DOCSLIB.ORG

Torrance, Jaimie Stephen (2020) Social Perceptions of Men’S Dominance and Variations in Men’S Intrasexual Competitiveness

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Torrance, Jaimie Stephen (2020) Social Perceptions of Men’S Dominance and Variations in Men’S Intrasexual Competitiveness Torrance, Jaimie Stephen (2020) Social perceptions of men’s dominance and variations in men’s intrasexual competitiveness. PhD thesis. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/81980/ Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Enlighten: Theses https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] Social Perceptions of Men’s Dominance and Variations in Men’s Intrasexual Competitiveness Jaimie Stephen Torrance MSc. Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Psychology College of Science and Engineering University of Glasgow October 2020 2 Abstract Dominance plays a central role in human social interaction. Over the years, researchers have learned a lot about how men’s dominance is perceived by others, including that people use a variety of perceptual cues when judging men’s dominance and that these judgements are typically consistent across observers. However, questions remain concerning what external factors can influence a person’s perceptions of other’s dominance, and what factors affect individual differences in dominance and competitiveness. This thesis will review the current literature on dominance in men, before presenting three empirical chapters aimed at addressing gaps in the current literature. The first empirical chapter investigates the effects of testosterone and cortisol, on male intrasexual competitiveness, a key dominance behaviour. The study uses a longitudinal design to examine natural fluctuations in hormone levels over time. The study found no evidence of either a within-subject or between subject effect of testosterone, cortisol or their interaction, on intrasexual competitiveness. The second empirical chapter investigated regional variation in sensitivity to cues of dominance across US states. Despite strong theoretical predictions, the results show no compelling evidence that regional variation in population sex ratio influence sensitivity to cues of dominance. The final empirical chapter investigated the influence of transient cues, specifically head orientation on perceptions of dominance and trustworthiness. The results show that while tilting one’s head down does reliably increase perceptions of dominance and decrease perceptions of trustworthiness, it appears that cue does not have downstream context contingent effects for leadership judgements. 3 Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................... 2 List of Tables ................................................................................ 5 List of Figures ............................................................................... 6 Preface ....................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgement .......................................................................... 8 Author’s Declaration ....................................................................... 9 Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................. 10 1.1 Why Dominance and Status Matter ...................................................................... 11 1.1.1 Status and social hierarchies .......................................................................... 11 1.1.2 What is dominance?....................................................................................... 12 1.2 The Importance of Dominance Cues ..................................................................... 15 1.3 What are the cues to dominance? ........................................................................ 16 1.3.1 Facial cues ...................................................................................................... 16 1.3.2 Body cues ....................................................................................................... 21 1.3.3 Vocal cues ....................................................................................................... 23 1.3.4 Olfactory cues ................................................................................................ 24 1.3.5 Transient cues ................................................................................................ 25 1.3.6 Are these judgments accurate? ..................................................................... 26 1.4 What are the consequences of dominance perceptions? .................................... 28 1.4.1 Dominance perceptions and mating opportunities ....................................... 28 1.4.2 Dominance perceptions and status opportunities ........................................ 30 1.5 What factors influence perceptions of dominance? ............................................. 33 1.5.1 Individual differences ..................................................................................... 33 1.5.2 External Factors .............................................................................................. 34 1.6 What influences dominance behaviour and competition? ................................... 38 1.6.1 Hormonal factors influencing dominance and competition .......................... 38 1.6.2 Environmental factors influencing dominance and competition .................. 47 1.7 The Current Studies ............................................................................................... 51 Chapter 2 No evidence for associations between men’s salivary testosterone and responses on the Intrasexual Competitiveness Scale ........................... 52 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 53 2.2 Methods ................................................................................................................ 54 2.2.1 Participants .................................................................................................... 54 2.2.2 Procedure ....................................................................................................... 54 2.2.3 Assays ............................................................................................................. 55 4 2.2.4 Analyses.......................................................................................................... 56 2.3 Results ................................................................................................................... 56 2.4 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 57 Chapter 3 Does adult sex ratio predict regional variation in facial dominance perceptions? Evidence from an analysis of US states ................................ 59 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 60 3.2 Methods ................................................................................................................ 62 3.2.1 Participants .................................................................................................... 62 3.2.2 Face stimuli .................................................................................................... 62 3.2.3 Procedure ....................................................................................................... 63 3.2.4 Adult sex ratio ................................................................................................ 64 3.3 Results ................................................................................................................... 64 3.4 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 66 Chapter 4 Evidence head tilt has dissociable effects on dominance and trustworthiness judgments, but does have not category-contingent effects on hypothetical leadership judgments ..................................................... 68 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 69 4.2 Study 1 ................................................................................................................... 71 4.2.1 Methods ......................................................................................................... 71 4.2.2 Results ............................................................................................................ 72 4.2.3 Additional analyses of Study 1 ....................................................................... 75 4.3 Study 2 ................................................................................................................... 75 4.3.1 Methods ......................................................................................................... 76 4.3.2 Results ............................................................................................................ 76 4.3.3 Additional analyses of Study 2 ....................................................................... 79 4.4 Discussion .............................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 255 Investigations Into the Regulation of Dominance
    255 INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE REGULATION OF DOMINANCE BEHAVIOUR AND OF THE DIVISION OF LABOUR IN BUMBLEBEE COLONIES (BOMBUS TERRESTRIS) by ADRIAAN VAN DOORN (ZoologicalInstitute II, Röntgenring10, 8700 Würzburg, West-Germany. Laboratory of ComparativePhysiology, Jan van Galenstraat40, 3572 LA Utrecht, The Netherlands*) SUMMARY During the first part of colony life Bombusterrestris queens have a strong regulating in- fluence on worker dominance. Dominant workers from queenless groups which are introduced into the colony are immediately dominated by the queen. They drop to a low position in the dominance hierarchy of the colony and may start foraging. The queen's dominance signal decreases at a certain, queen-specific time after she has switched to the laying of unfertilized eggs. Then an introduced dominant worker will supersede her and become the 'false-queen'. The false-queen apparently does not pro- duce the complete dominance signal since she usually has to carry out attacks on the workers to establish and maintain her dominance. The workers' flexibility with respect to the tasks they perform (foraging or nest duties) decreases with their age and in the course of colony development. House bees, especially those which have achieved a high position in the dominance hierarchy, are less inclined to change their tasks after removal of the foragers than foragers after removal of the house bees. But, in both cases, most of the work is taken over by young workers (less than 10 days old). Foragers which change to nest duties may substantial- ly increase their dominance and may become egglayers. Juvenile hormone (JH) treatment does not affect the division of labour, but it does influence the activity of the workers.
    [Show full text]
  • Chemical Diplomacy in Male Tilapia: Urinary Signal Increases Sex Hormone and Decreases Aggression Received: 22 December 2015 João L
    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Universidade do Algarve www.nature.com/scientificreports OPEN Chemical diplomacy in male tilapia: urinary signal increases sex hormone and decreases aggression Received: 22 December 2015 João L. Saraiva , Tina Keller-Costa, Peter C. Hubbard , Ana Rato & Adelino V. M. Canário Accepted: 30 June 2017 Androgens, namely 11-ketotestosterone (11KT), have a central role in male fsh reproductive Published: xx xx xxxx physiology and are thought to be involved in both aggression and social signalling. Aggressive encounters occur frequently in social species, and fghts may cause energy depletion, injury and loss of social status. Signalling for social dominance and fghting ability in an agonistic context can minimize these costs. Here, we test the hypothesis of a ‘chemical diplomacy’ mechanism through urinary signals that avoids aggression and evokes an androgen response in receiver males of Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). We show a decoupling between aggression and the androgen response; males fghting their mirror image experience an unresolved interaction and a severe drop in urinary 11KT. However, if concurrently exposed to dominant male urine, aggression drops but urinary 11KT levels remain high. Furthermore, 11KT increases in males exposed to dominant male urine in the absence of a visual stimulus. The use of a urinary signal to lower aggression may be an adaptive mechanism to resolve disputes and avoid the costs of fghting. As dominance is linked to nest building and mating with females, the 11KT response of subordinate males suggests chemical eavesdropping, possibly in preparation for parasitic fertilizations. Androgens, synthesized mainly in the gonads and adrenal tissue1, are essential in vertebrate reproductive phys- iology and behaviour2.
    [Show full text]
  • Low Fundamental and Formant Frequencies Predict Fighting Ability
    www.nature.com/scientificreports OPEN Low fundamental and formant frequencies predict fghting ability among male mixed martial arts fghters Toe Aung1, Stefan Goetz2, John Adams2, Clint McKenna3, Catherine Hess1, Stiven Roytman2, Joey T. Cheng4, Samuele Zilioli2 & David Puts1* Human voice pitch is highly sexually dimorphic and eminently quantifable, making it an ideal phenotype for studying the infuence of sexual selection. In both traditional and industrial populations, lower pitch in men predicts mating success, reproductive success, and social status and shapes social perceptions, especially those related to physical formidability. Due to practical and ethical constraints however, scant evidence tests the central question of whether male voice pitch and other acoustic measures indicate actual fghting ability in humans. To address this, we examined pitch, pitch variability, and formant position of 475 mixed martial arts (MMA) fghters from an elite fghting league, with each fghter’s acoustic measures assessed from multiple voice recordings extracted from audio or video interviews available online (YouTube, Google Video, podcasts), totaling 1312 voice recording samples. In four regression models each predicting a separate measure of fghting ability (win percentages, number of fghts, Elo ratings, and retirement status), no acoustic measure signifcantly predicted fghting ability above and beyond covariates. However, after fght statistics, fght history, height, weight, and age were used to extract underlying dimensions of fghting ability via factor analysis, pitch and formant position negatively predicted “Fighting Experience” and “Size” factor scores in a multivariate regression model, explaining 3–8% of the variance. Our fndings suggest that lower male pitch and formants may be valid cues of some components of fghting ability in men.
    [Show full text]
  • Durham E-Theses
    Durham E-Theses The Inuence of Red Colouration on Human Perception of Aggression and Dominance in Neutral Settings WIEDEMANN, DIANA How to cite: WIEDEMANN, DIANA (2016) The Inuence of Red Colouration on Human Perception of Aggression and Dominance in Neutral Settings, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11866/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 The Influence of Red Colouration on Human Perception of Aggression and Dominance in Neutral Settings ___________________________________________________________________________ Diana Wiedemann Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology, Durham University January 2016 i Abstract Abstract For both humans and nonhuman species, there is evidence that red colouration signals both emotional states (arousal/anger) and biological traits (dominance, health, and testosterone). The presence and intensity of red colouration correlates with male dominance and testosterone in a variety of animal species, and even artificial red stimuli can influence dominance interactions.
    [Show full text]
  • Better Wear Red? the Influence of the Color of Sportswear on the Outcome
    Submitted by Matthias Nikolaus Hilgarth, BSc Submitted at Department of Economics Supervisor Dr. Mario Lackner October 2020 Better wear red? The influence of the color of sportswear on the outcome of Olympic sport competitions Master Thesis to obtain the academic degree of Master of Science in the Master’s Program Economics JOHANNES KEPLER UNIVERSITY LINZ Altenbergerstraße 69 4040 Linz, Österreich www.jku.at DVR 0093696 Sworn Declaration I, Matthias Nikolaus Hilgarth, hereby declare under oath that the thesis submitted is my own unaided work, that I have not used sources other than the ones indicated, and that all direct and indirect sources are acknowledged as references. This printed thesis is identical with the electronic version submitted. Linz, Place and Date Matthias Nikolaus Hilgarth 2 "All I am or can be I owe to my angel mother." Abraham Lincoln For Mom 3 Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Mario Lackner for providing me with the topic of this Master’s thesis, for the trust in me to work independently, the patience to give me time and support whenever I needed it. Moreover, I am very grateful to Alexander Ahammer, PhD for his assistance in the whole process. Additionally I would like to thank Univ.-Prof. Dr. Martin Halla for his valuable suggestions. Thanks the whole Department of Economics for providing such a an enjoyable environment for learning and working. Your efforts to make students part of the department are truly appreciated. A special thanks to my partner Martina, for your kindness and encouragement.
    [Show full text]
  • Loud Calls in Male Crested Macaques (Macaca Nigra)
    *HighlightedView metadata, manuscript citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE Click here to view linked References provided by LJMU Research Online 1 Loud calls in male crested macaques (Macaca nigra) 2 – a signal of dominance in a tolerant species 3 Christof Neumanna,b, Gholib Assahadc,d, Kurt Hammerschmidte, 4 Dyah Perwitasari-Farajallahc,f, Antje Engelhardta,c,* 5 6 Running headline: NEUMANN ET AL.: LOUD CALLS IN CRESTED MACAQUES 7 8 9 a Department of Reproductive Biology, German Primate Centre, Göttingen, Germany 10 b Department of Animal Physiology, Faculty for Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Psychology, 11 University Leipzig, Germany 12 c Primate Research Centre, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia 13 d Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia 14 e Research Group Cognitive Ethology, German Primate Centre, Göttingen, Germany 15 f Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics & Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural 16 University, Indonesia 17 18 * Correspondence: Antje Engelhardt, Department of Reproductive Biology, Deutsches 19 Primatenzentrum GmbH, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany (email: 20 [email protected]) 21 22 23 24 25 Word count: 4264 26 27 Abstract: 28 Compared to other mammals, sexual signals occur particularly often within the primate order. 29 Nevertheless, little is known so far about the pressures under which these signals evolved. We 30 studied loud calls in wild crested macaques (Macaca nigra) in order to examine whether 31 these are used as a sexual signal, particularly as a signal of dominance in this species. 32 Since the structure of loud calls may be influenced by the context in which they are 33 uttered, we tested for contextual differences in call structure.
    [Show full text]
  • THE UNIVERSITY of HULL the Behavioural Function Of
    THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL The behavioural function of pheromones in crayfish being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Fiona Catherine Berry (MRes University of York; BSc University of St Andrews) September 2008 Contents Acknowledgements 1 Abstract 2 Chapter 1 - Introduction 3 t.l Biological communication 4 1.1.2 Chemical communication 4 1.1.3 Aquatic chemical signalling 6 1.1.4 Aquatic chemical signalling - crustaceans 7 1.2 The chemical nature of pheromones 9 1.2.1 Pheromone identification 9 1.2.2 Bioassay development 10 1.2.3 Chemical analysis 11 1.3 The use of pheromones to control invasive species 11 1.4 Biological and ecology of crayfish (The Astacoidea) 12 1.4.1 Morphology and growth 13 1.4.2 Life history strategies 14 1.4.3 Crayfish in the UK and Europe 15 1.4.3.1 White-clawed crayfish in the UK 16 1.4.3.2 Non-indigenous crayfish 17 1.4.4 Controlling invasive crayfish species 19 1.5 Current knowledge of the role of chemical communication in crayfish, in the context of behaviour 21 1.5.1 Inter-specific chemical communication 22 1.5.2 Reproduction 22 1.5.3 Mate choice 25 1.5.4 Agonism 26 1.6 Aims and Objectives 27 Chapter 2 - General methodology 31 2.1 Animal maintenance 32 2.1.1 Collection 32 2.1.2 Legislation and holding 32 2.2 Experimental procedures 33 2.2.1 Identification 33 2.2.2 Isolation 33 2.2.3 Blindfolding 34 2.2.4 General experimental protocols 34 2.2.5 Checking for receptivity 34 2.2.6 Urine visualisation 35 2.2.7 Urine sampling technique 36 2.2.8 Conditioned water 36
    [Show full text]
  • Relationships Between Implicit Power Motivation, Implicit Sexual Motivation, and Gonadal Steroid Hormones: Behavioral, Endocrine, and Fmri Investigations in Humans
    Relationships between implicit power motivation, implicit sexual motivation, and gonadal steroid hormones: Behavioral, endocrine, and fMRI investigations in humans by Steven J. Stanton A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Psychology) in the University of Michigan 2008 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Oliver C. Schultheiss, Chair Professor Kent C. Berridge Professor Theresa M. Lee Associate Professor Beverly I. Strassmann © Steven J. Stanton All rights reserved 2008 This dissertation is dedicated to Samantha, my perfect love. ii Acknowledgements I give great thanks to my advisor and mentor, Dr. Oliver C. Schultheiss who has shaped my academic abilities throughout my graduate education and has been available for support, instruction, and encouragement at every step along the way. I would also like to thank my dissertation committee members, Drs. Terri Lee, Kent Berridge, and Beverly Strassmann who have been supportive throughout the difficult process that has comprised my candidacy. I also owe thanks to other faculty members at the University of Michigan for their inspiration, advice, and support including Drs. David Winter, Jacinta Beehner, and Robin Edelstein. I would also like to acknowledge both the Department of Psychology and the Rackham Graduate School for several grants and fellowships that aided me in my doctoral research and studies. For all aspects of my own educational history from beginning to end, I owe great thanks to my parents, Susan Stanton and Steven Stanton who promoted education as a top priority in my life from the beginning. I would not have attained a doctorate without the great start and continued support that they provided.
    [Show full text]
  • Open Honors Thesis - Collin Garr
    THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY SCHREYER HONORS COLLEGE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY PATTERNS OF ATTRACTIVENESS AND DOMINANCE AS RELATED TO VOICE FREQUENCY ACROSS CULTURES COLLIN GARR SPRING 2017 A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for baccalaureate degrees in Supply Chain Information Systems and Chinese with honors in Anthropology Reviewed and approved* by the following: David Puts Associate Professor of Anthropology Thesis Supervisor Timothy Ryan Associate Professor of Anthropology and Information Sciences Honors Adviser * Signatures are on file in the Schreyer Honors College. i ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent women’s perceptions of a man’s short and long-term attractiveness, as well as men’s perceptions of other men’s prestige and dominance, are affected by the fundamental frequency of his voice. There is already evidence that indicates a positive association between perceptions of masculinity, attractiveness and dominance, and a lower F0, but little research has been conducted to estimate the degree of cross- cultural variability in these perceptions. The following analyses strives to elucidate the similarities and differences in perceptions across five nations, as well as to interpret these results from cultural and evolutionary perspectives. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • DOMINANCE in HUMANS Tian Chen Zeng Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA Tianchen [email protected] Orcid: 0000-0001-6697-8691
    DOMINANCE IN HUMANS Tian Chen Zeng Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA [email protected] ORCid: 0000-0001-6697-8691 Joey T. Cheng Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, Canada [email protected] Joseph Henrich Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA [email protected] ORCid: 0000-0002-5012-0065 ABSTRACT Dominance is the aspect of social hierarchy that arises from agonistic interactions involving actual aggression or threats and intimidation. Accumulating evidence points to its importance in humans and its separation from prestige--an alternate mechanism in which status arises from competence or benefit-generation ability. In this review, we first provide an overview of the theoretical underpinnings of dominance as a concept, as well as some complications regarding the application of this concept to humans, which often shade into arguments that minimise its importance as a determinant of social influence in our species. We then review empirical evidence for its continued importance in human groups, including the effects of dominance rank on measurable outcomes such as social influence and reproductive fitness (independently of prestige), evidence for a specialized dominance psychology, and evidence for gender-specific effects. Finally, because human-specific factors such as norms and coalitions may place bounds on purely coercive status-attainment strategies, we end by considering key situations and contexts that increase the likelihood for dominance status to coexist alongside prestige status within the same individual, including how: 1) institutional power and authority tend to elicit dominance; 2) dominance-enhancing traits can at times generate benefits for others (prestige), and 3) certain dominance cues and ethology may lead to mis-attributions of prestige.
    [Show full text]
  • 'Any Animal Whatever'
    Journal of Consciousness Studies www.imprint-academic.com/jcs Jessica C. Flack and Frans B.M. de Waal ‘Any Animal Whatever’ Darwinian Building Blocks of Morality in Monkeys and Apes To what degree has biology influenced and shaped the development of moral sys- tems? One way to determine the extent to which human moral systems might be the product of natural selection is to explore behaviour in other species that is analogous and perhaps homologous to our own. Many non-human primates, for example, have similar methods to humans for resolving, managing, and preventing conflicts of inter- ests within their groups. Such methods, which include reciprocity and food sharing, reconciliation, consolation, conflict intervention, and mediation, are the very build- ing blocks of moral systems in that they are based on and facilitate cohesion among individuals and reflect a concerted effort by community members to find shared solu- tions to social conflict. Furthermore, these methods of resource distribution and con- flict resolution often require or make use of capacities for empathy, sympathy, and sometimes even community concern. Non-human primates in societies in which such mechanisms are present may not be exactly moral beings, but they do show signs of a sense of social regularity that — just like the norms and rules underlying human moral conduct — promotes a mutually satisfactory modus vivendi. Introduction Any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well developed, or nearly as well devel- oped, as in man.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Structure Predicts Eye Contact Tolerance in Nonhuman Primates: Evidence from a Crowd- Sourcing Approach Ethan G
    www.nature.com/scientificreports OPEN Social Structure Predicts Eye Contact Tolerance in Nonhuman Primates: Evidence from a Crowd- Sourcing Approach Ethan G. Harrod, Christopher L. Coe & Paula M. Niedenthal In most primates, eye contact is an implicit signal of threat, and often connotes social status and imminent physical aggression. However, in humans and some of the gregarious nonhuman primates, eye contact is tolerated more and may be used to communicate other emotional and mental states. What accounts for the variation in this critical social cue across primate species? We crowd-sourced primatologists and found a strong linear relationship between eye contact tolerance and primate social structure such that eye contact tolerance increased as social structures become more egalitarian. In addition to constituting the frst generalizable demonstration of this relationship, our fndings serve to inform the related question of why eye contact is deferentially avoided in some human cultures, while eye contact is both frequent and even encouraged in others. Being looked at elicits a refexive, involuntary response. Humans can detect that they are the target of another’s gaze through subcortical neural pathways, even without conscious awareness1. Detection of direct gaze in turn triggers a cascade of activation in social cognition centers of the brain that underlie the self-conscious state of arousal and endocrine responses we experience as the “feeling of being looked at”2. Achieving eye contact with another has important signifcance both for the sender of this social signal and the recipient. Among most pri- mates, direct gaze can serve as an explicit and implicit signal of threat or dominance, indicating that overt physical aggression might soon follow3–9.
    [Show full text]