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INQUIRY-BASED INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURAL : PROBLEM-SOLVING – AN OLD FRIEND REVISITED

Brian Parr, Assistant Professor Murray State M. Craig Edwards, Associate Professor Oklahoma State University

Abstract

In the quest for more effective teaching and learning methods, one particular approach has surfaced as a “method of choice” for science educators: inquiry-based learning. A careful examination of this method suggests that it is very similar to the problem-based learning approach used by many agricultural educators. This study sought to synthesize reported by earlier investigators—science educators and agricultural educators—who examined inquiry-based learning and who researched the problem-solving approach. It was also designed to examine similarities between the two approaches and to describe their level of “pedagogical congruence.” It was concluded that significant agreement exists between what some eminent scholars have said is the recommended for improving student achievement and the teaching and learning exercised in many agricultural education classrooms. Future research should attempt to measure the science achievement of agricultural education students and teachers’ use of the problem-solving approach. If significant positive associations are established, then professional development and learning resources supporting use of the problem-solving approach should be developed and delivered. In addition, investigations should be carried out to better understand how teachers operationalize the problem-solving approach.

Introduction and Conceptual Framework (e.g., the “Learning Cycle”), is deeply rooted in a constructivist or hands-on/minds- It is widely accepted that students’ on (Haury & Rillero, 1994; National learning contexts should be coupled with Research Council, 1996; Von Secker & multiple opportunities in which they Lissitz, 1999) approach to learning (Haury, “construct” or make meaning of their 1993/2002). learning as it begins, progresses, and The National escalates. This approach to learning, Standards state that, “Inquiry into authentic identified as one of several forms of questions generated from student constructivism, owes its philosophical and experiences is the central strategy for theoretical roots to philosophers and teaching science” (National Research theorists such as Jean Piaget, John Dewey, Council, 1996, The Standards section, para. and Lev Vygotsky (Doolittle & Camp, 8). And, that, “Developing understanding 1999). Further, recent discoveries by presupposes that students are actively cognitive and developmental psychologists engaged with ideas of science and have suggest strong support for much of the many experiences with the natural world” epistemological basis posited by (National Research Council, 1996, constructivist theorists (Bruer, 1999; Caine Perspectives and Terms . . . section, para. 9). & Caine, 1991; D’Arcangelo, 2000). To a Rettig and Canady (1996) reported that in great extent, inquiry-centered, inquiry- schools where active learning methods oriented, or inquiry-based learning, as it is prevail, the students demonstrated practiced in secondary science education “significantly higher achievement as

Journal of Agricultural Education 106 Volume 45, Number 4, 2004 Parr & Edwards Inquiry-Based Instruction in… measured by the National Assessment of for at least three attributes: 1) its strong Educational Progress” (p. 2). Moreover, scientific basis, 2) its close ties to the Darling-Hammond and Falk (1997) USDA, including, in some cases, concluded, Congressional District Agricultural Schools that were integral components of Teachers in these [successful] schools agricultural experiment stations, and 3) its offer students challenging, interesting teachers who were well-grounded in, and activities and rich materials for learning prepared to teach, scientific laws and that foster thinking, creativity, and principles in the context of agriculture, food, production. They make available a and the natural world. Concomitantly, variety of pathways to learning that Conroy et al. (1999) posited that accommodate different intelligences and secondary agricultural education “provides a learning styles, they allow students to conduit for motivating students to learn make choices and contribute to some of science and mathematics, and provides their learning experiences, and they use hands-on practical experiences to methods that engage students in hands- complement theory” (The Context section, on learning. Their instruction focuses on para. 5). reasoning and problem solving . . . . (p. Dewey also described an inquiry or 193) problem-based approach that he called “reflective thinking” (Lass & Moss, 1987, p. Instruction in secondary agricultural 279); it involved five specific steps or education inculcates much of what these aspects: “felt difficulty, its location and (Darling-Hammond & Falk, 1997; National definition, suggestion of possible solution, Research Council, 1996; Rettig & Canady, development by reasoning of the bearings of 1996) and other scholars (Bloom, 1974; the suggestion, further observation and Carroll, 1989; Glaser, 1963) identified as experiment leading to its acceptance or variables required for cognitive learning to rejection” (as cited in Lass & Moss, 1987, p. occur effectively, including learning in 279). Dewey’s model is consistent with that science. These propositions are congruent recommended by The National Science with the prevailing Standards (National Research agricultural education: experiential learning Council, 1996) and with the problem- that is rich in opportunities for problem- solving approach advocated by numerous solving delivered through the many agricultural educators (Boone, 1990; authentic contexts comprising the Crunkilton & Krebs, 1982; Flowers & agricultural, food, and natural resources Osborne, 1988; Krebs, 1967; Lancelot, system. 1944; Newcomb, McCracken, & Warmbrod, Historically, learning in agricultural 1993; Phipps & Osborne, 1988). The education has been both “hands-on” and presumption of a “common pedagogical “minds-on” in intent, design, and delivery. denominator” between the two disciplines— It is an appealing and robust in science education and agricultural which students can learn scientific laws, education—served as the basis of inquiry for concepts, and principles in a contextual this study. fashion (Conroy, Trumbull, & Johnson, 1999). In fact, Shepardson (1929) Purpose of the Study and Related proclaimed that, “Agriculture is a meeting- Research Questions ground of the sciences. Physics and chemistry lie at its base. To these The primary purpose of this study was to elements adds its conception of provide a synthesis of selected research organism. Mathematics is their common describing the inquiry-based and problem- instrument” (p. 69). Further, Hillison (1996) solving approaches to teaching and learning concluded that from passage of the Hatch with emphasis on implications for Act in 1887 until implementation of the improving student achievement in science. Smith-Hughes Act three decades Research questions supporting this purpose later agricultural education was known follow:

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1. What have science education Standards posit five assumptions about researchers concluded about inquiry- science teaching, including the belief that, based teaching and learning in “What students learn is greatly influenced science education and its role in by how they are taught” (National Research improving student achievement? Council, 1996, Science Teaching Standards 2. What have agricultural education section, para. 3). Moreover, in 1996, the researchers concluded about the Standards called “for a pedagogical shift problem-solving approach to from a teacher-centered to a student- teaching and learning in secondary centered instructional paradigm” (Von agricultural education and its role in Secker & Lissitz, 1999, p. 1110). It was improving student achievement? thought that teaching practices closely 3. Are the inquiry-based and problem- identified with teacher-centered instruction solving approaches to teaching and were incongruent with students acquiring learning substantially similar? higher-order thinking skills and problem- 4. What are implications for future solving behaviors. Further, it was held that practice and research in agricultural a more student-centered approach to education regarding use of problem- learning “engages students in socially solving as an inquiry-based teaching interactive scientific inquiry and facilitates and learning approach and its lifelong learning” (p. 1110). Moreover, potential for improving student science educators assert that fundamental to achievement in science? a student-centered approach to learning science is the practice of inquiry. The Procedures National Science Education Standards describe inquiry as Sources of data included findings, conclusions, implications, and a multifaceted activity that involves recommendations made by theorists and making observations; posing questions, practitioners in science and agricultural examining books and other sources of education, respectively, who have described information to see what is already and, in some cases, explored the inquiry- known; planning investigations; based and problem-solving approaches to reviewing what is already known in light teaching and learning, and their potentials of experimental evidence; using tools to for influencing student achievement. The gather, analyze, and interpret data; literature reviewed included doctoral proposing answers, explanations, and dissertations, national commission reports, predictions; and communicating the articles from professional journals and results. Inquiry requires identification of magazines, books, papers from research assumptions, use of critical and logical conference presentations, on-line Internet thinking, and consideration of alternative publications, and related resources. Studies explanations. (National Research appearing in these references were found Council, 1996, Principles and through library system searches at Definitions section, para. 24) Oklahoma State University and through on- line search engines. Cited manuscripts were Inquiry-based learning has been praised published from 1918 through 2003. All for requiring the student to do more than just references were subjected to internal and report on a topic. The student must go external criticism. Selected guidelines for beyond the simple memorization of facts conducting a form of integrative inquiry and regurgitation of information and into the were followed (Marsh, 1991, pp. 271-283). realm of creating new and deeper understanding through identification and Findings subsequent application of solutions to a specific topic (Owens, Hester, & Teale, What Science Educators Have Said About 2002). To this end, Gerber, Marek, and How Students Learn Best Cavallo (1997) concluded that, “In [science] The National Science Education classes taught by inquiry, individuals are

Journal of Agricultural Education 108 Volume 45, Number 4, 2004 Parr & Edwards Inquiry-Based Instruction in… actively engaged with others in attempting Johnson & Lawson, 1998; Lind, 1999; to understand and interpret phenomena for Musheno & Lawson, 1999; Sunal, n.d.) themselves; and social interaction in groups describe the learning cycle model as having is seen to provide the stimulus of differing three distinctive phases or parts: exploration perspectives on which individuals can (experience), invention (interpretation) and reflect” (p. 3). expansion (elaboration). Trowbridge and Inquiry-based (-oriented or -centered) Bybee (1996) further operationalized the instruction is frequently implemented as the model as comprising five stages: “Learning Cycle Approach” in science engagement, exploration, explanation, education (Abraham, 1997; Gerber et al., elaboration, and evaluation. (See Sunal for a 1997; Sunal, n.d.; Trowbridge & Bybee, comparative explanation of the learning 1996). Gerber et al. (1997) posited that, cycle and its application in science “Teachers can facilitate the development of teaching.) scientific reasoning abilities of their students through the incorporation of inquiry- What Science Education Researchers have oriented teaching strategies, such as the reported about Student Achievement learning cycle” (p. 11). In support, in Science Musheno and Lawson (1999) concluded Gerber et al. (1997) compared the effects that, of science classroom teaching procedures— non-inquiry versus inquiry—on students’ “Research has supported the scientific reasoning abilities. The effectiveness of the learning cycle in investigators found that the scientific encouraging students to think creatively reasoning ability of seventh-grade students and critically, as well as in facilitating a who received science instruction in inquiry- better understanding of scientific based classrooms was significantly higher concepts, developing positive attitudes, . than their counterparts who had not. Von . . improving science process skills, and Secker and Lissitz (1999) evaluated the cultivating advanced reasoning skills” effects of teachers implementing (p. 24). “instructional emphases [, i.e., learner- centered methods such as laboratory The learning cycle is steeped in the inquiry,] recommended in the National Piagetian model about how humans acquire, Science Education Standards” (p. 1111) on interpret, and, eventually, transfer learning, the achievement of tenth-grade science especially, as it relates to concept formation students. The study’s achievement test or cognitive construction and then to future included questions about biology, earth application (i.e., “transfer”) toward problem science, physics, and chemistry, and stressed resolution (Doolittle & Camp, 2003; Fosnot, “higher-order thinking as well as 1996; Lind, 1999). Moreover, Sunal (n.d.) understanding of fundamental concepts and maintained that, mastery of basic skills” (p. 1114). The researchers found that, “Teacher-centered the learning cycle is designed to adapt instruction is negatively associated with instruction to help students become student achievement in science” (p. 1119). aware of their prior knowledge, foster Specifically, students’ mean science cooperative learning and a safe positive achievement was nearly one-half standard learning environment, compare new deviation lower in schools where teacher- alternatives to their prior knowledge, centered instruction was one standard connect it to what they already know, deviation above average. In contrast, construct their own ‘new’ knowledge, students’ mean science achievement and apply the new knowledge in ways increased by nearly four-tenths of a standard that are different from the situation in deviation “for every 1 SD increase in the which it was learned. amount of emphasis placed on laboratory inquiry” (p. 1120). Von Secker and Lissitz Accordingly, some researchers concluded that, “The strongest empirical (Abraham, 1997; Hofstein & Lunetta, 1982; support for instructional recommendations

Journal of Agricultural Education 109 Volume 45, Number 4, 2004 Parr & Edwards Inquiry-Based Instruction in… set forth in the [National Science Education] teaches self-directed learning techniques Standards was observed for instruction that . . . as well as traditional lectures and emphasized laboratory inquiry” (p. 1121). discussions supporting problem solving. They also asserted that the learner-centered Students are expected to analyze practice of laboratory inquiry was problems, locate relevant materials and “invariably associated with higher resources, use computer-based achievement overall and with more technology, and develop habits of equitable achievement among students with lifelong learning and independent study. different demographic profiles” (p. 1121). Students practice identifying problems Johnson and Lawson (1998) compared and outcomes . . . . (p. 49) gain in scientific reasoning ability of community students enrolled in a Agricultural educators (Boone, 1990; biology course. Approximately one-half of Cano & Martinez, 1989; Conroy et al., 1999; the students received instruction through a Crunkilton & Krebs, 1982; Dyer & Osborne, teacher-directed approach while one-half 1996; Flowers & Osborne, 1988; learned via an inquiry- based approach. The Hammonds, 1950; Krebs, 1967; Newcomb investigators found that students who et al., 1993; Phipps & Osborne, 1988; Torres received biology instruction through the & Cano, 1995a; Torres & Cano, 1995b) inquiry approach “showed greater have supported Glasgow’s contentions about improvement in [scientific] reasoning ability problem-based learning (PBL), i.e., inquiry- . . . than the expository students” (p. 100). based instruction and problem-based The inquiry students also showed higher learning are substantially similar in overall performance in biology achievement. intent, process, and anticipated learning Johnson and Lawson concluded that, outcomes. Moreover, “In the broad “nothing of importance seems to be lost by context of general education[,] inquiry or switching to inquiry instruction, and much problem-based learning (PBL) are more seems to be gained” (p. 100). generally used terminologies than problem solving, but the fundamental aspects of Problem-Solving as an Inquiry-Based problem solving and inquiry or PBL are Teaching and Learning Approach analogous” (Doolittle & Camp, 2003, p. 1). Science educators (Abraham, 1997; See Figure 1 for a comparison of steps Gerber et al., 1997; Hofstein & Lunetta, comprising the learning cycle approach 1982; Johnson & Lawson, 1998; Musheno (Trowbridge & Bybee, 1996) in & Lawson, 1999; Sunal, n.d.; Trowbridge & science education and the steps in Bybee, 1996) assert that the preferred implementing the problem-solving method, pedagogical method for teaching science as described by agricultural education effectively is an inquiry-based instructional researchers. approach. Moreover, science education The problem-solving method has long researchers (Gerber et al., 1997; Johnson & been considered a significant part of the Lawson, 1998; Musheno & Lawson, 1999; pedagogical foundation on which the Von Secker & Lissitz, 1999) have educational philosophy of agricultural demonstrated empirical evidence supporting education rests. However, the reason(s) this that position. Frequently, an implicit method was adopted in such a wholehearted component to systematic inquiry, especially, manner is somewhat unclear. Moore and at the initial or “exploration” phase of Moore (1984) concluded that its acceptance learning, is the presentation of a “problem” was simply a “historical accident” (p. 5), and the subsequent pursuit of a solution. one that occurred due to a convergence of Glasgow (1997) operationalized the events. These researchers claimed that “problem-based approach” (p. 49) to problem-solving was adopted as a “method learning as one that of choice” simply because of its popularity

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with the likes of Dewey, Kilpatrick, and era of educational philosophy. Lass and others who supported that approach to Moss (1987) supported their assertion: learning. Moore and Moore went so far as “Since Dewey was at the peak of his to assert that secondary agricultural career when agricultural education emerged education might have evolved very as a subject, many of the differently in its approach to teaching early teachers were influenced by Dewey’s and learning had it begun under a different teachings and ” (p. 280).

Learning Cycle Newcomb et al. Crunkilton & Krebs Phipps & Osborne

Engagement Interest approach Interest approach Experience provocative situation

Exploration Group objectives Group objectives Explore references/sources /questions

Explanation Problem solution Solving the problem Arrive at a group solution

Elaboration Testing solutions Special Attempt a trial solution events/activities

Evaluation Evaluating results Evaluation and Evaluate the effects application

Figure 1. A Comparison of the Learning-Cycle Approach in Science Education and Selected Problem-Solving Approaches to Teaching and Learning in Agricultural Education.

As early as 1918, Nolan recognized the presented definitive steps that should be value of the problem solving method and the followed when implementing this type of importance of providing authentic situations instruction. Further, Krebs (1967) described in which problems arise and then are solved his point of view concerning the practicality by students. Later, Lancelot (1944) also and usefulness of the problem-solving wrote of the effectiveness of this method. method when he stated, “One of the values He stated, “In general, those teachers who inherent in a problem-solving approach in keep their students thinking teach their teaching is that it is not a process which is subjects by means of problems . . . ” (p. strange or unused by people in general” (p. 144). Lancelot contended that all subjects 52). And, Phipps and Osborne (1988) can be taught effectively through the use of posited, “Problem-solving teaching is problems and that much effort should be put recognized as an effective means of forth to recognize and develop useful developing and securing desirable learning. problems. His work may have impacted It stimulates interest; develops thinking other educators, e.g., Stewart’s 1950 ability; and helps students to evaluate, draw publication of the text Methods of Good inferences from, and make decisions Teaching described an approach to teaching essential to the solution of a problem” (p. and learning very similar to Lancelot’s. 150). According to a historical analysis of The problem-solving approach has been problem-solving conducted by Moore widely accepted among agricultural (1994), the approach became more educators but not unanimously: Moore and prominent in agricultural education Moore (1984) expressed their discontent textbooks in 1952 when Phipps and Cook with the use of this method. The focus of

Journal of Agricultural Education 111 Volume 45, Number 4, 2004 Parr & Edwards Inquiry-Based Instruction in… their objection(s) stressed difficulties development of and change in behavior of associated with implementing the approach individuals” (p. 231). He also portrayed the effectively rather than with any inherent approach as “teaching and learning [that] is “theoretical” inadequacy. While the a cooperative venture between the students researchers left no doubt concerning their and teacher rather than a completely teacher- position on using the method exclusively, dominated process” (p. 231). Further, they did concede that, if used properly, the Torres and Cano (1995a) posited that, “The problem-solving method could be a useful use of thinking skills in problem situations is pedagogical tool. universally recognized as a prominent Arguably, a strong case can be made that objective for all educational academies” (p. the pedagogical analogue or “form” of 46). In addition, Torres and Cano (1995b) inquiry-based teaching and learning argued that, “a more constant use of the operationalized in secondary agricultural problem-solving approach to teaching” education is the problem- solving approach: could be a valuable method “by which we a method that is used by many teachers to can excel in teaching higher-order thinking facilitate and extend student learning (Figure skills” (p. 9) in agriculture. (For a summary 1). To this end, Boone (1990) stated that, of learning benefits associated with using “The problem solving approach to teaching the problem-solving approach in agricultural has been widely accepted as the way to education, readers are encouraged to see teach vocational agriculture” (p. 18), and Crunkilton, 1984.) “When students solve real problems, use the scientific method to reason through a Conclusions problem solution, test potential problem solutions, and evaluate the results of the Science education researchers posit that solution, retention of knowledge learned students achieve best in science when their through this activity has to be increased” (p. learning experiences are constructivist 25). Boone (1990) also opined that, “The (hands-on/minds-on) in design, i.e., active, problem solving approach to teaching relevant, applied, and contextual. Learning increases the level of student retention of environments supporting sustained inquiry, agricultural knowledge learned during an e.g., a learning cycle approach to instruction, instructional unit” (p. 25). Further, Flowers that are rich in concrete experiences show and Osborne (1988) found “that for high the greatest promise for improving student level cognitive items [secondary agricultural achievement (Abraham, 1997; Gerber et al., education] students taught by the problem 1997; Haury, 1993/ 2002; Haury & Rillero, solving approach had less achievement loss 1994; Hofstein & Lunetta, 1982; Johnson & than students taught by the subject matter Lawson, 1998; Lind, 1999; Musheno & approach” (p. 25). And, Dyer and Osborne Lawson, 1999; National Research Council, (1996) concluded that “the problem solving 1996; Trowbridge & Bybee, 1996; Von approach is more effective than the subject Secker & Lissitz, 1999). Agricultural matter approach in increasing the problem educators propound that the problem-solving solving ability of [agriculture] students,” approach is a very effective means of and, moreover, that the “increase transcends teaching and learning that has been, and [students’] learning styles” (p. 41). Their continues to be, a vital part of teaching and findings also indicated that the problem- learning in agricultural education (Boone, solving ability of students who are field- 1990; Cano & Martinez, 1989; Conroy et al., dependent learners could be enhanced “to a 1999; Crunkilton & Krebs, 1982; Dyer & level of effectiveness nearly equal to that Osborne, 1996; Flowers & Osborne, 1988; possessed by field-independent learners” (p. Newcomb et al., 1993; Krebs, 1967; Phipps 41) with proper instruction. & Osborne, 1988; Torres & Cano, 1995a; Warmbrod (1969) described the Torres & Cano, 1995b). The literature problem-solving approach as “instruction reviewed in this study revealed substantial [that] is student-centered rather than subject- pedagogical agreement between the centered; [where] instruction aims at the concepts of inquiry-based learning, as

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described by science education researchers, to identifying misconceptions or and the problem-solving method proffered barriers that may prevent teachers by agricultural educators (Figure 1). from using the approach properly Significant agreement exists between (Boone, 1990; Martinez, 1998; what some eminent scholars (Bloom, 1974; Warmbrod, 1969). Concomitantly, Carroll, 1989; Darling-Hammond & Falk, more should be learned about the 1997; Glaser, 1963) have said is the “fitness” of existing curriculum recommended pedagogy for improving materials as well as the need for new student achievement and the teaching and learning resources that may be better learning exercised in many agricultural suited for the problem-solving education classrooms. The problem-solving approach to teaching and learning. method, as employed by many agricultural 4. If a significant causal relationship is educators, appears to be an effective means established between use of problem- of implementing an inquiry-based learning solving in agricultural education and approach, one similar to what science improving student achievement in educators describe. A comparison of steps science (Roegge & Russell, 1990), for implementing the learning cycle and the then the profession should redouble steps described by agricultural education its effort toward preparing pre- researchers for carrying out the service and in-service teachers to use problem-solving approach aligns very the method effectively (Boone, 1990; closely (Figure 1). Osborne, 1999).

Recommendations Discussion and Implications

Findings of this research suggest that the The pedagogical success of problem- problem-solving method, in particular, is solving rests upon agriculture teachers who secondary agricultural education’s are prepared to effectively use the method as “pedagogical analogue” to the inquiry-based they teach students and facilitate their teaching and learning practices heralded by learning: planning and designing a problem- science education researchers. Accordingly, based learning experience (Glasgow, 1997), future practice and research should include properly executing such an experience, and the following: then assessing and evaluating its outcomes. However, researchers (Boone, 1990; Moore 1. More empirically-based research & Moore, 1984; Osborne, 1999; Warmbrod, should be conducted to explore 1969) have also voiced doubts about the teachers’ use of the problem-solving ability of some teachers to do so properly. approach in the context of secondary To this end, Cano and Martinez (1989) agricultural education and recommended that, “Further research needs subsequent student achievement in to be conducted to determine the extent to science. which problem-solving instruction, which 2. Implicit is a need to also determine has been the cornerstone of vocational whether specific scientific concepts agriculture, contributes to the cognitive and principles, e.g., life sciences as ability and critical thinking ability opposed to physical sciences, are development of the students” (p. 364). learned better by students through Boone (1990) also suggested further study problem-solving than via other about the effects of using problem-solving methods. Additional inquiry should as measured by student achievement as well be conducted toward that end. as training for teachers that would provide a 3. Investigations should be carried out clearer understanding of how to implement to better understand how agriculture this practice. teachers operationalize and use, or More recently, the National Agricultural do not use, the problem-solving Education Research Work Group has called approach (Osborne, 1999). Special on the profession to “identify current attention should be given research in agricultural education that

Journal of Agricultural Education 113 Volume 45, Number 4, 2004 Parr & Edwards Inquiry-Based Instruction in… corroborates effective school-based teaching and learning, and for learning educational practice, . . . and . . . to mathematics and science to prepare for the communicate and coordinate a research workforce of the 21st century. Retrieved agenda that will aggressively examine November 5, 2002, from http://www.nsf.gov research problems related to high school /sbe/tcw/events_990917w/2.htm student achievement, particularly mathematics, science, and ” (G. Crunkilton, J. R., & Krebs, A. H. Shinn, personal communication, August 19, (1982). Teaching agriculture through 2002). Findings of this study support that problem solving (3rd ed.). Danville, IL: The position. Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc.

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Journal of Agricultural Education 116 Volume 45, Number 4, 2004 Parr & Edwards Inquiry-Based Instruction in…

BRIAN PARR is an Assistant Professor in the School of Agriculture at Murray State University, 217 Oakley Applied Science South, Murray, KY 42071. E-mail: [email protected].

M. CRAIG EDWARDS is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Education, Communications, and 4-H Youth Development, at Oklahoma State University, 456 Agriculture Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078-6031. E-mail: [email protected].

Journal of Agricultural Education 117 Volume 45, Number 4, 2004