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Continue Tim Lambert Ancient Laos The earliest residents of Laos were hunter-gatherers. Later they were farmers, growing rice and legumes. The first farmers used stone tools, but from about 2000 BC bronze was used in Laos and from about 500 BC iron. Unlike Vietnam, however, the people of Laos were influenced by Indian rather than Chinese culture. Since the 1st century AD, Indian merchants introduced Theravada Buddhism to Laos. From the 9th to the 13th century, the Khmer Rouge from Cambodia ruled most of what is now Laos. However, in the 14th century, the ancestors of modern Laotians founded a kingdom called Lan Sang. The first king was the ambitious Chao Fa Ngum, who was succeeded by his son Faya Samsentay in 1373. He ruled until 1421 and under him Lan Sang became a prosperous kingdom. Unfortunately, his successors were less skilful rulers. In the 16th century, Lan Xan was threatened by Burma, but managed to maintain its independence. In the 17th century, greatness was restored to Lan Sang Suriyawongs (1637-1694). His long reign is seen as a golden age. During his Lan Xang was powerful and prosperous. However, when Suriyawongs died in 1694, he did not leave an heir. In the early 18th century, Lan Sang divided into three regions, centered on Luang Prang in the north, Vientiane in the middle and Champasake in the south. When it was divided in this way Laos was weakened and fell victim to Siam (). In 1779, Siamese troops occupied Vientiane. Subsequently, three Lao states were dominated by Siam (Thailand). In 1804, Anuvong became King of Vientiane. By 1825, Anuvong was determined to overthrow Siamese rule and restore the kingdom of Lan Sang. In 1827 he advanced to Siam, but was defeated and forced to retreat. Anuvong fled to Vietnam. A few months later he returned to Vientiane, but was captured by the Siamese (Thais), putting an end to all hope for the restored Lan Xan. Frenchmen in Laos In 1867-68 a Frenchman named Francis Garnier traveled to Laos. However, the French left Laos alone for two decades. Then, in the late 1880s and early 1890s, French influence in the area grew. Finally, in 1893, the Siamese officially surrendered the entire territory east of the Mekong River to the French. Laos became part of the French Empire in southeast Asia. However, the French had little interest in Laos, and few French people lived there. In 1941, the French waged a war with the Thais for Laotian territory. The Japanese forced a truce and parts of Laos were handed over to Thailand. Then in April 1945, the Japanese forced the pro-French King SisavanGa to declare independence from France. After Japan's surrender in September 1945, Prince Fetsarat was prime minister of Laos. He headed a government called Lao Isara (Free Laos). However, Lao's independence does not last long. In March 1946, the French invaded Laos and by the time of 1946 once again, they took control of the country. Modern Modern Then in 1950, the pro-communist Prince Supthanuwong founded an organization that became known as Papet Lao (Land of Laos). At first it was a relatively small organization supported by Vietmin. At the same time, the French lost control of southeast Asia and in 1953 they withdrew from Laos, which became an independent constitutional monarchy. However, Laos was a divided country in the 1950s. Most were ruled by the U.S.-backed royals while parts ruled the pro-communist Papet Lao with the help of their VietMin allies. All attempts to find a political solution failed, and in the 1960s Laos became embroiled in a wider Asian war. From 1964 to 1973, the United States bombed Papet Lao, but failed to defeat them. Then in 1975 the Communists came to South Vietnam and Cambodia. Seeing how things go Royalists have fled Laos allows Papkhet Lao to take over. The Lao People's Democratic Republic was founded on 2 December 1975. A full communist regime was introduced. In 1988, however, the Government of Laos introduced market reforms. As a result, Laos' economy began to grow rapidly. Today, Laos is still a poor country, but it is growing rapidly and poverty is shrinking. Laos also has great potential for tourism. Meanwhile, Laos joined ASEAN in 1997. She joined the WTO in 2013. Today, Laos has a population of 7 million people. A Brief A Brief History of Vietnam A Brief History of Myanmar A Brief History of Indonesia A Brief History of Cambodia A Brief History of Malaysia Home Last Revised 2020 Grant Evans is an anthropologist currently teaching at the University of Hong Kong. He has written extensively on South East Asia.Series editor Milton Osborne has been associated with the Asian region for more than 40 years as an academic, public servant and independent writer. He is the author of eight books on Asian topics, including on Southeast Asia: An Opening Story, first published in 1979 and now in its eighth edition, and, most recently, Mekong: A Turbulent Past, An Uncertain Future, published in 2000. Grant Evans is an anthropologist currently teaching at the University of Hong Kong. He wrote a lot about Southeast Asia. The series' editor Milton Osborne has been in touch with the Asian region for more than 40 years as an academic, civil servant and independent writer. He is the author of eight books on Asian topics, including on Southeast Asia: An Opening Story, first published in 1979 and now in its eighth edition, and, most recently, Mekong: A Turbulent Past, An Uncertain Future, published in 2000. Aspect of Southeast Asian History Part series on the history of Laos Lan Xang Era Lan Xang 1353-1707 Regional Era of the Kingdom of Vientiane 1707-1828 Kingdom Luang Prabang1707-1893 Muang Fuan 1707-1899 Kingdom of Champasak 1713-1904 Colonial-era Laos uprising 1826-1828 Wars Haw Wars Haw Wars Franco-Siamese War 1893 French protectorate of Laos 1893-1953 Franco-Thai war 1940-1941 Free Lao (Lao Isara) 1945-1949 Modern era of the Kingdom of Laos 1946-1975 Lao Civil War 1953-19531975 North North-Vietnam invasion of Laos 1958-1959 Anti-Communist Uprising 1975-2007 Laos Laos 1975-1991 Laos after Soviet domination 1991-present See also History of Laos History Isan vte Evidence of modern human presence in the northern and central Highlands of Indochina , which make up the territory of the modern Lao national state dates back to the Lower Paleolithic. These earliest human migrants are Australo-Melanese, associated with the Hoaben culture and inhabited the highlands and interior of Laos and all of southeast Asia to this day. Subsequent Austro-Asian and Austronesian waves of maritime migration have affected landlocked Laos only marginally, and direct Chinese and Indian cultural contacts have a greater impact on the country. The modern nation state of Laos emerged from the French colonial empire as an independent country in 1953. Laos exists in a truncated form from the Lao kingdom of Lan Sang of the 13th century. Lan Sang existed as a single kingdom from 1357 to 1707, divided into three rival kingdoms Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasac from 1707 to 1779, fell on the Siamese suzerenti from 1779 to 1893 and was led by the French protectorate of Laos in 1893. The borders of the modern state of Laos were established by the French colonial government in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The limitations and current state of research Archaeological research in Laos have been limited due to the enduring and remote topography, the history of twentieth-century conflicts that have left more than two million tons of unexploded ordnance across the country, and local sensitivity to the history that are associated with the Communist government of Laos, the village authorities and rural poverty. The first archaeological research of Laos began with the fact that French researchers operated under the auspices of the French French School of the East. However, because of the civil war in Laos, serious archaeological work began only in the 1990s. Since 2005, one such effort, the Middle Mekong Archaeological Project (MMAP) has excavated and surveyed numerous sites along the Mekong and its tributaries around Luang Prabang in northern Laos, with the aim of studying the early human settlement of the Mekong Valley and its tributaries. Backstory in Laos Main article: Hama Ancient human fossil remains from the cave Tam Pa Ling Anatomically modern human hunter-gatherer migration in southeast Asia up to 50,000 years ago has been confirmed by the region's fossil record. These immigrants may have been in a certain united and reproduced with The archaic population of Homo erectus, as suggested by the fossil discoveries of 2009 in the cave Tam Pa Ling. Dated between 46,000 and 63,000 years, it is the oldest fossil found in the region that carries modern human morphological features. Recent studies also support a more accurate understanding of the patterns of migration of early humans who migrated in successive waves moving from west to east after the coastline, but also used river valleys further inland and further north than previously thought. An early tradition can be traced in Hoabinhian, the name given to the industry and cultural continuity of stone tools and flakes of cobblestone artifacts that appear about 10,000 BP in caves and rock shelters first described in Hea Ben, Vietnam, and then in Laos. The earliest residents of Laos , Australasian-Melanesians - followed members of the Austro-Asian language family. These early societies contributed to the gene pool of ancestors of lao ethnic groups known as Lao Thang, with the largest ethnic groups being the ham of northern Laos and brao and katang in the south. Subsequent waves of Neolithic immigration are considered dynamic, very complex and actively discussed. Researchers use linguistic terms and arguments for group identification and classification. Agriculture and bronze production of moist rice and millet farming methods have been introduced from the Yangtze River Valley in southern China since about 2000 BC. Hunting and gathering continued to be an important aspect of food supply; especially in wooded and mountainous inland areas. The famous production of copper and bronze in southeast Asia has been confirmed at the site of Ban Chan in present-day northeastern Thailand and among the culture of Phung Nguyen in northern Vietnam from about 2000 BC to the Plain Yarov, the Xiangchuang Plain Yarov From the 8th century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD, the internal trading society of the plateau on the Sieng Huang, the site of the mega-name. The plain, listed as a UN World Heritage Site in 1992, has been cleared of unexploded ordnance since 1998. Banks of stone sarcophagi date back to the early Iron Age (500 BC to 800 AD) and contain evidence of human remains, burial products and ceramics. Some sites contain more than 250 separate cans. The highest banks have a height of more than 3 m. Little is known about the culture that produced and used banks. Banks and the presence of iron ore in the region indicate that the creators of the site engaged in profitable foreign trade. The early Indian kingdoms Historical zone of cultural influence of the Indosphere of Greater India to transfer elements of Indian elements such as honorary titles, name people, the names of places, the mottos of organizations and educational institutions, as well as the adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and dance, traditional Indian clothing and Indian cuisine, a process that has also contributed to the continued historical expansion of the Indian diaspora. The Funan Kingdom Of the First Indigenous Kingdom, which originated in Indochina, was named in Chinese history by the Kingdom of Funan and covered the area of present-day Cambodia, as well as the coasts of southern Vietnam and southern Thailand since the 1st century AD. Funan was an Indian kingdom that incorporated the central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, government, government, governance, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture and engaged in lucrative trade in the Indian Ocean. The lower terrace of the Wat Fu mountain complex, Champasac II century AD, the Austronesian settlers founded an Indian kingdom known as Champa along present-day central Vietnam. The Chams founded the first settlements near the modern Champasak in Laos. Funan expanded and incorporated the Champasak region by the sixth century AD, when he was replaced by his successor, Chenl. Chenla occupied large areas of present-day Laos, as it is the earliest kingdom on Laotian land. The Chenla kingdom of the capital of early Chenla was Shrestapura which was located in close proximity to Champasak and UN World Heritage site Wat Fu. Wat Fu is an extensive temple complex in southern Laos that blends the natural surroundings with ornate sandstone structures that were preserved and decorated by the Chenla peoples until 900 AD, and were then rediscovered and decorated by the Khmer Rouge in the 10th century. By the 8th century AD, Chenla was divided into the Land of Chenla, located in Laos, and the Chenla Water, founded by Mahendrawarman near Sambora Prei Cook in Cambodia. The land of Chenla was known to the Chinese as Po Lu or Wen Dan and sent a trade mission to the Tang Dynasty court in 717 AD, Chenl Water, will fall under repeated attacks by the champagne, Medang of the sea kingdoms in Indonesia, based in Java, and finally pirates. The Khmer Rouge emerged from instability. The Khmer kingdom under King Jayawarman II of the Khmer Empire began to form in the 9th century AD. By the 6th century, in the Valley of the , the Monov people had merged into their families to create the kingdoms of Dvravati. In the north, Haripungaya (Lamphun) became a rival force of the tworavati. By the 8th century, Mon had moved north to create urban states known as muang in Fa Daete (northeast) Sri Gotapura (Sihottabong) near present-day Ta Kek, Laos, Muang Sua (Luang Prabang) and Chantaburi (Vientiane). In the 8th century AD, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early urban states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The urban states were politically weakly connected, but were culturally similar and introduced Terevada Buddhism from Sri Lankan missionaries throughout the region. Tai Migration Additional information: Bayue - Language, Chu_ (State) No. Linguistic_influences, and Tai Peoples Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai) migration route according to James R. Chamberlain (2016). A map showing a linguistic family tree superimposed on a geographical map of the Distribution of the Tai-Kadai family. This map shows only the general picture of the migration of Thai-speaking tribes, not the specific routes that would snake along the rivers and over the lower passes. At the end of the 13th century, there were many theories on the south-east Asian mainland suggesting the origin of the Tai peoples, of which Laos is a subgroup, including the Association of the Tai people with the Kingdom of Nanjao, which was declared invalid. Chronicles of the southern military campaign of the Chinese Han Dynasty give the first written reports on the speaking peoples of Tai Kadai, inhabiting areas of modern China Yunnan and Guangxi. James R. Chamberlain (2016) suggests that the Tai-Kadai (Kra-Dai) language family was formed as early as the 12th century BC in the yangtze basin, roughly coinciding with the creation of Chu's thumot and the beginning of the Chou dynasty. After the migration of the Kra and Hlai (Rey/Li) peoples from the ancient state of Chu around the 8th century BC, the People's Beth began to break away from the east coast in present-day zhejiang, in the 6th century BC, forming the yue state. After the destruction of Yue state by The Chu Army around 333 BC, yue people (Be-Tai) began to migrate south along the east coast of China to what is now Guangxi, Guizhou and northern Vietnam, forming Luo Yue (Central-southwest Tai) and Xi Wu (North Tai). The Tai people, from Guangxi and northern Vietnam, began to move south and westward in the first millennium AD, eventually spreading throughout mainland Southeast Asia. Based on layers of Chinese credit words in the proto-southwestern Tai and other historical evidence, Pittayawat Pittayaporn (2014) suggests that the southwestern migration of tai-speaking tribes from present-day Guangxi and northern Vietnam to mainland Southeast Asia should have occurred sometime between the 8th and 10th centuries. The Thai-speaking tribes migrated southwest along rivers and through lower passes to southeast Asia, possibly caused by Chinese expansion and suppression. Recording chinese historical texts in 722, 400,000 laos rebelled for a leader who declared himself King Of Nanyu in Guangdong. After the 722 uprising, some 60,000 were beheaded. In 726, after the suppression of the uprising by the leader of Laos in modern-day Guangxi, more than 30,000 rebels were captured and beheaded. In 756, another uprising attracted 200,000 followers and lasted four years. In the 19860s, many locals in northern Vietnam sided with the Nanchao attackers, and some 30,000 were then beheaded. In the 1040s, a powerful shaman matriarch named A Nong, her husband, and their son, Nong Chigao, rebelled, took Nanning, besieged Guangzhou for fifty-seven days, and killed the commanders of five Chinese armies who had been sent against them before they were defeated, and many of their leaders were killed. As a result of these three bloody centuries, Tai began to migrate to the southwest. In 2016, mitochondrial mapping of the genome of Thai and Lao populations supports the idea that both nationalities come from the Tai-Kadai (TC) language family. Tai, from his new home in Southeast Asia, was influenced by the Khmers and Mon and, most importantly, Buddhist India. The Thai kingdom of Lanna was founded in 1259 (in the north of present-day Thailand). The Kingdom of Sukhotai was founded in 1279 (in present-day Thailand) and expanded to the east, to take the city of Chantaburi and renamed it Vieng Vieng Kham (modern Vientiane) and north to the city of Muang Sua, which was taken in 1271 and renamed the city of Sieng Dong Sieng Thong or the City of Fire Trees next to the Dong River (modern Luang Prabang , Laos). The Tai people took control of areas northeast of the shrinking Khmer Empire. After the death of The Dry-Turkish King Ram Hamhaen and internal disputes in the kingdom of Lanna, Vieng Chan Vieng Kham (Vientiane) and Sieng Dong Thong (Luang Prabang) were independent city-states until the founding of the kingdom of Lan Sang in 1354. The Sukhotai kingdom was founded, and then the Ithai kingdom and... conquered the Khmers of the upper and central men of the Menama Valley and greatly expanded its territory. The legend of the main article by Hhun Boroma: Literature of Laos The history of Thai migration to Laos is preserved in myths and legends. Nitan Khun Bohrom or The Story of The Hung Borom recalls myths about the origins of Laotians and follows the exploits of his seven sons to find the Thai kingdoms of Southeast Asia. Myths have also written down the laws of Hung Bohr, which establish the basis of common law and identity among the Laotian. Among the louts are the exploits of their folk hero Tao Hong, described in the epic by Tao Hong Thao Chuang, which dramatizes the struggle of indigenous peoples with the influx of Tai during migration In later centuries, Laotians themselves kept the legend in writing, becoming one of the great literary treasures of Laos and one of the few images of life in southeast Asia before Therevada Buddhism and Tai cultural influence. The main article: Lan Sang Lan Sang,c. 1540 Lan Xang (1353-1707) was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Also known as the Land of Millions of Elephants under a white umbrella the name of the kingdom hints at the power of the kingdom and the formidable war machine of the early kingdom. The founding of Lan Xang was recorded in 1353, after a series of conquests by Fa Ngume. From 1353 to 1560, the capital of Lan Sang was Luang Prabang (known alternately as Muang Sua and Sieng Dong Sien Thong). With successive kings, the kingdom has expanded its sphere of influence to an area that now includes all modern Laos, Sipsong Chu Tai Vietnam, Sipsong Panna of southern China, the Khorath Plateau region of Thailand, and the Stung Treng region of Northern Cambodia. Lan Sang existed as a sovereign kingdom for more than 350 years. The first major foreign invasion came from Dai Viet in 1479, which was defeated, albeit leaving the capital Luang Prabang largely destroyed. The first half of the sixteenth century restored the power, prestige and cultural influence of the kingdom under a number of strong kings (see Suwanna Balang, Viksun, Fotisarat). In the 1540s, a series of succession disputes in the neighbouring kingdom of Lanna created a regional rivalry between Burma, Ayathai and Lan Xan. In 1540, Lan Sang defeated the invasion of Ayatthay. By 1545, the Kingdom of Lanna was attacked by the Burmese and then Ayathay. Lan Xan made an alliance with Lanna and helped in the defense of the kingdom. In 1547 the kingdoms of Lan Xan and Lanna were briefly merged under Photisarath Lan Xan and his son Setthathirath in Lanna. Settatirate became King Lan Sang after the death of his father and became one of the greatest kings of Lan Sang. The Burmese Toungoo dynasty began a series of extensions in the late 1550s that culminated under King Bayinnaung. Settairat moved from the capital Lan Sanga from Luang Prabang to Vientiane in 1560 to better protect against the threat of Burma and to better manage the central and southern provinces. Bayinnaung conquered the Kingdom of Lanna and destroyed the kingdom and the city of Ayatthay in 1564. King Setthathirath fought two successful guerrilla campaigns against Burmese invasions, leaving Lan Xang the only independent Tai kingdom until his death in 1572, while on the campaign against Khmer. The Burmese succeeded with the third invasion of Lan Xang around 1573, and Lan Xang was a vassal state until 1591 when the son of Setthathirath, Koumane, managed to successfully regain independence. Lan Xan recovered and reached the pinnacle of his political and economic power in the seventeenth century under King Surinha Wongs, who became the longest reigning monarch of Lan Sang (1637-1694). In the 1640s the first European explorers to leave a detailed account of the kingdom arrived looking to create trade and ensure Christian converts, both were ultimately largely unsuccessful. After the death of Suring Wongs, a succession dispute erupted, and the kingdom of Lan Sang was eventually divided into constituent kingdoms in 1707. Regional Kingdoms (1707-1779) Main articles: Kingdom of Luang Prabang, The Kingdom of Vientiane, and the Kingdom of Champasak of southeast Asia circa 1707 to 1828 are shown the kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, Champasak and the Principality of Fuan (Sieng Chuang) Since 1707 the Lao kingdom of Lan-Shan was divided into regional kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang and later Champasak (1713). The Kingdom of Vientiane was the strongest of the three, with Vientiane expanding its influence across the Khoret Plateau (now part of present-day Thailand) and conflicting with the Kingdom of Luang Prabang to control the Sien Huang Plateau (on the border of modern Vietnam). The Kingdom of Luang Prabang was the first of the regional kingdoms that appeared in 1707 when King Sai Ong Hue Lan Sang was challenged by Kingkitsarat, grandson of Sourigna Vongsa. Xai Ong Hue and his family sought refuge in Vietnam when they were expelled during the reign of Sourigna Vongsa. Sai Ong Hue received the support of Vietnamese Emperor Le Dui Hiep in exchange for recognition of the Vietnamese suzerenti over Lan Sang. At the head of the Vietnamese army, Sai Ong Hue attacked Vientiane and executed King Nantrath, another contender for the throne. In response, Surign Wongs' grandson, Kingkitsarat, rebelled and moved with his army from Sypsong Panna towards Luang Prabang. Kingkitsarat then moved south to challenge Xai Ong Hue in Vientiane. Sai Ong Hue then turned to the Kingdom of Ayathaya for support, and an army was sent, instead of supporting Sai Ong Hue, the arbitration division between Luang Prabang and Vientiane. In 1713, the southern Lao nobility continued the uprising against Sai Ong Hue under the leadership of Nokasada, nephew of Surign Wongs, and the Kingdom of Champasak was founded. The Kingdom of Champasak consisted of an area south of the Se Bang River to Tun Trenga, along with the lower Moon and Chi rivers on the Khorath Plateau. Although Champasak is less populous than Luang Prabang or Vientiane, it has occupied an important place for regional power and international trade across the Mekong River. Throughout the 1760s and 1770s, the kingdoms of Siam and Burma competed with each other in fierce armed rivalry and sought alliances Lao kingdoms are consolidating their relative positions by adding their own strength and denying them their enemy. As a result, the use of competing alliances will further militarize the conflict between the northern Lao kingdoms Luang Prabang and Vientiane. Between the two main kingdoms of Laos, if an alliance with one of them was requested by either Burma or Siam, the other usually supports the remaining party. The network of alliances changed from the political and military landscape throughout the second half of the eighteenth century. The main articles: The Kingdom of Tonburi and the Kingdom of Rattanakosin By 1779, General Thaksin expelled the Burmese from Siam, captured the Lao Kingdoms of Champasaka and Vientiane and forced Luang Prabang to accept vassalag (Luang Prabang Siam) Traditional personal relations in southeast Asia followed the Mandala model, a war was waged to provide settlements for corv labor, control over regional trade and the confirmation of religious and secular power, controlling powerful Buddhist symbols (white elephants, important stupas, temples and Buddha's images). To legitimize the Tonbury dynasty, General Thaksin captured images of the Emerald Buddha and Phra Ban from Vientiane. Thaksin also demanded that the ruling elites of the Lao kingdoms and their royal families promise Siah to maintain their regional autonomy in accordance with the Mandala model. In the traditional Mandala model, vassal kings retained the right to raise taxes, discipline their vassals, impose the death penalty and appoint their own officials. Only matters of war, and succession requires approval from suzerain. Vassals were also required to provide gold and silver annually (traditionally modeled on trees), provide taxes and taxes in the cash, raise support for armies during the war, and provide cortwl labor for public projects. Emerald Buddha However, by 1782 Thaksin was overthrown and was King of Siam, and began a series of reforms that radically changed the traditional Mandala. Many reforms were carried out to better manage and assimilate the Khorath Plateau (or Isan), which has traditionally and culturally been part of the tributaries of the Lao kingdoms. In 1778, only Nakhon Ratchashima was an influx of Siam, but by the end of the reign of Rama I Sisaket, Ubon, Roy Eth, Yasoton, Hong Ckena and Kalasina paid tribute directly to . According to Thai records, by 1826 (less than fifty years) the number of towns and cities in Isana had grown from 13 to 35. Forced remittances from Lao districts have been further reinforced by corwea labor projects and tax increases. Si'amu needed a manpower to help rebuild after repeated Burmese incursions and growing maritime trade. Improving productivity and the population living on the Khorath Horat Plateau labor and material access to strengthen Siam. Siribunnyasan, the last independent king of Vientiane, died in 1780, and his sons Nantasen, Intawong and Anuvong were taken to Bangkok as prisoners during Vientiane's bag in 1779. The sons will become successive kings of Vientiane (under siamese suzerain), starting with Nantasen in 1781. Nantasen was allowed to return to Vientiane with Phra Bang, Lan Sang palladium, The Emerald Buddha stayed in Bangkok and became an important symbol of Lao captivity. One of Nantasen's first acts was to capture Chao Somfu, Prince Fuang, from Sieng Huang, who entered into tributary relations with Vietnam, and released him only when it was decided that Sieng Huang also recognized Vientiane as a suzerain. In 1791, Anthurutta was confirmed by Rama I as King Luang Prabang. By 1792, Nantasen had convinced Rama I that Anturutta was secretly dealing with the Burmese, and Siam allowed Nantusen to lead the army, besiege and capture Luang Prabang. Anurutta was sent to Bangkok as a prisoner, and only through diplomatic exchanges with the assistance of China, was Anuruttha released in 1795. Shortly after The Antoine's liberation, it was alleged that Nantasen plotted with the Governor of Nakhon Fanom to rebel against Siam. Rama I ordered the immediate arrest of Nantasen, and shortly after he died in captivity. Inthavong (1795-1804) became the next King of Vientiane, and sent an army aide to Siam against Burmese invasions in 1797 and 1802, and capture Sipsong Chau Tai (with his brother Anouvong as general). The Hero of Anuvong and Lao nationalism Main article: Chao Anu Hero King Anuwong, The Kingdom of Vientiane Anouvong is a symbolic and controversial figure even today, his short-lived uprising against Siam from 1826-1829 eventually proved futile and led to the complete destruction of Vientiane as a kingdom and city, but among Laos it remains a powerful symbol of unwavering defiance and national identity. Thai and Vietnamese history records that Anouvong rebelled as a result of personal insult suffered at the funeral of Rama II in Bangkok. However, the Anuvong uprising lasted three years and covered the entire Horat plateau for more difficult reasons. The history of forced population transfers, the corwea of labor projects, the loss of national symbols and prestige (primarily the Emerald Buddha) became the backdrop for the specific actions of Rama III on the direct annexation of the Isan region. In 1812, Siam and Vietnam were at odds over the succession of the Cambodian king, the Vietnamese prevailed with their chosen successor and Siam compensated for the annexation of territory on the Dangrek Mountains and along the Mekong River in Song Trenga. As a result, Laos' international trade along the Mekong was effectively blocked, and heavy duties Lao merchants who were suspiciously treated by Siam for their trade with both Cambodians and Vietnamese. In 1819, the Champasak uprising gave Anuwong an opportunity, and he sent an army led by his son Nyo, who managed to quell the conflict. In exchange, Anuvong successfully made the case that his son would be crowned king in Champasak, which was confirmed by Bangkok. Anuvong successfully expanded its influence in Vientiane, Isan, Seung Huang and now Champasak. Anuvong sent a number of diplomatic missions to Luang Prabang, which were viewed suspiciously in light of its growing regional influence. By 1825, Rama II had died, and Rama III was consolidating his position against Prince Moncut (Rama IV). One of Anuvong's grandchildren was killed in the ensuing power struggle before Rama III joined. When Anuvong arrived for the merry service, he made several requests to King Rama III that were rejected, including the return of his sister, who was captured in 1779, and the Lao family who were resettled in Saraburi near Bangkok. Before returning to Vientiane, Anuvong's son Ngau, crown prince, was forced to perform manual labour during which he was beaten. At the beginning of his reign, Rama III ordered a census of all peoples on the Khorath Plateau, the census included a forced tattoo of the census of each villager and the name of their village. The aim of the policy was to more rigidly govern the Laotian territories from Bangkok, and this was facilitated by the syam nobility established in newly established cities throughout the region. Popular outrage against forced tattoos and tax increases became casus belli for the uprising. Towards the end of 1826, Anuvong was preparing for an armed uprising. Anouvong's strategy included three goals, first, to repatriate all ethnic Laotians living in Siam on the right bank of mekong and to fulfill any Siamese involved in the Laos tattoo, the second goal is to consolidate the power of Laos by forming an alliance with Chiang Mai and Luang Prabang, the third and final goal is to get international support from either Vietnamese, Chinese, Chinese or British. Fighting broke out in January and Lao troops were dispatched from Vientiane to capture Nakhon Ratchashima, Kalasin and Lomsak. From Champasak, the forces rushed to retake Ubon and Suwannafum, while pursuing a scorched policy that ensured Lao's retreat time. Anouvong forces pushed south finally to Saraburi to free Lao there, but the flow of refugees pushing north slowed the retreat of the armies. Anuvong also greatly underestimated the stockpiles of Siamese weapons, which, in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Bernese, provided Siam with weapons from the Napoleonic wars in Europe. Lao defense was put in Nong Boi Lamphu traditional Laos in Isana, but came out victorious and leveled the city. The Siamese advanced north to take Vientiane, and Anuvong fled southeast to the border with Vietnam. By 1828, Anuvong had been captured, tortured and sent to Bangkok with his family to die in a cage. Rama III ordered Chao Bodin to retake and level the city of Vientiane, and forcibly move the entire population of the former Laos capital to the Isan district. The consequences and Vietnamese intervention following the Anuvong Siam uprising and Vietnam are increasingly at odds over control of the Indochin Peninsula. In 1831, Emperor Min Meng sent Vietnamese troops to capture Xien Huang and annexed the area as Tran Nin Province. Also in 1831 and again in 1833, King Manta Turata sent an influx of Vietnamese missions that were quietly ignored so as not to antagonize siamese further. In 1893, these tributary missions from Luang Prabang were used by the French as a legal argument for all territories on the eastern shore of the Mekong. At the end of 1831, Siam and Vietnam fought a series of wars (the Siamo-Vietnamese War of 1831-1834 and the Siamo-Vietnamese War of 1841-1845) for control of Sieng Huang and Cambodia. After the destruction of Vientiane, the Siamese divided lao lands into three administrative districts. In the north, King Luang Prabang and a small Siamese garrison controlled Luang Prabang, Lipsong Panna and Lipsong Chao Tai. The central region was ruled from Nong Hai and spread to the borders of Tran Nin (Seng Huang) and from the south to Champasak. From Champasak, the southern regions were controlled and spread to areas bordering China and Cambodia. From the 1830s to the 1860s, small uprisings took place on the Lao Lands and The Horat Plateau, but lacked both the scale and coordination of the Anuvong uprising. It is important to note that at the end of each uprising Siamese troops would return to their administrative centres, and no Lao region was allowed to build up a force that could be used in the insurgency. Translations of the population and the ruins of slavery in Vientiane, depicted by Louis Delaport during the Mekong expedition under the direction of Francis Garnier (c. 1867). Translations of ethnic Laotians to Siam began in 1779 with the Siamese Suzerenism. Craftsmen and members of the court were forcibly relocated to Saraburi, near Bangkok, and several thousand farmers and peasants who were transported throughout Siamu to Pkhetchaburi, Ratchaburi and Nakhon Chaisi in the south-west and to Prachinburi and Chantaburi in the south-east. However, mass deportations of an estimated 100,000 to 300,000 people began after the defeat of King Anuong in 1828 and continued until the 1870s. In 1828-1830, more than 66,000 people were forcibly resettled from Vientiane. In 1834, the first of several relocations to the Fuan Xieng Huang region began, more than 6,000 people. Most of those who were resettled settled in the Isan area and were considered cha-loi slaves or war slaves who were supposed to serve as serfs in uninhabited areas for the Thai elite. The result has changed the demographic and cultural traditions of Thailand and Laos and continues today with a five-fold gap between ethnic Laos living in the West Bank of the Mekong and those who remained in the East in what is now Laos. Although slavery existed in parts of Laos until the uprising in 1828, the defeat and subsequent removal of most ethnic Laos left depopulated and vulnerable positions for the remaining Mekong on the East Bank. Lao mountain tribes, which were hardly involved in the 1828 uprising, bore the brunt of the organized slave raids in Laos and became known collectively and derogatoryly in Thai and Laotian as ha or slaves. Lao Theung hunted or sold into slavery frequent organized raid parties from Vietnam, Cambodia, Siam, Laos and China. Larger tribes in Laos, such as the brao, raided the weaker tribes. Raids continued throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century, and the Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by the British observer as being transformed into slave hunting raids on a large scale. Population transfers and slave raids were improved by the end of the nineteenth century, when European observers and anti-slavery groups made their presence increasingly difficult for the Bangkok elite. In 1880, both slave raids and trade became illegal, although debt slavery continued until 1905 by decree of King . The French used the existence of slavery in Siam as one of the main proclaimed motives for the creation of the protectorate of Laos in the 1880s and 1890s. 1885 Main article Of Ho Wars: Ho Wars In the 1840s sporadic uprisings, slave raids and the movement of refugees through areas that have become modern Laos have left entire regions politically and militarily weak. In China, the Tsing dynasty insisted on incorporating mountain peoples into the central administration, first flooding refugees and then rebel gangs from the Taiping uprising pushed into Laotian lands. Rebel groups became known under their banners and included yellow (or striped) flags, red flags and black flags. Bandit groups rampaged across the countryside, with little response from Siam. In the early and mid-nineteenth century, the first Lao Suni, including the Hmong, Mien, Yao and other Sino-Tibetan groups, began settling on the highlands of Fonsali province and northeast Laos. The influx of immigrants was facilitated by the same political weakness that sheltered Ho's bandits and left large depopulated areas throughout Laos. By the 1860s Researchers pushed northwards, charting the path of the Mekong River, with the hope of a navigable waterway to southern China. Among the first French explorers was an expedition led by Francis Garnier, who was killed during the Ho rebel expedition in Tonkin. The French increasingly conducted military campaigns against Howe in both Laos and Vietnam (Tonkin) until the 1880s. The First Indo-Chinese War, and the history of Laos since 1945 by Ojus Pavi, the first governor general of the French protectorate of Laos The origin of French colonialism in Laos of French colonial interests in Laos began with the research missions of Dudart de Lagri and Francis Garnier during the 1860s. France hoped to use the Mekong River as a route to southern China. Although the Mekong is unnavigable because of a number of rapids, the hope is that the river can be tamed with the help of French engineering and a combination of railways. In 1886, Britain was granted the right to appoint a representative in Chiang Mai, northern Siam. In order to counter British control in Burma and the growing influence in Siam, in the same year France sought to establish a representation in Luang Prabang and sent Auguste Pavi to safeguard French interests. Pavi and French auxiliary men arrived in Luang Prabang in 1887 to witness the attack on Luang Prabang by Chinese and Thai bandits who hoped to free the brothers of their leader, Sao Won Trị, who were held captive by the Siamese. Pavey prevented the capture of the sick King Una Ham by ferrying him from the burning city to safety. The incident won the king's gratitude, gave France the opportunity to gain control of Sipsong Chu Thai as part of Tonkin in , and demonstrated the weakness of the Siamese in Laos. In 1892, Pavey became a resident in Bangkok, where he encouraged French politics, which first sought to deny or ignore Siamese sovereignty over lao territories on the east bank of the Mekong, and secondly to suppress slavery of the Lao population and the translation of the population of Laos by the Siamese as a prelude to the establishment of a protectorate in Laos. Siam reacted by denying French trade interests, which by 1893 were increasingly involved in military posturing and gunboat diplomacy. France and Siam will position troops to deny each other's interests, leading to the Siamese siege of The Island of Hong Kong in the south and a series of attacks on French garrisons in the north of the country. The result was the Paknam incident of 13 July 1893, the Franco-Siamese War (1893) and the final recognition of French territorial claims in Laos. French warships bomb a Siamese fort in Paknam. Territories abandoned by Siam in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Franco-Siamese War led to (dark blue) to France in 1893. The French knew that the eastern banking territories of Mekong were depopulated, devastated by the country - Siamese forced transfers of the population after the Anuvong uprising left only a fifth of the original population on the east bank, most of the Lao and Fuan peoples were resettled in areas around the Khorath plateau. Territorial conquests in 1893 were only a springboard for French control of the Mekong, in order to deprive Siam of as much territorial control as possible by acquiring the west bank territories of the Mekong, including the Khoret Plateau, and by negotiating stable borders with British Burma along former territories that paid tribute to the Kingdom of Luang Prabang. France settled the treaty with China in 1895, gaining control of Luang Namtha and Fonsaly. British control of the Shan States and French control of the upper Mekong have heightened tensions between colonial rivals. The Joint Commission completed its work in 1896, and the town of Muang Sing was built up by France; in exchange, France recognized Siamese sovereignty over the Chaofraya Basin. However, the question of Siamese control of the Khorath plateau, which was ethnically and historically Laotian, remained open to the French, as was the Siamese control over the Malay Peninsula, which favoured British interests. Political events in Europe will shape French Indo-Ind among themselves, however, and between 1896 and 1904 a new political party took power in Paris, which viewed Britain far more as an ally than as a colonial rival. In 1904, Britain and France signed the Anta Cordiale, which eventually became part of the alliance against Germany and Austria-Hungary, which fought World War I in 1914-1918. The Entente Cordila Agreement established appropriate spheres of influence in south-east Asia, although France's territorial claims will continue until 1907 in Cambodia. 1893-1939 The French Protectorate of Laos created two (and sometimes three) administrative districts managed from Vietnam in 1893. It was not until 1899 that Laos became centrally managed by one resident Of Superieur based in Savannahchet and then in Vientiane. The French decided to establish Vientiane as the colonial capital for two reasons, firstly, it was more centrally located between the central provinces and Luang Prabang, and secondly, the French were aware of the symbolic importance of restoring the former capital of the kingdom of Lan Sang, which the Siamese destroyed. Within the French Indochina Laos and Cambodia have been seen as a source of raw materials and manpower for more important stocks in Vietnam. The French colonial presence in Laos was easy; The Superieur resident was responsible for all administrations from community service to justice and community service. The French maintained a military presence in the colonial capital under the Garde Indigene consists of Vietnamese soldiers led by a French commander. Important provincial cities such as Luang Prabang, Savannahkhet and Paxe will have resident assistant, police, payer, postmaster, schoolteacher and doctor. Vietnamese hold most upper- and middle-level positions in the bureaucracy, with Laos working as junior clerks, translators, kitchen staff and general Labour. The villages remained under the traditional guidance of local military or chao muang. Throughout the colonial administration in Laos, the French presence never amounted to more than a few thousand Europeans. The French focused on infrastructure development, the abolition of slavery and servitude (although cortwl labour was still in force), trade, including opium production, and, most importantly, tax collection. During French rule, the Vietnamese were asked to migrate to Laos, which was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a practical problem within the Indo-Chinese colonial space. By 1943, the Vietnamese population was almost 40,000, the majority in Laos' largest cities and the right to elect their own leaders. As a result, 53% of the population of Vientiane, 85% of Thakhek and 62% of Pakse were Vietnamese, with the exception of Luang Prabang, where the population was predominantly Laos. Back in 1945, the French even devised an ambitious plan to move the mass Vietnamese population to three key areas, i.e. the Vientiane Plain, The Savannah area, the Bolaven plateau, which was abandoned only by the Japanese invasion of Indochina. Otherwise, according to Martin Stewart-Fox, Laos could well lose control of its own country. Lao's reaction to French colonialism was mixed, although the French were seen as preferred by the Siamese nobility, most of Laos, Lao Thyong and Lao Song were burdened with regressive taxes and requirements for corveas to create colonial outposts. The first serious resistance to the French colonial presence began in southern Laos as a Holy Man uprising led by Ong Keo, and lasted until 1910. The uprising began in 1901, when the French commissioner in Salawan tried to subdue the Lao tribes for taxation and coeng labor, Ong Keo caused anti-French sentiments and in return the French burned the local temple. The Commissioner and his troops were killed, and a general uprising began throughout the Bolaven plateau. Ong Keoo would have been killed by French troops, but within a few years his persecution and protests had gained popularity in southern Laos. It was only after the movement spread to the Horat Plateau and threatened to become an international incident involving Siam that several French columns of Gard-India gathered to put up a revolt. the northern tai lu groups from the areas around Phongsali and Muang Sing also began to rebel against the French attempts at bypassing and labor corvee. Market in Luang Prabang c. 1900 AD In 1914, King Tai Lu fled to the Chinese parts of Sipsong Panna, where he launched a two-pronged guerrilla campaign against the French in northern Laos that required three military expeditions to suppress and led to direct French control over Muang Sing. In the north-east of Laos, the Chinese and Laos rebelled against France's attempts to tax the opium trade, leading to another uprising in 1914-1917. By 1915, much of northeastern Laos was controlled by Chinese and Lao rebels. The French sent the largest military presence to Laos, comprising 160 French officers and 2,500 Vietnamese troops, divided into two columns. The French overtook the Chinese across the Chinese border and placed Fongsali under direct colonial control. However, northeastern Laos was still not fully peaceful, and a Hmong shaman named Pa Chai Wu tried to create the Hmong homeland through an uprising (derogatoryly referred to as the War of the Madman), which lasted from 1919 to 1921. By 1920 most of French Laos was in the world and a colonial order was established. In 1928, the first school was established to train Lao civil servants, which allowed the ascendant mobility of Laos to fill the positions occupied by the Vietnamese. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, France tried to implement Western, especially French, education, modern health and medicine, and community service with mixed success. The budget of colonial Laos was secondary to Hanoi, and the global Great Depression further limited the funds. It was also in the 1920s and 1930s that the first lines of Laotian nationalist identity emerged thanks to the work of Prince Phetsarath Rattanavongsa and the French school Francaise d'Extreme of the East to restore ancient monuments, temples, and conduct general research in Laoic history, literature, art and architecture. France's interest in the history of indigenous peoples serves a dual purpose in Laos, it strengthens the image of the colonial mission as a defense against Siamese domination, and is a legitimate way to obtain scholarships. The Second World War Development of Lao national identity took on significance in 1938 with the rise of the ultranationalist Prime Minister Phibunsongkhram in Bangkok. Phibunsongkhram renamed Siam in Thailand, a name change that was part of a broader political movement to unite all the Tai peoples under central Thai Bangkok. The French took these events with dismay, but the Vichy government was distracted by events in Europe and World War II. Despite the non-aggression agreement signed in In 1940, Thailand took advantage of France's position and started the Franco-Thai War. The war ended unfavourably to Lao's interests with the Tokyo Treaty, and loss of the transmekong territory of Xainyaburi and part of Champasaka. The result was Laos's distrust of the French and the first open national cultural movement in Laos, which was in a strange position with limited French support. Charles Roche, the French director of public education in Vientiane, and the Lao intelligentsia led by Nyi Aphai and Katai Don Sasorit started the Movement for National Repair. However, the wider influence of World War II had little impact on Laos until February 1945, when a detachment of the Japanese Imperial Army moved to Seng Huang. The Japanese anticipated that the Vichy administration of French Indochina under the leadership of Admiral Deco would be replaced by a representative of the Free French loyal to Charles De Gaulle, and initiated Operation Maigo (Bright Moon). The Japanese managed to intern the French living in Vietnam and Cambodia, but in remote areas of Laos the French were able to with the help of Laos and Garde Indian to create jungle bases, which were supplied by British airfields from Burma. However, French control in Laos has been overshadowed. Lao Isara and Independence 1945 were a turning point in the history of Laos, under Japanese pressure King Sisavanwong declared independence in April. The move allowed various independence movements in Laos, including Laos, including Lao Seri and Lao Pen Lao, to merge into the Lao Isara movement or the Free Laos movement, which was led by Prince Fezatara and opposed the return of Laos to the French. The Japanese surrender on August 15, 1945 gave courage to the pro-French factions, and Prince Petsamat was dismissed by King Sisawanwong. The undaunted Prince OfEsarat staged a coup in September and placed the royal family in Luang Prabang under house arrest. On October 12, 1945, the government of Laos was declared under the civil administration of Prince Fezarat. Over the next six months, the French rallied against Laos and were able to regain control of Indochina in April 1946. The Laos government fled to Thailand, where they supported the opposition to the French until 1949, when the group split over issues relating to relations with Vietminh and communist Patet Lao. With Laos Issara in exile, in August 1946 France established a constitutional monarchy in Laos led by King Sisavangvong, and Thailand agreed to reclaim territories captured during the Franco-Thai war in exchange for representation in the United Nations. The 1949 Franco-Laos General Convention granted the majority of Laos members an amnesty and sought appeasement by establishing a quasi-unverimented constitutional monarchy within the French Union. In 1950, the Government of Royal Laos was granted additional powers, including the training and assistance of the national army. 22 1953 Franco-Lao Treaty of Friendship and Association Association remaining French powers to the independent royal government of Laos. By 1954, the defeat under Dien Bien Phu led to eight years of fighting the Vietnamese during the First Indo-Chinese War, and France renounced all claims to the Colony of Indochina. Kingdom of Laos and lao Civil War (1953-1975) Main articles: The Kingdom of Laos, the Lao Civil War and the history of Laos since 1945 Elections were held in 1955, and the first coalition government, led by Prince Suwanna Phuma, was formed in 1957. The coalition government collapsed in 1958. In 1960, Captain Kong Le staged a coup when the cabinet was in the royal capital Luang Prabang, and demanded reform of a neutral government. The second coalition government, once again led by Suvanna Phuma, failed to hold on to power. Right-wing forces led by General Fumi Nosawan ousted the neutral government from power in the same year. The North Vietnamese invaded Laos between 1958 and 1959 to create the Ho Chi Minh City Trail. The Second Geneva Conference, which met between 1961 and 1962, provided for the independence and neutrality of Laos, but the agreement meant little, and the war soon resumed. The growing North Vietnamese military presence in the country increasingly drew Laos into the Second Indo-Chinese War (1954-1975). As a result, for nearly a decade, eastern Laos underwent some of the heaviest bombings in the history of the war, as the U.S. sought to destroy the Ho Chi Minh City Trail, which passed through Laos and defeated communist forces. The North Vietnamese also actively supported Patet Lao and repeatedly invaded Laos. The Laos government and army were supported by the U.S. during the conflict. The United States trained both regular royal Lao forces and irregular forces, many of whom were Lymphs and other ethnic minorities. Shortly after the Paris peace accords led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam, a cease-fire between Patet Lao and the government led to a new coalition government. However, North Vietnam never left Laos and Patet Lao remained little more than a proxy army for Vietnamese interests. After the fall of South Vietnam to communist forces in April 1975, Patet Lao with the support of North Vietnam were able to take full power with little resistance. On 2 December 1975, the king was forced to abdicate, and the Lao People's Democratic Republic was established. About 300,000 of the total population of 3 million have fled Laos, crossing the border into Thailand since the end of the civil war. Lao People's Democratic Republic (1975- present) Main article: History of Laos since 1945 New Communist Government led by Kaison Phomvihane centralized economic decision-making and put many members of the previous government and military in overwork camps which Hmenges included. Although nominally independent, the communist government has for years been virtually little more than a puppet regime to flee Vietnam. Government policy has prompted about 10 percent of Laos to leave the country. Laos was heavily dependent on Soviet aid, sent directly through Vietnam until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. In the 1990s, the Communist Party abandoned centralized economic management but still had a monopoly on political power. Notes : The term Laos used in this context refers to the speaking peoples of Tai Kadai living in what is now Guangdong, Guangxi and Northern Vietnam as a whole. It is unjustifiably applied exclusively to the ancestor of Laos. 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The Thai people in the north as well as in the south do not in any sense migrate en south after Kublay Khan conquered the Kingdom of Dali. b c Chamberlain, James R. (2016). Kra-Dai and the proto-priest of southern China and Vietnam, page 27-77. In the journal of the Siamese Society, Volume 104, 2016. Grant Evans. The Short History of Laos - The Land Between Them (PDF). Higher Intelligence - Content Delivery Network. Received on December 30, 2017. a b Baker 2002, page 5. a b Taylor 1991, page 193. a b c d Baker and Fongpaichit 2017, page 26. Taylor 1991, page 239-249. The complete mitochondrial genomes of Thai and Lao populations indicate the ancient origin of Austro-Asian groups and the demical spread in the spread of Tai-Kadai languages (PDF). Max Planck Society. October 27, 2016. Received on December 31, 2017. The Short History of Southeast Asia Chapter 3. Consequences of the Mongolian conquest of China ... The result was a mass movement of Thai peoples to the south.... (PDF). Stanford University. Received on June 26, 2015. Briggs, Lawrence Palmer (1948). Siamese attacks on Angkor until 1430. Far Eastern quarter. Association of Asian Studies. 8 (1): 3–33. doi:10.2307/2049480. JSTOR 2049480. Ivarsson, Seren (2008). Creation of Laos: Creation of Lao space between Indochina and Siam, 1860-1945. NIAS Press, 102. ISBN 978-8-776-94023-2. a b c d Stewart-Fox, Martin (1997). The history of Laos. Cambridge University Press, 51. ISBN 978-0-521-59746-3. Courtois, Stefan; et al. (1997). The Black Book of Communism. Harvard University Press. page 575. ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2. Cite uses the withered displayauthors option - Martin Stewart-Fox. Politics and reform in the Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDF). The University of NSW. Received on December 29, 2017. The work is cited by Baker, Chris; Fongpaichit, Pasuk (2017), Ayatthay Story, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-19076-4. Chris Baker (2002), From Yue To Tai (PDF), Siamese Society Magazine, 90 (1-2): 1-26. Taylor, Keith W. (1991), The Birth of Vietnam, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-07417-0. Next reading Gunn, Jeffrey C. Uprising in Laos: Peasant and Politics in Colonial Backwater (Boulder, CO.: Westview Press, 1990) ISBN 0- 8133-8027-8 Stuart-Fox, Martin. Frenchmen in Laos, 1887-1945. Contemporary Asian Studies (1995) 29'1 p.m.: 111-139. Stuart-Fox, Martin. History of Laos (Cambridge University Press, 1997) External References Digital Library of Lao Manuscripts - Online Library of Historical Lao Manuscripts and Related Reference Information Laos Guide History of Laos Andrea Matles Sawada, ed. (1994). Laos: Exploring the country. Library of Congress Country Studies. GPO for the Library of Congress. Received on August 8, 2011. Extracted from the a short history of laos the land in between. a short history of laos pdf

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