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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses The Inuence of Red Colouration on Human Perception of Aggression and Dominance in Neutral Settings WIEDEMANN, DIANA How to cite: WIEDEMANN, DIANA (2016) The Inuence of Red Colouration on Human Perception of Aggression and Dominance in Neutral Settings, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/11866/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 The Influence of Red Colouration on Human Perception of Aggression and Dominance in Neutral Settings ___________________________________________________________________________ Diana Wiedemann Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology, Durham University January 2016 i Abstract Abstract For both humans and nonhuman species, there is evidence that red colouration signals both emotional states (arousal/anger) and biological traits (dominance, health, and testosterone). The presence and intensity of red colouration correlates with male dominance and testosterone in a variety of animal species, and even artificial red stimuli can influence dominance interactions. Depending on the context in which it is perceived, red is associated with reward (e.g., mating) or avoidance of threat. Wearing red can therefore be advantageous in romantic or achievement contexts. It may also increase the probability of winning sporting contests. Both perceiver effects and wearer effects have been proposed as sources of enhanced winning chances for competitors wearing red in sporting competitions. We tested the hypothesis that artificial (clothing) colour can exploit the evolutionary associations between red and dominance/aggression and that this link is even detectable in neutral (non-competitive) settings. The first two experiments investigated whether a person wearing red was perceived as more aggressive/dominant than one wearing blue or grey. We detected a perceiver effect for red-wearers for perceptions of aggression, dominance, and anger that was independent of a wearer effect. This confirmed that the colour red may be a cue used to predict propensity for dominance and aggression in human males. We then explored differences in handgrip strength, self- and peer-assessed dominance, and actual dominant behaviour to test the hypothesis that red-wearers are physically and mentally stronger/more dominant than their blue-wearing opponents. Red-wearers were not stronger or perceived as more dominant or taller than blue-wearers, but we found some evidence that they may have acted more dominantly. However, in an online experiment rather than in a controlled laboratory setting, we found no wearer or perceiver effects on ratings of perceived dominance, height, or strength. Possible limitations of web-based approaches are discussed. Finally, we examined the consequences of allowing participants to choose from the full colour spectrum rather than forcing them to pick from only two or three clothing colours presented. When allowed to choose from the full spectrum, participants predominantly chose red shirts to make a person appear more aggressive or more dominant. There is some qualitative evidence for an “optimal red” in that participants’ choices clustered within a specific part of the red spectrum and no such clustering or colour preference was found for any of the control character traits. Overall, the results demonstrate that, in a laboratory setting, the colour red can have consistent effects on perceptions of aggression and dominance; this opens up a broad array of avenues for future work. These findings also have implications for non-academic contexts (e.g., whether wearing red can impact one’s performance in achievement contexts such as sporting contests or job interviews). ii Table of contents Table of contents Abstract......................................................................................................................................ii Table of contents.......................................................................................................................iii List of figures..........................................................................................................................viii List of tables..............................................................................................................................ix Abbreviations.............................................................................................................................x Preface.......................................................................................................................................xi Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................xii 1 Introduction __________________________________________ 1 1.1 Introduction to colour in general ________________________________________ 1 1.1.1 Evolution of trichromatic colour vision _______________________________ 2 1.1.2 Historical context: theoretical work and methodological issues _____________ 3 1.1.3 Recent theoretical advances ________________________________________ 5 1.1.4 Focus point: the colour red _________________________________________ 6 1.2 (Red) Colouring in natural environments __________________________________ 8 1.2.1 Dominance, social status … and the colour red _________________________ 8 1.2.2 Dominance hierarchies in male primates ______________________________ 8 1.2.3 Natural signals of male dominance ___________________________________ 9 1.2.4 Dominance, social status, competition and red colouration in observational studies ______________________________________________________________ 10 1.2.5 Sexual selection and colour ________________________________________ 11 1.2.5.1 Male mate choice and the colour red _____________________________ 13 1.2.6 Skin colour ____________________________________________________ 14 1.2.7 Skin colour and naturally occurring agonistic encounter _________________ 15 1.3 (Red) Colouring as an artificial stimuli __________________________________ 16 1.3.1 Red colouring in the context of attraction/affiliation ____________________ 16 1.3.1.1 Skin Colour ________________________________________________ 16 1.3.1.2 Clothing colour and other stimuli _______________________________ 19 1.3.2 Red colouring in the context of competition and achievement _____________ 21 1.3.2.1 Findings from the animal kingdom ______________________________ 21 1.3.2.2 Individual motor- and cognitive performance ______________________ 22 1.3.2.3 Competitive sports performance ________________________________ 24 1.3.3 Colour-in-context theory __________________________________________ 27 2 Wearing red enhances perceived dominance, aggression and confidence _____________________________________________ 30 2.1 Abstract ___________________________________________________________ 30 2.2 Introduction _______________________________________________________ 31 iii Table of contents 2.2.1 Hypotheses and predictions ________________________________________ 32 2.3 Methods __________________________________________________________ 33 2.3.1 Participants ____________________________________________________ 33 2.3.2 Stimuli ________________________________________________________ 33 2.3.3 Design and Procedure ____________________________________________ 35 2.3.4 Statistical analysis _______________________________________________ 36 2.4 Results ___________________________________________________________ 38 2.4.1 Personality attributes _____________________________________________ 38 2.4.1.1 Trustworthiness _____________________________________________ 38 2.4.1.2 Aggression _________________________________________________ 39 2.4.1.3 Dominance _________________________________________________ 40 2.4.1.4 Confidence _________________________________________________ 40 2.4.2 Emotional states ________________________________________________ 41 2.4.2.1 Angry versus neutral facial expression ___________________________ 43 2.5 Discussion _________________________________________________________ 44 2.5.1 Limitations and future research _____________________________________ 49 3 Distinguishing between wearing and perceiving red clothing colour and its effects on dominance attribution _________________ 51 3.1 Abstract ___________________________________________________________ 51 3.2 Introduction _______________________________________________________ 52 3.2.1 Hypotheses and predictions ________________________________________ 53 3.3 Methods __________________________________________________________ 53 3.3.1 Participants ____________________________________________________ 53 3.3.2 Stimuli ________________________________________________________ 54 3.3.3 Dominance questionnaire _________________________________________ 54 3.3.4 Design
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