sequence? Who moves when? And what can they do at different points in time? How do people react to different histories? 2 / 26 Modeling Games with Dynamics Players Player function I Who moves when Terminal histories I Possible paths through the game Preferences over terminal histories 3 / 26 Strategies A strategy is a complete contingent plan Player i's strategy specifies her action choice at each point at which she could be called on to make a choice 4 / 26 An Example: International Crises Two countries (A and B) are competing over a piece of land that B occupies Country A decides whether to make a demand If Country A makes a demand, B can either acquiesce or fight a war If A does not make a demand, B keeps land (game ends) A's best outcome is Demand followed by Acquiesce, worst outcome is Demand and War B's best outcome is No Demand and worst outcome is Demand and War 5 / 26 An Example: International Crises A can choose: Demand (D) or No Demand (ND) B can choose: Fight a war (W ) or Acquiesce (A) Preferences uA(D; A) = 3 > uA(ND; A) = uA(ND; W ) = 2 > uA(D; W ) = 1 uB(ND; A) = uB(ND; W ) = 3 > uB(D; A) = 2 > uB(D; W ) = 1 How can we represent this scenario as a game (in strategic form)? 6 / 26 International Crisis Game: NE Country B WA D 1; 1 3X; 2X Country A ND 2X; 3X 2; 3X I Is there something funny here? I Is there something funny here? I Specifically, (ND; W )? I Is there something funny here? -
Best Experienced Payoff Dynamics and Cooperation in the Centipede Game
Theoretical Economics 14 (2019), 1347–1385 1555-7561/20191347 Best experienced payoff dynamics and cooperation in the centipede game William H. Sandholm Department of Economics, University of Wisconsin Segismundo S. Izquierdo BioEcoUva, Department of Industrial Organization, Universidad de Valladolid Luis R. Izquierdo Department of Civil Engineering, Universidad de Burgos We study population game dynamics under which each revising agent tests each of his strategies a fixed number of times, with each play of each strategy being against a newly drawn opponent, and chooses the strategy whose total payoff was highest. In the centipede game, these best experienced payoff dynamics lead to co- operative play. When strategies are tested once, play at the almost globally stable state is concentrated on the last few nodes of the game, with the proportions of agents playing each strategy being largely independent of the length of the game. Testing strategies many times leads to cyclical play. Keywords. Evolutionary game theory, backward induction, centipede game, computational algebra. JEL classification. C72, C73. 1. Introduction The discrepancy between the conclusions of backward induction reasoning and ob- served behavior in certain canonical extensive form games is a basic puzzle of game the- ory. The centipede game (Rosenthal (1981)), the finitely repeated prisoner’s dilemma, and related examples can be viewed as models of relationships in which each partic- ipant has repeated opportunities to take costly actions that benefit his partner and in which there is a commonly known date at which the interaction will end. Experimen- tal and anecdotal evidence suggests that cooperative behavior may persist until close to William H. -
1 Sequential Games
1 Sequential Games We call games where players take turns moving “sequential games”. Sequential games consist of the same elements as normal form games –there are players, rules, outcomes, and payo¤s. However, sequential games have the added element that history of play is now important as players can make decisions conditional on what other players have done. Thus, if two people are playing a game of Chess the second mover is able to observe the …rst mover’s initial move prior to making his initial move. While it is possible to represent sequential games using the strategic (or matrix) form representation of the game it is more instructive at …rst to represent sequential games using a game tree. In addition to the players, actions, outcomes, and payo¤s, the game tree will provide a history of play or a path of play. A very basic example of a sequential game is the Entrant-Incumbent game. The game is described as follows: Consider a game where there is an entrant and an incumbent. The entrant moves …rst and the incumbent observes the entrant’sdecision. The entrant can choose to either enter the market or remain out of the market. If the entrant remains out of the market then the game ends and the entrant receives a payo¤ of 0 while the incumbent receives a payo¤ of 2. If the entrant chooses to enter the market then the incumbent gets to make a choice. The incumbent chooses between …ghting entry or accommodating entry. If the incumbent …ghts the entrant receives a payo¤ of 3 while the incumbent receives a payo¤ of 1. -
Lecture Notes
GRADUATE GAME THEORY LECTURE NOTES BY OMER TAMUZ California Institute of Technology 2018 Acknowledgments These lecture notes are partially adapted from Osborne and Rubinstein [29], Maschler, Solan and Zamir [23], lecture notes by Federico Echenique, and slides by Daron Acemoglu and Asu Ozdaglar. I am indebted to Seo Young (Silvia) Kim and Zhuofang Li for their help in finding and correcting many errors. Any comments or suggestions are welcome. 2 Contents 1 Extensive form games with perfect information 7 1.1 Tic-Tac-Toe ........................................ 7 1.2 The Sweet Fifteen Game ................................ 7 1.3 Chess ............................................ 7 1.4 Definition of extensive form games with perfect information ........... 10 1.5 The ultimatum game .................................. 10 1.6 Equilibria ......................................... 11 1.7 The centipede game ................................... 11 1.8 Subgames and subgame perfect equilibria ...................... 13 1.9 The dollar auction .................................... 14 1.10 Backward induction, Kuhn’s Theorem and a proof of Zermelo’s Theorem ... 15 2 Strategic form games 17 2.1 Definition ......................................... 17 2.2 Nash equilibria ...................................... 17 2.3 Classical examples .................................... 17 2.4 Dominated strategies .................................. 22 2.5 Repeated elimination of dominated strategies ................... 22 2.6 Dominant strategies .................................. -
1 Bertrand Model
ECON 312: Oligopolisitic Competition 1 Industrial Organization Oligopolistic Competition Both the monopoly and the perfectly competitive market structure has in common is that neither has to concern itself with the strategic choices of its competition. In the former, this is trivially true since there isn't any competition. While the latter is so insignificant that the single firm has no effect. In an oligopoly where there is more than one firm, and yet because the number of firms are small, they each have to consider what the other does. Consider the product launch decision, and pricing decision of Apple in relation to the IPOD models. If the features of the models it has in the line up is similar to Creative Technology's, it would have to be concerned with the pricing decision, and the timing of its announcement in relation to that of the other firm. We will now begin the exposition of Oligopolistic Competition. 1 Bertrand Model Firms can compete on several variables, and levels, for example, they can compete based on their choices of prices, quantity, and quality. The most basic and funda- mental competition pertains to pricing choices. The Bertrand Model is examines the interdependence between rivals' decisions in terms of pricing decisions. The assumptions of the model are: 1. 2 firms in the market, i 2 f1; 2g. 2. Goods produced are homogenous, ) products are perfect substitutes. 3. Firms set prices simultaneously. 4. Each firm has the same constant marginal cost of c. What is the equilibrium, or best strategy of each firm? The answer is that both firms will set the same prices, p1 = p2 = p, and that it will be equal to the marginal ECON 312: Oligopolisitic Competition 2 cost, in other words, the perfectly competitive outcome. -
Modeling Strategic Behavior1
Modeling Strategic Behavior1 A Graduate Introduction to Game Theory and Mechanism Design George J. Mailath Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania Research School of Economics, Australian National University 1September 16, 2020, copyright by George J. Mailath. World Scientific Press published the November 02, 2018 version. Any significant correc- tions or changes are listed at the back. To Loretta Preface These notes are based on my lecture notes for Economics 703, a first-year graduate course that I have been teaching at the Eco- nomics Department, University of Pennsylvania, for many years. It is impossible to understand modern economics without knowl- edge of the basic tools of game theory and mechanism design. My goal in the course (and this book) is to teach those basic tools so that students can understand and appreciate the corpus of modern economic thought, and so contribute to it. A key theme in the course is the interplay between the formal development of the tools and their use in applications. At the same time, extensions of the results that are beyond the course, but im- portant for context are (briefly) discussed. While I provide more background verbally on many of the exam- ples, I assume that students have seen some undergraduate game theory (such as covered in Osborne, 2004, Tadelis, 2013, and Wat- son, 2013). In addition, some exposure to intermediate microeco- nomics and decision making under uncertainty is helpful. Since these are lecture notes for an introductory course, I have not tried to attribute every result or model described. The result is a somewhat random pattern of citations and references. -
Kranton Duke University
The Devil is in the Details – Implications of Samuel Bowles’ The Moral Economy for economics and policy research October 13 2017 Rachel Kranton Duke University The Moral Economy by Samuel Bowles should be required reading by all graduate students in economics. Indeed, all economists should buy a copy and read it. The book is a stunning, critical discussion of the interplay between economic incentives and preferences. It challenges basic premises of economic theory and questions policy recommendations based on these theories. The book proposes the path forward: designing policy that combines incentives and moral appeals. And, therefore, like such as book should, The Moral Economy leaves us with much work to do. The Moral Economy concerns individual choices and economic policy, particularly microeconomic policies with goals to enhance the collective good. The book takes aim at laws, policies, and business practices that are based on the classic Homo economicus model of individual choice. The book first argues in great detail that policies that follow from the Homo economicus paradigm can backfire. While most economists would now recognize that people are not purely selfish and self-interested, The Moral Economy goes one step further. Incentives can amplify the selfishness of individuals. People might act in more self-interested ways in a system based on incentives and rewards than they would in the absence of such inducements. The Moral Economy warns economists to be especially wary of incentives because social norms, like norms of trust and honesty, are critical to economic activity. The danger is not only of incentives backfiring in a single instance; monetary incentives can generally erode ethical and moral codes and social motivations people can have towards each other. -
Correlated Equilibria and Communication in Games Françoise Forges
Correlated equilibria and communication in games Françoise Forges To cite this version: Françoise Forges. Correlated equilibria and communication in games. Computational Complex- ity. Theory, Techniques, and Applications, pp.295-704, 2012, 10.1007/978-1-4614-1800-9_45. hal- 01519895 HAL Id: hal-01519895 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01519895 Submitted on 9 May 2017 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Correlated Equilibrium and Communication in Games Françoise Forges, CEREMADE, Université Paris-Dauphine Article Outline Glossary I. De…nition of the Subject and its Importance II. Introduction III. Correlated Equilibrium: De…nition and Basic Properties IV. Correlated Equilibrium and Communication V. Correlated Equilibrium in Bayesian Games VI. Related Topics and Future Directions VII. Bibliography Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Elchanan Ben-Porath, Frédéric Koessler, R. Vijay Krishna, Ehud Lehrer, Bob Nau, Indra Ray, Jérôme Renault, Eilon Solan, Sylvain Sorin, Bernhard von Stengel, Tristan Tomala, Amparo Ur- bano, Yannick Viossat and, especially, Olivier Gossner and Péter Vida, for useful comments and suggestions. Glossary Bayesian game: an interactive decision problem consisting of a set of n players, a set of types for every player, a probability distribution which ac- counts for the players’ beliefs over each others’ types, a set of actions for every player and a von Neumann-Morgenstern utility function de…ned over n-tuples of types and actions for every player. -
Analyzing Just-In-Time Purchasing Strategy in Supply Chains Using an Evolutionary Game Approach
Bulletin of the JSME Vol.14, No.5, 2020 Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design, Systems, and Manufacturing Analyzing just-in-time purchasing strategy in supply chains using an evolutionary game approach Ziang LIU* and Tatsushi NISHI** *Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University 1-3 Machikaneyama-Cho, Toyonaka City, Osaka 560-8531, Japan E-mail: [email protected] **Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University 3-1-1 Tsushima-naka, Kita-ku, Okayama City, Okayama 700-8530, Japan Received: 18 December 2019; Revised: 30 March 2020; Accepted: 9 April 2020 Abstract Many researchers have focused on the comparison between the JIT model and the EOQ model. However, few of them studied this problem from an evolutionary perspective. In this paper, a JIT purchasing with the single- setup-multi-delivery model is introduced to compare the total costs of the JIT model and the EOQ model. Also, we extend the classical JIT-EOQ models to a two-echelon supply chain which consists of one manufacturer and one supplier. Considering the bounded rationality of players and the quickly changing market, an evolutionary game model is proposed to discuss how these factors impact the strategy selection of the companies. And the evolutionarily stable strategy of the proposed model is analyzed. Based on the analysis, we derive the conditions when the supply chain system will choose the JIT strategy and propose a contract method to ensure that the system converges to the JIT strategy. Several numerical experiments are provided to observe the JIT and EOQ purchasing strategy selection of the manufacturer and the supplier. -
Chapter 16 Oligopoly and Game Theory Oligopoly Oligopoly
Chapter 16 “Game theory is the study of how people Oligopoly behave in strategic situations. By ‘strategic’ we mean a situation in which each person, when deciding what actions to take, must and consider how others might respond to that action.” Game Theory Oligopoly Oligopoly • “Oligopoly is a market structure in which only a few • “Figuring out the environment” when there are sellers offer similar or identical products.” rival firms in your market, means guessing (or • As we saw last time, oligopoly differs from the two ‘ideal’ inferring) what the rivals are doing and then cases, perfect competition and monopoly. choosing a “best response” • In the ‘ideal’ cases, the firm just has to figure out the environment (prices for the perfectly competitive firm, • This means that firms in oligopoly markets are demand curve for the monopolist) and select output to playing a ‘game’ against each other. maximize profits • To understand how they might act, we need to • An oligopolist, on the other hand, also has to figure out the understand how players play games. environment before computing the best output. • This is the role of Game Theory. Some Concepts We Will Use Strategies • Strategies • Strategies are the choices that a player is allowed • Payoffs to make. • Sequential Games •Examples: • Simultaneous Games – In game trees (sequential games), the players choose paths or branches from roots or nodes. • Best Responses – In matrix games players choose rows or columns • Equilibrium – In market games, players choose prices, or quantities, • Dominated strategies or R and D levels. • Dominant Strategies. – In Blackjack, players choose whether to stay or draw. -
Kahneman's Thinking, Fast and Slow from the Standpoint of Old
Kahneman’s Thinking, Fast and Slow from the Standpoint of Old Behavioural Economics (For the 2012 HETSA Conference) Peter E. Earl School of Economics, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia, email: [email protected] Abstract Daniel Kahneman’s bestseller Thinking, Fast and Slow presents an account of his life’s work on judgment and decision-making (much of it conducted with Amos Tversky) that has been instrumental in the rise of what Sent (2004) calls ‘new behavioural economics’. This paper examines the relationship between Kahneman’s work and some key contributions within the ‘old behavioural’ literature that Kahneman fails to discuss. It show how closely aligned he is to economic orthodoxy, examining his selective use of Herbert Simon’s work in relation to his ‘two systems’ view of decision making and showing how Shackle’s model of choice under uncertainty provided an alternative way of dealing with some of the issues that Kahneman and Tversky sought to address, three decades after Shackle worked out his model, via their Prospect Theory. Aside from not including ‘loss aversion’, it was Shackle’s model that was the more original and philosophically well-founded. Keywords: Prospect Theory, satisficing, bounded rationality, choice under uncertainty JEL Classification Codes: B31, D03, D81 1. Introduction In his highly successful 2011 book Thinking, Fast and Slow Daniel Kahneman offers an excellent account of his career-long research on judgment and decision- making, much of it conducted with the late Amos Tversky. Kahneman was awarded the 2002 Bank of Sweden PriZe in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel for this work. -
Arxiv:1512.06789V1 [Stat.ML] 21 Dec 2015
Information-Theoretic Bounded Rationality Pedro A. Ortega [email protected] University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA Daniel A. Braun [email protected] Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics 72076 T¨ubingen,Germany Justin Dyer [email protected] Google Inc. Mountain View, CA 94043, USA Kee-Eung Kim [email protected] Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Daejeon, Korea 305-701 Naftali Tishby [email protected] The Hebrew University Jerusalem, 91904, Israel Abstract Bounded rationality, that is, decision-making and planning under resource limitations, is widely regarded as an important open problem in artificial intelligence, reinforcement learning, computational neuroscience and economics. This paper offers a consolidated pre- sentation of a theory of bounded rationality based on information-theoretic ideas. We provide a conceptual justification for using the free energy functional as the objective func- tion for characterizing bounded-rational decisions. This functional possesses three crucial properties: it controls the size of the solution space; it has Monte Carlo planners that are exact, yet bypass the need for exhaustive search; and it captures model uncertainty arising from lack of evidence or from interacting with other agents having unknown intentions. We discuss the single-step decision-making case, and show how to extend it to sequential decisions using equivalence transformations. This extension yields a very general class of decision problems that encompass classical decision rules (e.g. Expectimax and Minimax) as limit cases, as well as trust- and risk-sensitive planning. arXiv:1512.06789v1 [stat.ML] 21 Dec 2015 c December 2015 by the authors.