Doktor Der Naturwissenschaften

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Doktor Der Naturwissenschaften "Differenzierung von Reviergesängen und mitochondrialem Cytochrom-b in drei ausgewählten Singvogel-Gattungen (Aves, Passeriformes: Genus Regulus, Genus Seicercus und Parus major)" Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades "Doktor der Naturwissenschaften" am Fachbereich Biologie der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität in Mainz Martin Päckert geb. in Bad Homburg v. d. H. Tag der Prüfung: 18. 07. 2003 Some say that knowledge is something sat in your lap Some say that knowledge is something that you´ll never have In my dome of ivory, a home of activity I want the answers quickly, but I don´t have no energy I hold a cup of wisdom, but there is nothing within My cup she never overfloweth And ´tis I that moan and groaneth (Kate Bush, 1981: “Sat in your lap”) 416 201 282 249 240 7 48 96 456 336 57 93 6 312 369 294 186 236 39 147 444 8000 111 52 87 5 102 21 429 466 240 81 63 153 7000 282 150 F 4 222 POP 219 120 M 144 87 111 138 171 297 345366 A 6000 affinis 3 99 T >C A >C C >A X 120 A >G C >T C >T 195 201 distinctus 198 231 237 5000 2 271 318 soror 318 402 411 405 whistleri 414 447 1 Std.abw. = 7,24 426 466 444 7000 6000 1,4 1,6 486 valentini Mittel = 12,7 445 5000 4000 1,0 1,2 459 3000 ,8 0 N = 27,00 480 2000 ,6 T omeiensis 489 DF 2,5 5,0 7,5 10,0 12,5 15,0 17,5 20,0 22,5 25,0 498 burkii FMOD ... something set in your lab. Inhalt 1. Einleitung 1.1 Molekulare und bioakustische Merkmale bei Singvögeln 7 1.2 Artkonzepte 8 1.3. Zielsetzung 10 1.4.Untersuchte Taxa 1.4.1 Die Goldhähnchen (Regulus) 11 1.4.2 Die Kohlmeisen (Parus major) 14 1.4.3 Die Brillenlaubsänger (Gattung Seicercus) 18 2. Material und Methode 2.1 Molekulargenetik 21 2.1.1 Probenmaterial 21 2.1.2 Aufbereitung von Probenmaterial 30 2.1.2.1 Extraktion von DNA 30 2.1.2.2 Polymerase-Chain-Reaction (PCR) 31 2.1.2.3 Aufreinigung 32 2.1.2.4 Ausstechen von Banden 33 2.1.2.5 Sanger-Reaktion 34 2.1.2.6 DNA-Fällung 34 2.1.2.7 Sequenzierung 35 2.1.3 Auswertung 35 2.1.3.1 Wahl des passenden Substitutionsmodells 36 2.1.3.2 Kalibrierung einer molekularen Uhr 36 2.2 Bioakustik 2.2.1 Definitionen 38 2.2.1.1 Elementtypen 40 2.2.1.2 Homologisierung von Gesangsstrukturen 43 2.2.2 Aufnahmegeräte 44 2.2.3 Sonagraphische Messungen 44 2.2.4 Attrappenversuche 46 2.2.5 Character Tracing 54 3 3. Ergebnisse 3.1 Die Goldhähnchen (Regulus) 58 3.1.1 Molekulargenetik 58 3.1.2 Bioakustik 65 3.1.2.1 Units (Gesangsbausteine) 65 3.1.2.1.1 Akustische Parameter 65 3.1.2.1.2 Feldversuche 70 3.1.2.2 Character Tracing 73 3.1.2.3 Makrogeographische Variation 79 3.1.2.4 Mikrogeographische Variation – Die Populationen der Azoren 90 3.1.2.4.1 Inseldialekte 92 3.1.2.4.1.1 R. r. azoricus auf São Miguel 92 3.1.2.4.1.2 R. r. sanctae-mariae auf Santa Maria 99 3.1.2.4.1.3 R. r. inermis – Zentral- und Westgruppe 101 3.1.2.4.2 Geographische Verbreitung der Inseldialekte 112 3.1.2.4.3 Feldversuche 114 3.2 Die Kohlmeisen (Parus major) 117 3.2.1 Molekulargenetik 117 3.2.2 Bioakustik 121 3.2.2.1 Frequenz- und Zeitparameter 121 3.2.2.2 Elementrepertoir 125 3.2.2.3 Strophensyntax 126 3.2.2.4 Vergleich der Sektoren 127 3.2.2.4.1 Sektoren minor und cinereus 127 3.2.2.4.2 Sektoren major und bokharensis 134 3.2.2.4.3 Sympatriegebiete 134 3.2.2.5 Character Tracing 144 3.2.2.5.1 Die Kohlmeisen und die Bergkohlmeise 144 3.2.2.5.2 Die Blau- und Lasurmeisen 145 3.2.2.5.3 Die Weidenmeise und verwandte Graumeisen (Poecile) 147 3.2.2.5.4 Die Gattung Parus 149 4 3.3 Seicercus burkii-Komplex 152 3.3.1 Molekulargenetik 152 3.3.2 Bioakustik 159 3.3.2.1 Akustische Parameter 159 3.3.2.2 Strophensyntax 164 3.3.2.2.1 Eingangselement 164 3.3.2.2.2 Syntaxtypen 165 3.3.2.2.3 Trillerstrophen 167 3.3.2.3 Repertoir 170 3.3.2.3.1 Zusammensetzung des Repertoirs 171 3.3.2.3.2 Vergleich mit Repertoirs von Vertretern der Gattung Phylloscopus 174 3.3.2.4 Character tracing 177 4. Diskussion 4.1 Molekulare Systematik 182 4.1.1 Phylogeographie 182 4.1.2 Molekulare Uhren 184 4.1.3 Altersberechnung phylogenetischer Linien 186 4.1.4 Genetische Distanzen als Indikator für Artgrenzen 188 4.2 Gesangsevolution 191 4.2.1 Frequenz- und Zeitparameter 191 4.2.2 Regiolekte 192 4.2.2.1 Grundvoraussetzung: akustische Variation 192 4.2.2.2 Gesangsdiversität 193 4.2.2.3 „Mutational input“ 194 4.2.2.4 Drifteffekte 194 4.2.2.5 Lernentzug 196 4.2.2.6 Regiolekte als Indikator für Artgrenzen 199 4.2.2.7 Phylogenetische Information von Regiolekten 200 4.3 Taxonomische Konsequenzen 201 4.3.1 Die Gattung Regulus 201 4.3.2 Die Kohlmeisen, Parus major 204 4.3.3 Die Gattung Seicercus 205 5 5. Zusammenfassung 207 5.1. Abstract 207 Literatur 209 Anhang 225 6 1. Einleitung 1.1 Molekulare und bioakustische Merkmale bei Singvögeln Die Variabilität von Lautäußerungen kann zwischen nahe verwandten Vogeltaxa mitunter deutlich stärker ausgeprägt sein als morphologische Variabilität. Wo morphologische Merkmale bei Sperlingsvögeln (Passeriformes) nur geringfügig differenziert sind, ist markante Gesangsdifferenzierung oft ein erster Hinweis auf fortgeschrittene Speziationsprozesse. Mit molekularen Methoden lassen sich die anhand bioakustischer Ergebnisse diagnostizierten taxonomischen Einheiten verifizieren. So hat die Anwendung bioakustischer und molekulargenetischer Methoden phylogenetische Beziehungen und taxonomischen Status „kryptischer Arten“ erhellt, z.B. innerhalb der Gattungen Phylloscopus (Helbig et al. 1995, 1996; Irwin et al. 2001b) und Seicercus (Martens et al 1999; Alström und Olsson 1999,2000), Motacilla (Alström 2002) oder Certhia (Martens et al. 2002). Zwar sind akustische Merkmale für die Feldbestimmung von Singvögeln prägnant, ihre Aussagekraft für die Klärung phylogenetischer Fragestellungen ist aufgrund ihrer Abhängigkeit von Lernprozessen dennoch nicht unumstritten. Reviergesänge müssen während einer sensiblen Phase von Artgenossen erlernt werden. Gesangsvorbilder sind meist entweder der eigene Vater im Geburtsjahr oder die Reviernachbaren im ersten Brutjahr. Dem Adultgesang liegt meist ein angeborenes Grundmuster zugrunde, das durch Lernprozesse zum artspezifischen Gesangstyp modifiziert wird, so z.B. beim Buchfink, Fringilla coelebs (Thorpe 1954, 1958, Nottebohm 1970, Bergmann 1993), der Sumpfmeise, Parus palustris (Becker 1980), den Wintergoldhähnchen, Regulus regulus (Thaler 1979) sowie den Garten- und Waldbaumläufern Certhia brachydactyla und C. familiaris (Thielcke 1970a). Die Mechanismen der Gesangstradition sind äußerst akkurat, einzelne individuelle Gesangsvarianten können von Nachkommen exakt kopiert werden und im Freiland über lange Zeit beständig sein (Nicolai 1959, Thielcke 1984, Payne 1986, Payne and Payne 1996, Martens and Kessler 2000). Andererseits erlaubt Gesanglernen immer wieder neue individuelle Varianten über Improvisation oder “Kopierfehler” (Thielcke 1970a, 1972). Solche Plastizität des angeborenen wie des erlernten Gesangsmusters bildet die Grundlage für innerartliche akustische Variabilität. Thielcke (1970a) vermutet im Gesangslernen der Passeriformes sogar einen “Schrittmacher der Evolution”, einen der Hauptgründe für die hohe Artendiversität innerhalb der Singvögel. 7 Die Modifikation eines gemeinsamen angeborenen Gesangsmusters durch Lernprozesse birgt bei nahe verwandten Taxa die Möglichkeit der unabhängigen Evolution übereinstimmender Gesangsschemata in verschiedenen phylogenetischen Linien. So können akustische Konvergenzen enge phylogenetische Beziehungen dort vortäuschen, wo diese gar nicht existieren. Eine Möglichkeit, dies zu überprüfen, bieten wiederum molekulargenetische Methoden. Anhand einer molekularen Phylogenie können einzelne Gesangsstrukturen auf ihren Gehalt an phylogenetischer Information untersucht werden. Dieser Ansatz ist trotz der Fülle molekulargenetisch-bioakustischer Studien an Vögeln nur äußerst selten verfolgt worden, so bei Mc Cracken und Sheldon (1997). Neben der Klärung phylogenetischer Beziehungen und des Aufdeckens „kryptischer Artgrenzen“ (siehe „Artkonzepte“) werden molekulare Daten zur Berechnung des Alters von Aufspaltungsereignissen (Alter phylogenetischer Linien und Arten) herangezogen. Die Substitutionsrate des mitochondrialen Cytochrom-b wurde mehrfach kalibriert und beträgt etwa 2% Sequenzdivergenz pro Millionen Jahre (Helm-Bychowski 1984, Shields und Wilson 1987, Moore und DeFilips 1997). Die aktuellste Kalibrierung anhand paläaogeographischer Daten weist dem Cytochrom-b eine Substitutionsrate von 1,6%/ My zu (Fleischer et al. 1997). Der Wert 2%/ My hat sich dennoch ähnlich einem Paradigma etabliert und wird fast ausnahmslos zur Altersberechung von phylogenetischen Linien herangezogen, so auch beispielsweise für Sequenzdaten der control region (Kvist et al. 1999, Kvist et al. eingereicht). 1.2 Artkonzepte Die taxonomische Interpretation akustischer bzw. molekularer Datensätze führt je nach Anwendung eines bestimmten Artkonzeptes mitunter zu recht unterschiedlichen Schlussfolgerungen. Ich werde mich für die taxonomischen Fragestellungen meiner Arbeit auf den Vergleich der Sichtweisen zweier unterschiedlicher Artkonzepte beschränken: das Biologische Artkonzept (BSC) und das Phylogenetische Artkonzept (PSC). Biologische Arten nach Mayr (1942, 1967) sind voneinander genetisch, reproduktiv und - streng gesehen - auch ökologisch getrennte Fortpflanzungseinheiten. Unter Anwendung des BSC müssen Merkmale zunächst auf ihre arttrennenden Parameter untersucht werden. Hinweise auf fortgeschrittene Speziation und potentiellen biologischen Artstatus kann eingeschränkte Kommunikation aufgrund divergierender Gesänge (Martens 1996, 1999) oder das Ausbleiben von Genfluss zwischen nahe verwandten Taxa sein (Helbig et al. 1996, Martens et al. 1999). Das BSC läßt sich hingegen a priori nicht anwenden, wo über die reproduktive Isolation zweier Formen keine Aussage getroffen werden kann, z.B. bei 8 allopatrischer Verbreitung. In seiner Anwendung ist das BSC ein horizontales Konzept, d.h.
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