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USING AGRICULTURAL AS THE CONTEXT TO TEACH LIFE SKILLS

Amber L. Dailey, Graduate Teaching Assistant Carol A. Conroy, Assistant Professor Cynthia A. Shelley-Tolbert, Graduate Assistant Cornell

Abstract

Over the years agricultural education has not done an adequate job of effectively defining or describing its meaning and purpose. As with the broad agricultural industry, the view of agricultural education varies between and among groups, within and outside of the profession, and has evolved according to global, regional, and local pressures including those originating from political, societal, and technological changes (National Research Council, 1988). This qualitative study investigated the perceptions held by individuals involved in agricultural education or the broadly defined agricultural industry as to how agricultural education can be promoted as a viable alternative for the instruction of academic and workplace skills, reducing some of the image problems associated with . Results indicate that participants believe agricultural education should remain a community-based program, and should incorporate more science-based instruction, but there is much confusion as to how traditional program goals such as FFA and SAE can be met with these changes. The conclusions and recommendations focus on a set of questions developed to guide future research on these issues.

Introduction and Conceptual Framework content and life skills to prepare students for Externally mandated bureaucratic adulthood, regardless of their ideal career changes such as state standards, areas. The study of can also standardized testing, and increased provide a context in which learners can graduation requirements necessitate that explore key biological and mathematics agricultural educators be prepared and ready concepts and skills. Research studies have to articulate how their programs of study can demonstrated that learners fail to develop meet established requirements for preparing deep understandings of science and youth to be future citizens and members of mathematics in traditional classrooms and the workforce. This includes the notion of therefore fail to apply this knowledge to using agricultural education as a vehicle for settings outside of the particular classroom the instruction of transferable skills—both (Bailey & Merritt, 1997). academic and the “soft” skills identified as Supervised Agricultural Experiences crucial for the workforce (SCANS, 1991) (SAEs) were implemented in 1942 as a such as decision-making, communications response by the agricultural education and the ability to work within a group. community to Dewey’s call to base education on the personal experiences of the Meeting Traditional Program Goals and learner (Dyer & Osborne, 1996). SAEs Reinforcing Workplace Skills bridge the gap between the classroom and The basic core of agricultural education work by providing students opportunities to instruction consists of three intra-curricular apply what they have learned in the components: 1) classroom instruction, 2) classroom and to transfer those knowledge experiential learning through supervised and skills to a real-world situation experiences, and 3) leadership activities. (Swortzel, 1996). When these three components are actualized Leadership activities conducted through through a well-designed integrated program, the FFA provide opportunities for students they provide a context for learning necessary to learn about teamwork, public speaking

Journal of Agricultural Education 11 Volume 42, Issue 1, 2001 Dailey, Conroy & Shelley-Tolbert Using Agricultural Education… and debates, writing for communication of mathematics principles into agricultural ideas, and other skills identified as important instruction. for the worker of the future (SCANS, 1991). Beyond the opportunities for learning In addition, the FFA Proficiency Awards and practice provided through SAEs and the Program enables students to use their FFA, students enrolled in agricultural technical agriculture knowledge and skills in education receive instruction and such areas as floral design, machinery reinforcement of science and mathematics repair, judging, and milk quality principles within the context of agriculture. testing in a real-world setting; these Research has shown that using agriculture activities are judged and evaluated by improves the acquisition of basic science individuals practicing in the field. Combined and mathematics process skills of with record books used with SAEs, students elementary students (Mabie & Baker, 1996). have the maximum opportunity to practice Students studying aquaculture in an and demonstrate real-world problem agriculture program reported that their solving, communication skills, and achievement in science and mathematics application of classroom knowledge to a classes was higher as a result of their new situation. In addition to these important participation in agriculture based on opportunities for learning, most agricultural comparisons with their past performances in education programs engage in several those classes (Conroy & Walker, 1998). As community service activities per academic one specific example, a secondary year, engaging students with their agriculture program in North Carolina community and with citizens in need (Wade, reports using chemistry, and math in 1998). These activities include tutoring an integrated manner in their program using younger students, providing lawn a closed aquaculture recirculation system, maintenance for senior citizens, stream clean pond, and caged pond production methods up, playground equipment instruction, and (Mooring & Hoyle, 1994, as cited in Conroy others. & Walker, 1998). Another example of the interdisciplinary nature of agricultural Reinforcement of Science and is a program that uses classroom Skills aquariums to teach a that From its inception in the 1700s, integrates aquaculture production and agricultural instruction in the United States maintenance principles, technology, and has included instruction in science and sociology in an interdisciplinary model mathematics. Agriculture by definition is an (Brody & Patterson, 1992). applied science that combines principles of the physical, chemical, and biological Theoretical Framework sciences in the process and production of Lee (1999) defined transfer as the food and fiber (Merriam Webster, 1988). “ability to think and reason about new The field of agriculture as an industry has situations through using previous also changed drastically since the inception knowledge” (p. 1). Transfer can be either of agricultural education. The small family positive, where learning or problem solving farm that was the norm for American is enhanced through the use of previous agricultural producers is now the exception. knowledge, or it can be negative, where Agriculture today is a highly intensive, previous knowledge actually hinders the technologically sophisticated industry. learning process. Research on the transfer of These factors led the National Research general skills seems to be inconclusive, but Council to recommend that agricultural it is evident that students have difficulty education programs must update and transferring information from one situation integrate more into their to another when the situations appear course content, a contention echoed by different to them (Hattie, Biggs & Purdue, Martin, Rajaeskaran, and Vold (1989). 1996; Novak & Gowin, 1984; Robins, Nationally, the field of agricultural 1996). Transfer also is said to occur within education has recognized a definite need for domains, or performing similar task in the the integration of more scientific and same domain or closely related subject area,

Journal of Agricultural Education 12 Volume 42, Issue 1, 2001 Dailey, Conroy & Shelley-Tolbert Using Agricultural Education… or across domains, or where knowledge is production rules (The If-Then acquired in one situation or subject area and statements), which enables the then used in a second domain (Lee, 1999). individual to notice the similarities Classroom learning and transfer can both be between the initial situation and the improved when instructional tasks reflect subsequent situation. If the the contextual elements and reasoning individual lacks domain-specific complexity needed for addressing real-world knowledge to solve a problem in the problems (Choi & Hannafin, 1997). second situation, he/she needs to be The most recent theories of transfer are capable of recognizing the need for those espoused by Singley and Anderson and seeking out this knowledge. (1989, as cited in Lee, 1999) and 3. A person starts to apply previous Pennington, Nicolich, and Rahm (1995). knowledge to very new situations They involve the use of production rules, or when he/she is highly skilled in the a series of If-Then statements. Transfer first domain. Research has not yet should occur where production rules are determined how much training and similar between tasks, or where the numbers experience are needed for this of shared production rules between tasks transfer to begin (Blakey & Spence, define similarity. Stating this in a more 1990; Carey, 1986; Carr, 1988; Lee, concrete way, common elements transfer. 1999). One example would be that the same rules that apply to driving a car should apply to To simplify, this process can be visualized driving a truck (Lee, 1999). as a series of steps leading from one Novak and Gowin (1984) proposed the situation to the next, each step having use of graphic/semantic tools such as similarities to the ones prior and subsequent concept mapping to assist children make to it. The ease of transition from step to step linkages between prior knowledge (recall) will depend on the amount and clarity of the and the new information being presented. similarities and the ability of the learner to Production rules, or the If-Then statements, make the connections. are specific for any task that is learned, but Ways to improve transfer should environmental cues that are present when improve intellectual functioning (Lee, the recall is expected can result in faster 1999). Lee also contended that people recall. In addition, research has shown that develop reasoning strategies with in one knowledge or tasks in the first domain must context, but can fail to access these be learned to a high level in order to transfer strategies for reasoning in another situation. (Lee, 1999). Transfer is believed to occur The research she cited seems to indicate that along a continuum from “near transfer” that training in memory strategies, memory occurs within the same domains to “far monitoring strategies, and reflection on the transfer” that occurs across domains (Hattie strategies may promote a “liberation of the et al, 1996). To build on this, the literature strategy from the domain and its subsequent points to three keys to transfer: availability for use in another domain” (p. 19). Lee’s work supports that of Gersten 1. Knowledge from the initial learning and Baker (1998) that concluded that situation (first domain) is acquired integration of explicit instruction in prior to attempts to transfer that strategies of problem solving related to real knowledge to another situation. In world tasks would improve both retention order for transfer to occur, the initial and transfer of knowledge and skills. learning must be strong. There is In summary, agricultural education also a relationship between transfer provides, at a minimum, hands-on, and the depth of learning as well as experiential, science and mathematics the creativity of the learning in the education that meet the demands for cross- application of previous knowledge to curricular integration, and needs of students a new situation. in the nontraditional settings. For example, 2. The knowledge utilized in two SAEs and FFAs can incorporate current situations must have overlapping students and settings such as aquarium or

Journal of Agricultural Education 13 Volume 42, Issue 1, 2001 Dailey, Conroy & Shelley-Tolbert Using Agricultural Education… gardening projects, or working in a small high school students, students, grocery store in inner city neighborhoods. college and university staff and faculty, Learning in context—such as that provided industry representatives, and high school in the typical agriscience classroom--should administrators. assist students to learn, to depth, content in Respondents were selected using one or several related domains (e.g., science maximum variation techniques to ensure a and mathematics). It should also enable wide range in experience, geographical them to recognize the social context in distribution, and job responsibilities. They which problems are solved and to help them included two high school students, six transfer this learning to different situations. undergraduate agricultural education majors, three graduate students in agriculture Purpose and Objectives of the Study education, one USDE representative, one The major purpose of this study was to USDA representative, three college/ investigate perspectives held by various university staff, and four university faculty. individuals working and/or interested in A total of 13 states, one U.S. territory, and agricultural education on agricultural the District of Columbia were represented. education as a vehicle for instruction in Six additional interviews were conducted in transferable skills. Specific research New York State in January 2000 with three questions addressed were high school teachers, one public school administrator, and two university faculty, all 1. What do individuals believe are the purposefully selected based on their differences between vocational willingness to participate. agriculture education and Interviews were conducted using a semi- agriscience? structured interview protocol (Patton, 1991). 2. What is the perceived relationship of For this study, participant were asked the the agricultural education curriculum following open-ended questions: to transferability of academic and life (workplace) skills? 1. What are your current opinions as to the differences between vocational A secondary purpose of the study was to agriculture, agricultural education, develop a set of research questions, based on and agriscience? the analysis of the interview data, to guide 2. What types of changes need to be future research in in implemented to teacher education agriculture. programs so their graduates are better prepared to work in present- Procedures day and future school-based This study is part of a larger study agricultural education programs? funded by the National Science Foundation 3. Do you believe that agricultural (NSF) to examine the pedagogical education promotes transferability of competencies and the content necessary to content and skills to further teach agriculture as a science. Qualitative education, future careers, and research design was used to assess lifelong learning? If so, what are the participants’ perceptions of the relationship elements that you believe can be/are of agricultural education and corresponding transferred? curricula to transferability of academic and life (workplace) skills. We conducted 20 A recognized characteristic of qualitative interviews with attendees at the 1999 research is that data collection and analyses National FFA Convention in Louisville, KY, proceed simultaneously. In this evaluation, on October 28 and 29, 1999. The interview taped interviews were transcribed and data site was selected based on access to a sorted into domains or categories. Although national sample of individuals involved in most of the domains were guided by the agriculture and agricultural education. Each evaluation objectives and interview state of the union was represented at the site questions, additional domains emerged as and the make up of participants included the data were collected and manipulated.

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Cross-case analysis was used in the final how to apply them, students can carry that analysis of the interview data. This involved over in every area of life.” grouping together answers from different Agricultural education encourages people to common questions or analyzing transferable learning through work programs different perspectives on central issues. and cooperative training in agriculture. Using this technique, similar and dissimilar Hiring methods have changed, as employers domains or data categories were identified. seek staff with an affinity for personable Qualitative data were largely presented skills (SCANS, 1991). A professor added, in anecdotal form. Seidman (1991) stated, “They (employers) are beginning to hire "recounting narratives of experience has people who have certain skills, across the been the major way throughout recorded board, and if you have a background in history that humans have made sense of agriculture, it can certainly begin to help their experiences" (p. 2). The results were you.” The life experience gained through entered in Atlas t.i. for further sorting and agricultural education programs also has analysis. Trustworthiness of the data was become a marketable commodity in our assured through a detailed audit trail and workforce as cited by one participant: triangulation of the data from the two samples (Patton, 1991; Seidman, 1991). Learning this (the importance of transferable skills and life skills) Results early on helps you to focus later on Participants believed that there are a lot your career and you will have of misconceptions held by others about learned from your mistakes and agricultural education and agree that most experience before hitting the job children, students, and adults do not market. Agricultural education not understand what agricultural education only allows for that experience but encompasses. They further believed that also promotes it. individuals outside the field of agricultural education lack understanding for the One industry representative shared views on valuable skills incorporated in the program. transferability of classroom content to the Those interviewed agreed that agricultural workplace: education provides a unique learning experience for students as stated by one The main purpose is getting individual: students ready for life. I think high school academics are very Agricultural education is very important, but life skills and social versatile; you get a taste of skills are the most important thing everything, a wide variety of you can get out of high school. learning. I think that is pretty Surely the skills that you learn in unique. I think it improves the vocational or even agriscience are learning by having the opportunity really important, but all in all, it’s to learn a little facet of every field making a well-rounded student that and every area out there. can get out in the world and be successful and survive. According to participants, classroom themes—such as teamwork, collaborative The consensus was that agricultural learning, economics or —can education produces students who can be easily transfer to life applications. In a effective members of society, who have a contextualized learning environment, such high level of sufficiency in social skills, and as the agricultural education classroom, possess content-rich information. students use knowledge learned in class (i.e. Many employers and educators now FFA, SAE projects, etc.), to transfer and recognize that incidental learning is also an apply in daily life. An educator stated, important component of the transition from “They (students) can use the things they childhood to the workforce (SCANS, 1991). learn in the classroom in real life and see Incidental learning includes those valuable

Journal of Agricultural Education 15 Volume 42, Issue 1, 2001 Dailey, Conroy & Shelley-Tolbert Using Agricultural Education… life skills that may not be assessed, or taught Instead of focusing on their directly, such as public speaking and other strong skills academically, forms of communication, leadership, agricultural educators focus on responsibility, and dedication. These are not everything. skills typically taught in the academic classroom, and would also include incidental Participants believed that curricular learning that is not part of the agricultural integration at the high school level is a education curriculum. Agricultural major factor in the transfer of academic education is not only linked to practicality, content and skills as stated by one teacher: application and hands-on learning of content, but to incidental learning, as well, We have a variety of projects that and students benefit from the incidental are innovative. We have a high skills acquired during the transfer of life school agriculture teacher skills. According to one participant partnering with a physics teacher— something that you would not You learn things incidentally in expect to happen within a high agricultural education, and things school. So these are, I think, some change your attitudes, personal examples that help not only skills, communication, etc. It is students to connect or reconnect to through the agriculture program agriculture, but also help the and the FFA that this change takes teachers reconnect and see the place and students are able to get impact or the opportunities that are involved in the community. in agriculture besides production oriented careers, not to down play Those interviewed also agreed that the those, but to realize there are a creation of relationships and partnerships broad range of opportunities. with industry role models who are supportive of lifelong learning encourages Changes in the agriculture industry coupled the transfer of concepts and skills from with those in society and student interest academic setting to job placement and will continue to force adaptations to career. agricultural education. These adaptations and changes in foci will likely require new Preparation for Academic Coursework and methods of teaching, or a ‘reinvention” of the old to address emerging trends. The In addition to readiness for the increase of jobs requiring postsecondary workplace, agricultural education prepares technical education and teamwork are two students for higher education through important factors behind renewed emphases facilitation of transfer of academic content on integration and transferable academic— and skills to other disciplines. More particularly science—and workplace skills. importantly, participants stated that it The issue of a more science-based promotes learning for all students by curriculum emerged during the data effectively addressing various learning collection process and provided us with an styles, techniques and approaches: additional focus for questioning. We inquired as to how participants felt about the One thing agricultural education change to a more science-based curriculum, programs do particularly, that no and the impact such a change would have on other program does, is that ANY students, the programs, and the overall student can be a success in the purpose of the agriculture program at the agricultural education program. local level. You don’t have to be an athlete or have any special talents; you How Much Should the Focus Change to a simply have to have a good work Science-Based Curriculum? ethic and a willingness to get Most participants believed that the involved. experiential methods employed in the

Journal of Agricultural Education 16 Volume 42, Issue 1, 2001 Dailey, Conroy & Shelley-Tolbert Using Agricultural Education… typical agriculture classroom couldn’t be Schools and our society put a lot of utilized for science-based instruction. They emphasis on moving towards the differed markedly, however, in their feelings direction of college prep and that about whether currently enrolled students has placed pressures on vocational would continue to embrace agricultural education to redefine itself. Part of education if a shift towards a more science- this is the change of the technology based curriculum occurred. Some within agriculture. interviewees felt a science-based program would attract a new kind of student, and According to respondents, agricultural would strengthen the program, overall. They education is trying to remain competitive felt that encouraging “the best and and current, while also attempting to stay brightest” students to become involved in viable and attractive to students. Participants agricultural education would result in noted changes or growth in agricultural advanced placement and college prep education and movement towards a more courses in agriculture. A university science-based orientation as those items that professor stated: may need research, review, and planning. Discussion of emerging and anticipated If you look at the clientele that changes in agricultural education caused agricultural education has served participants to often reflect on challenges in over the years, it has served the dealing with these changes, as well. We average students and the below asked the following question in order to average students. It has not served assess their perceptions of the most critical so well, the students who are at the challenges with which the profession must other end of the curve, the best and deal: “What are the greatest challenges the brightest. They are the least facing agriculture education today?” well represented of all those According to those interviewed, the categories. So I think with challenges facing agricultural education agriscience, we will be able to today include attract more and to serve more of the best and the brightest and 1. Making people aware of the new literally tackle the waterfront on changes agriculture has undergone other issues. and the importance of agriculture; 2. Recruitment and keeping students Others felt that becoming more science- interested and involved in based would cause current clientele to lose agriculture; interest—replacing the traditional 3. The promotion of agriculture and curriculum with science-based learning changing image (i.e. dispelling might “shut out” current students who common misconceptions about sought vocational and hands-on learning. agriculture); and We should note here that current state-of- 4. The shortage of qualified teachers in the-art science methodologies would agricultural education. incorporate the same levels of inquiry, hands-on exploration, problem-based It is interesting to note that, in particular, learning, and other teaching styles promoted items 1, 2 and 3 have been issues since the through agricultural education. There was publication of New Directions in 1988 and definitely a perception among participants, before. It appears to us as if the crises in however, that a move to science-based recruitment, promotion, and the teacher instruction would not include these types of shortage has shifted the focus of attention instructional techniques. Participants also from pedagogical and curricular issues at a viewed changes in agricultural education, time when we believe it is most crucial to such as move towards science-based address them. instruction, as a reflection of changes Over the years, it has been difficult to occurring outside the classroom: define or pinpoint the meaning and purpose of agricultural education. It has varied

Journal of Agricultural Education 17 Volume 42, Issue 1, 2001 Dailey, Conroy & Shelley-Tolbert Using Agricultural Education… between groups, within and outside of the focus of the high school agriculture field, and has evolved according to global, curriculum, even when considering transfer political, societal, and technological issues of academic skills. Much of the dis- as well. The content of agricultural agreement is due to a lack of understanding education is not static, but is ever changing of the appropriate techniques and methods and we need teachers who can adjust to that of teaching agriculture as a science, while change. leaving the experiential learning and leadership components of the program Conclusions and Recommendations intact. Qualitative data cannot be generalized to We have come away from this any persons beyond those interviewed. It is experience with more questions than up to the reader(s) to determine if our answers. From an investigation of the findings and conclusions are applicable to interview data, it is apparent that interview their respective situations (Gall, Borg & participants’ perceptions and images of Gall, 1996). Our bias, as agricultural agricultural education are changing. educators, as well as that of the participants, Reflecting on the interview data leads to the should also not be overlooked. We were following questions we pose to the field of able; however, to develop some conclusions teacher education in agriculture as that warrant consideration. recommendations for future research. First, agricultural education is a viable curriculum alternative for instruction and 1. Due to the broad scope and nature of experiences leading to transfer of workplace agricultural education, and the ever- skills. Learning technical and workforce increasing technology within the skills is encouraged within the diversity of agriculture industry, it is difficult for coursework and experiences in agricultural educators to remain current in such a education, offering students an opportunity variety of areas. Should we be to learn a variety of skills. Agricultural educating highly qualified education incorporates a combination of agricultural educators in specialized diverse teaching methodologies (i.e. hands- fields rather than generalists? How on learning, vocational skills training, would this impact programming at academic concept development) and the local level? If this is not possible, technical content (i.e. agriculture, business, what changes need to be made to science, marketing, economics), with intra- inservice delivery given declining curricular experiential learning and resources at the university and state leadership development. levels? Second, agricultural education provides 2. Using experiential learning to teach students with transferable academic skills so transferable skills helps students as to prepare them to achieve in other develop lifelong learning skills, and courses, as well as preparing them for higher the application of theory and education. Participants in this study agreed concepts to real world problem that most agricultural education students are solving. What theories of transfer intrinsically motivated to understand and need to be incorporated into our become involved in the learning process. teaching methods courses? They believed the encouraging environment 3. Participants believe that an increase that is typically found in the agricultural in science instruction will lead to a education classroom engages students and natural decrease in the time available fosters interest to promote . for experiential and hands-on Third, all participants agree that the term learning in the agriculture classroom. “vocational agriculture” has negative Is this true? What are the types of impacts on the public image of the programs experiential learning currently and that science-based instruction would promoted in and help improve that image. There is not, how can those be incorporated into however, universal agreement as to the teacher education in agriculture degree that science should become the major programs? Other science

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