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Home , Battle of Arras (1914), Battle of Arras (1917), Battle of Cambrai (1917), Battle of Cambrai (1918), Battle of Passchendaele, Bloody April

50 HISTORY of Ridge - 9 - 12 H [US Library ofCongress][US Library toAmericans makeanimmediate impact. few Canadian the leadersexpected with theattack on Vimy although to the coincided American entry coast butagreedtocooperate with a plan totryandwincontroloftheBelgian Western Front. The British preferred a remained committed to victoryonthe April 1917. declaration of waragainst Germanyon6 in February 1917, led to the ’ means of ending Britain’s capacity to continue the war. This policy, implemented and hischiefadvisorsdecidedtoemploy“unrestricted submarine warfare”as a Armistice in 1916. As therewasnohopeofpeace on Germanterms,theKaiser and large areas of the Russian empire, few individuals endorsed the idea of an because of its occupation of important parts ofFrance, most ofBelgium, it was evident that negotiations were bound to produce a settlement favourable to proposals ofDecember 1916 werewidely discussed in Britain and . Since President, Woodrow Wilson, thePopeorGermangovernment. The peace not prepared to endorse the various peace proposals put forward bythe American continued toplanrenewtheoffensive in1917. the absence of aconvincing alternative strategy the British and Frencharmies war ofattrition on the Western Front wouldcontinue until the Armistice but in Prime Minister in December 1916. Lloyd George’s criticisms of Haig and the many Britishpolitical leaders, including David LloydGeorge whobecame was little hope ofdefeating the enemy in 1916 wasbitterly opposed by aig’s policy of continuing the battle after it was evident that there Allied military commanders Lloyd George was anxious to limit the slaughter in the trenches but he was Vimy andtheArras Offensive

51 HISTORY 52 HISTORY destroy large elements of theGerman Army. Beforethe“,” named French proposal for a coordinated Anglo-French attack designed to encircle and Surviving of the Allied armies. The first systematic study of these issues was Bill Rawling’s a particularly seeking toadvancetheideathatCorpswaseffective component Canada ratherthantheactualevents. requiring analysis of the construction of post-warmemory in English-speaking capture of Vimy Ridge to the emergence of Canada as a nation. This is a theme success of the Canadian has given rise to a peculiar myth which relates the local victory announced to the world as“Canada’s Easter gift to .” The Vimy wheretheCanadian Corps, partofFirstBritish Army, wonanimportant the 1917 spring offensive, yielded little beyond death and destruction, except at and the defences thought to be impenetrable. The Battle of , like the rest of withdrew totheHindenburg Lineasthegroundwasconsideredofvital importance plain to the east. The Germans did notabandon the ridge when they yet another attempt to capture Vimy Ridge,afeature which dominated the Lens- was notcancelled. destroyed whatlittle prospect ofsuccessthe plan hadpromisedbuttheoperation position knownastheHindeburg Linesome20milestotheeast. This manoeuvre for thenewFrenchcommanderRobertNivelle,began,enemywithdrewto Canadian historianshavealsobeendrawntothebattlefor Vimy Ridgewhen The Britishpartinthe April offensive, knownastheBattle of Arras, included William Longstaff, , which examined the changes in weapons and tactics , whichexaminedthechangesinweapons Ghosts ofVimy Ridge . [CHOC (AN Collection, O-4714)] fighting .” Rawling believes that the growing sophistication of the Canadian technicians, which, even in infantry battalions, specialized in particular aspects of away fromtheconceptofacitizen-soliderwouldrideandshoottoanarmy who “moved writes, he Corps, Canadian The battle.” in play to role specific a with between 1914 and1918.Rawling argues that “each soldier” became “a specialist then implemented acrosstheBEFbeginning inFebruary1917. divisions ofthe CorpsinDecember 1916. These changes,Pugsley suggests,were Byng with implementing a standard platoon-focused battle doctrine in all four credits Puglsey grenades. hand with armed section bombing a and fire covering who would also have rifle grenades, a section of Lewis guns to provide immediate riflemen, of sections two include would men) 44 to 28 (of platoons four the of each that so re-organizing companies in rifle way their the led Canadians the that Australians andNewZealanders owed totheCanadianCorps.Puglseybelieves Pugsley, ahistorianwhohasstudiedthe Anzac experience. He stressesthedebt of theCanadiandivisionsat Vimy. This themeisfurtherdeveloped byChristopher explore this process, and thebookprovidesanaccount of theexperience of each army.” technologically advanced andhighlyeffective being transformed into “a large, sophisticated, not justtheCanadians,wasinprocessof Haig, theentire British Expeditionary Force, FieldMarshal of admirer a firm Sheffield, For as a fully integrated part of theImperial Army. believes the CanadianCorpsisbestunderstood historian, British a Sheffield, Gary contributors. the verydifferent perspectives of theseventeen while thecritical reader isabletoappreciate Press, provides a great deal of new information based on archival research Canadian Reassessment Corps helpstoexplainthedramaticsuccessat Vimy andinthebattlesof1918. Essays by PaulDickson,MarkHumphries,BillRawling,and Essays Tim Cook Further study ofthe Vimy battle should begin with the essays in . This collection, published by WLU Press with LCMSDS VimyRidge: A

53 HISTORY 54 HISTORY was particularly new, asonewardiarist,quotedbyHumphries,recorded “It will were reservedforsituations where thenormal advance was heldup.Noneofthis tactics movement and fire Platoon bayonet. fixed with enemy the attacking then , the following waves in first attack to need the stressed GHQ long remembered as “” in the story of British airpower. The army’s the targets the Army requested. The cost, 275 aircraft and 421 casualties, was played a major role in the , obtaining air superiority and attacking days later theentireridgewasinCanadianhands. The RoyalFlyingCorpsalso the crest ofthe ridge. When Hill 145, the objective of 4thDivision,fell three featureless terrain. By early afternoon three of the four divisions had reached and Canadiangunnerspermitted theCorpstomovesteadilyacrosssloping, most ofitBritish,together with theelaborate counter-battery work ofBritish firepower, enormous This Somme.” the at available density the twice yards, ten every for gun field a and front of yards 20 every for gun heavy “one on relying troops were carefully rehearsed to move quickly to their assigned objectives tactics, but Vimy was primarily a set-piece battle dominated by artillery. The to mopup…” Lewis Gunner to resist a counterattack and support further advance, the bomber always be the work of the man with the rifle and bayonet to assault a position…the Mark Humphries is lesssure.Henotes that the actual instructions issued by There ismuchtobelearnedfromthesecommentaries on theevolutionof Canadian troops advance at Vimy Ridge, 1917. [PA 9 April 1496]

55 HISTORY 56 HISTORY resources north forhischerishedoffensive inFlanders,buttheBritish were casualties reachedatotalof168,000. continued until 9 May. French losses were estimated at 187,000 men, German and on20 April began adetermined assault ontheChemindesDamesRidgethat day, andslight gains ontheground.Nivelle remained committed to theoffensive war to an end but it began with heavy losses, 40,000 French casualties on the first of Arras. The Nivelle offensive had been heralded as an action that could bring the mind abreak-out. skill atbreaking into the Germandefencesdidnotleadtoabreak-through,never demonstrated prowess at set-piece attacks, with massive amounts ofartillery, but stabilized the front afewmiles beyondthe start line. Both Third and First Armies lost astheweather, casualties, exhaustion, and thearrival of German reserves Brown andBluelines seized by the Canadians at Vimy. Momentum was soon infantry and reserves, captured all its initial objectives, the same Black, and Henry Horne’s First Army. Third Army, attacking with ten divisions plus effort, an advance to was the major task assigned to the Rawling argues, “endedwithadifferent balancebetweencostsandresults.” victory hadalsobeencostly—3,598deadand6,664woundedbuttheattack, Haig wouldhave preferredtoceaseoperations inthe Arras sector andmove The capture of Vimy Ridge did not end Canadian participation in the Battle Securing Vimy Ridge and thus protecting the left flank of Third Army’s main Stretcher Bearers andPOWs helptheCanadian wounded at Vimy Ridge. [PA 001021] but herequired the continuation of operations in the Arras sectortomislead the attempt tobreaktheHindenburg Linewere unlikelytosucceed. so named because ofheavycasualtiesandgrowingrecognition thatanyfurther many who witnesseditconsider the blackest day ofthewar.” The “blackest day,” Canadian Corps during the Arras battles and the relieving feature of a day which of was the culminating point of a series of brilliant successes by the captured and heldFresnoy.” Britishhistorian J.P. Harriswrites“Thecapture New Zealand Army Corps)captured and FirstCanadian and (Australian Anzac First successes…The small two “only writes, Bechthold employing fourteendivisionsinthe Third Battle of theScarpe.“Therewere,” in whichotherdivisionsfailedtomakeevenlimitedgains. counterattacks. The Canadian success at wastheonlybrightnoteonaday insisted onatwostageoperation withanemphasisonplanning to defeat German these actionscloselynotesthatCurrie,stillcommanding the FirstDivision, including First Canadian was launched. Michael Bechthold who hasstudied On 28 April, a second attempt to breach the German defences with six divisions as theSecondBattleten BritishdivisionslaunchedwhatisknownoftheScarpe. obliged toassistNivellebymaintaining pressureonthe 23 front. On Arras April, Haig was nowplanning to switch the main British effort to the front On 3MayHaigbegan another attempt to reach the Drocourt-Quéant line Canadians celebrate thecapture after of Vimy Ridge. [PA 001353]

57 HISTORY 58 HISTORY May and the implementation of a new policy of heavy raids designed to inflict to designed raids heavy of policy new a of implementation the and May enemy. FortheCanadiansthismeantattacking in theSouchez-Avion sectorin other seniorCanadian commanders. Leadership 1914-1918 essays titled the battle for Passchendaele Ridge. Andrew Godefroyhas edited a collection of September but wascancelled when theCanadianswereorderednorth tojoin to holdanyoftheir objectives inthecity. A renewed attack was orderedfor Canadians suffered 4,000casualties between 21 and25 August butwereunable August.The on25 off called was affair the confused before losses significant Divisions were committed to an advance into the ruined city and both suffered he proceeded to plan a second battle for 21 August. Both Second and Fourth machine guns.By18 August theenemywasforcedtoconcedehill. and fire artillery observed by destroyed were counterattacks Successive, organized poorly hands. in Canadian now the of view commanding the by further disorganized the enemy who failed to appreciate took sectionsofthe Green line on the eastern reverse slope. A diversionary attack then They hill. the of crest the on position German second and first the captured the First and Second Divisions, each with two brigades forward, attacked and considered. HorneandHaigagreedtoCurrie’s proposal. the inevitable German counterattacks. Only then could an attack on the city be against defended carefully and first seized be should 70, Hill as metres in height and cametotheconclusionthatbarechalkrisenorthofcity, knownforits plan forafrontal assaultonthecoal mining centre of Lens.Curriestudiedtheplan took command of the Corps on 9 June and was quickly confronted with an outline command of Third Army. Hissuccessor, Lieutenant-General Sir , diversionary attacks. offensive continued, Haig ordered First Army to increase the scale of casualties but notholdgroundinJune. Then on7July, asthebuild-upfor Unfortunately, Currie’s orderswere to pushthe Germans outofLensand Continuous rain postponed the Hill 70 operation until 15 August when Byng’shim promotionto won successful leadershipoftheCanadianCorps Great War Command: Historical Perspectives on thatoffers interesting backgroundonCurrie, Turner, and Hill 70August,1917.Hill [CWM19940001-435_b] Hill 70,1916.[CWM19940001-435_a] Hill

59 HISTORY 60 HISTORY Passchendaele - 22 October - 6 B the Dutchfrontierwereissuedon2May. The outlineplancalled foratwo-stage on the Ypres front,withthe object of securing the Belgian coast andadvancing to Robertson’s caution and Haig’s ambitious plans. His ordersfor a major operation step approachdeclared: the politicians accepted this proposalbutRobertson, longanadvocateofastepby Belgian coast. The Chief of the Imperial General Staff Sir William Robertson and . HaigmadethecaseforaFlandersoffensive aimedatclearing the thatiffurther offensive action wasplanned for 1917it would have to be carried out by the clear it made He away. month a still were of signs first Pétain knewtherewasagrowingmorale crisis intheFrench Army, thoughthe Nivelle had been fired and Philippe Pétain had become Chief of the General Staff. this means wehope to gain our endswith the minimum loss possible. attacking resistance…relentlessly enemy’s with limited objectivesandmakingthefullestuseofourartillery. By the exhausting and down front andaiming atdistant objectives. It isnowaquestionofwearing It is nolonger a question of aiming at breaking through the enemy’s French politicians andGenerals met in Paris toplan future action. y earlyMay1917asthe Arras offensive waswindingdown,Britishand No onepresentat the meeting addressed the contradiction between Douglas Culham,Douglas Mud Roadto Passchendaele Passchendaele andCambrai 1917 . [CWM19890222-001]

61 HISTORY 62 HISTORY campaign inJuly. attack: to secure the Messines Ridge in early June, andbegin the more ambitious steady rain,which wastocontinue through mostof August, hamperedmovement and 27,000British casualties. The Germancounterattacks were defeated and the diluting thefirepoweravailable fortheinitialphase. 4,000 to 5,000 yard advance was possible on the first day and planned accordingly, top alonganeight mile front. HubertGough,the Army Commander, believed a bombardment began on 16July. Two weekslater eleven divisionswentoverthe the enemy and his gun positions, greatly assisting counter-battery planning. The by the remodelled platoons. Air superiority provided a detailed knowledge of Vimy-Arras offensive andmuchattention was paidtothetactics to beemployed With nineGermandivisionsavailabletherewasnoapparentlackofmanpower. defensive lines and strongpoints,including positions onPasschendaele Ridge. heavy lossescouldbeavoidediffightingwastoatitscurrentintensity entering into a continuous offensive withheavy losses, andnooneaskedhow its present intensity.” Haig reassured the politicians that he had no intention of at continues fighting if manpower available her of exhaustion total of months concentrate energies onthe Western Frontbecause, “Germany waswithinsix was nowmore certain of success. Heurged a skeptical British War Cabinet to limited attacks, butHaigpreferredtobelieve that anaggressiveFlandersoffensive victory. A lessonslearned approach would have again emphasized the value of and especially their artillery restored the front. Messines was a significant British British hands. Operational plans called for afurtheradvance but Germanreserves in later theentireridgewas British advancebehindabarragefollowed.Sixhours exploded under the ridge, destroying and demoralizing the defenders. A rapid to andvulnerable ground underground attack by tunneling companies.On7June1917,nineteenmineswere higher still from fire artillery observed to subject the most thoroughlydefended positions onthe Western Front. Itwas,however, The first day of Third Ypres, 31 July, produced gains of up to 2,000 yards 2,000 to up of gains produced July, 31 Third Ypres, of day first The The British assault divisions trained and rehearsed as they had before the The Germans used the lull between Messines and the main offensive to add The MessinesRidgewhichoverlooked Ypres fromthesoutheastwasoneof . troops had to be found, and Haig decided that the Canadians who had been to securePasschendaele Ridge. If the Flanders offensive was tocontinue, fresh October the British and Australians suffered 15,000 casualties in a failed attempt The battlefieldwastransformed intoaquagmire. but before other such attacks could be prepared the autumn rains began in earnest. objectives. This action,knownasBroodseinde,was seenasagreat Anzac success, possible.” On 4October, twelve divisions attacked seizing deliberately limited Polygon Wood.of persisted and a further 15,000 casualties were suffered in the capture and holding casualties oughttohavebroughttheFlandersoffensive toaclose,butagainHaig of thePasschendaeleRidge. An advanceof1,200yardsatacost21,000 divisions, including First Anzac Corps,mounted a major attack togaincontrol a lengthy pauseforthegroundtodryandreinforcements to betrained,nine victory “final that might bewonbyDecember” if moremanpowerandgunscouldbefound. After argument Haig’s challenge to courage the had one no but and contributed to the failure of British attacks launched on 10, 16 and 19 August. fraction ofwhat wouldfraction have beenfired bombardment. aheavy during [NAS(186)X.25018] A Canadian fieldgunbombarding enemy lines. The shellsstacked representto theleft justa Despite the extraordinary conditions, further attacks were ordered. On 9 German losseswerealsoheavyandHaigbelieved “decisive results werenow Haig andGoughweresharplycriticized for thefailureof August battles

63 HISTORY 64 HISTORY Untold Story best account ofthebattleistobefound inPriorand Wilson Canadian victories but there was little glory to be found in Flanders in 1917. The above 12,000forthetwoweek battle. subject to continuous German fire which added to the casualty toll already taking the ruinsofPasschendaele on 6November. This placed them in adeeper The secondphasebeganon30OctoberandtheCanadians movedontotheridge the Australians ontheirrightnortheBritishleft were ableto keeppace. successful inthattheCanadiansdug500yardsbeyond their startline.Neither was October 26 on advance first The bounds. short of series a in ridge the on was determined to stage acarefully controlled artillery-based battle advancing Currie bodies, unburied including conflict brutal a of months of detritus the and towards the ridge. Confronted with an endless expanse of water-filled craters further hesitation. The Canadians arrived in Ypres twoweeksbeforetheyattacked Canadian reluctancebutmakesnosuggestionof toserveunderGeneralGough, visiting his headquarters to persuade Currie to agree. The Haig diary mentions the Flanders, butthereisnocontemporary evidence for this,orstoriesaboutHaig to securePasschendaelevillage. brought north to exploit success must instead fight in the sucking mud of Flanders the Battle ofPasschendaele. [PA 3192366] trenchCanadian Pioneersmats with wounded in backgroundcarrying and prisoners during Currie andanumberofhistorians includedPasschendaeleinthelistof After the battle, Currie maintained that he hadtried to keep the Corps outof . FortheCanadian experienceconsultCook, Shock Troops Passchendaele: The . Regiment were intheheatofaction. The ideaforanewoffensive developed November 1917, but the and the Royal Newfoundland its brieftourinthemudofFlanders,wasnotinvolvedbattle of Cambrai,20 but werestrategically onthedefensive. from muchdistress, theGermanswerefarfrom collapsingduring1916and 1917 never knewwhentotaketheir profitandstop.” they because profit a show to ceased had when…it point the beyond offensive in France the irrepressible optimism of the Higher Formations carried on the process was“tooambitious with theresultthatinnearlyeverymajoroperation of thehighercommandwasonedirectcauses failure.” The planning Western Front, concludes that during the period 1915-1917, the “undue optimism Strahan wholivedtoreceivetheaward. battalion in a dramatic charge, which wona forLieutenant Harcus Quentin Canal, captured a Germangunbattery, andscattered a Germaninfantry a ofthe Fort Garry Horse while in the lead found a crossing of the St. the 5th British Cavalry Division followed up the advance and during the afternoon Masnières, Nine Wood and Marcoing. The Canadian Cavalry Brigade, attached to in reserveuntiltheHindenburg Linewasbroken;itthenmovedforwardseizing themselves inadeepsalientandill-preparedforGermancounterattack. celebrated in England by ringing of church bells, the troops of Third Army found too ambitious for the circumstances oflate 1917 andafter initial dramatic success, and passthecavalrythroughbreachtorollupGermanfront. by extended shelling, Byng hoped to achieve surprise, pierce the artillery fire with to overcome barbed wire that otherwise could only be cut which hadnotbeensubjectedtomassivedestruction.Bycombiningpredicted within Byng’s Third holding thesectorsouthof Army whichwas an area Arras, The Canadian Corps, whichhadsuffered morethan16,000casualties during Blinded byoptimism,Haigfailed tograspthefact thatalthough suffering British historian Simon Robbins,inhisstudyofBritishgeneralship on the The 29thDivision,including the RoyalNewfoundlandRegiment, washeld This scheme, which reflected Byng’s background as a cavalry officer, was far Cambrai

65 HISTORY