The Development of the Integrated Three-Component Model of Agricultural Education

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTEGRATED THREE-COMPONENT MODEL OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

D. Barry Croom, Associate Professor North Carolina State University

Abstract

This research project sought to determine the origin of the three-component model of agricultural education in the United States and provided a contextual base for future research into the three-component model for agricultural education. The study concluded that each of the three components of the agricultural education model originated at different times in American history but were developed simultaneously. Supervised experience probably originated in colonial America, and formal instruction in agricultural education probably began in 1858. The FFA was officially established in 1928, although similar agricultural youth organizations probably began either at the end of the nineteenth century or the beginning of the twentieth century. This study did not find evidence of an established date or recognized event that created the three-component agricultural education model. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 provided a more sophisticated linkage between classroom instruction and supervised experience. This study did not find evidence of a legal basis for the integral nature of the three-component agricultural education model. Instead, the integral nature of the model probably exists out of tradition, or as a result of a philosophical tenet in the agricultural education profession.

Introduction and Theoretical Framework learning experiences for students in the agricultural career pathway of their choice. The predominant model for organizing Supervised agricultural experience requires instruction in agricultural education involves an educational plan cooperatively developed the interrelationships between three major by the student, the agriculture teacher, the concepts: classroom and laboratory student’s parents, and an employer if instruction, supervised agricultural necessary. This education plan is carried out experience, and agricultural youth in a location outside of normal daily organization participation (Phipps & instruction in agricultural education. The Osborne, 1988). Classroom and laboratory student maintains records of his or her SAE instruction are those activities that provide activities. SAE experience helps students learning experiences within the confines of a put into practice the principles learned in the school facility. These classroom activities agriculture classroom. Students who excel are characterized by learning activities in the supervised agricultural experience are designed by an agriculture teacher and rewarded through the National FFA presented to students using formal Organization (FFA) proficiency awards instruction methods such as lecture, program and membership degree program. demonstration, guided and independent The FFA is an instructional tool that practice, review, and assessment. compliments both instruction and supervised Instructional content includes agricultural agricultural experience. FFA programs are mechanics, animal science, horticulture, designed to encourage students to perform agricultural production and biotechnology well academically. In addition, the FFA (Talbert, Vaughn, & Croom, 2006). assists in the development of students’ Supervised Agricultural Experience interest in agricultural careers through (SAE) is an independent learning program support of the supervised agricultural for students enrolled in agricultural experience program. FFA activities include education courses. It is designed to provide career development events, individual

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member awards programs, scholarships and for assessing the quality of SAE leadership programs (Phipps & Osborne, programs. 1988). With regard to the FFA element of the The integrated agricultural education model, there is a gap between the number of model requires that agricultural education agricultural education students and the programs combine instruction, supervised number of students who are official agricultural experience and FFA (Talbert et members of the FFA (Talbert et al., 2006), al., 2006). However, a number of studies even though FFA membership has continued have indicated a decline in the number of to increase in recent years (National FFA students involved in supervised experience. Organization, 2006a). Even though students Dyer and Osborne (1996) and Cheek, who join the FFA were more connected to Arrington, Carter and Randell (1994) the industry of agriculture and were more conclude that SAE programs lack overall engaged in agricultural education direction and goals by which program coursework (Croom & Flowers, 2001; quality can be measured. Even though Talbert & Balschweid, 2004), the National classroom instruction improves SAE quality, FFA Organization (2006a) reported a gap of there is great variance in how teachers almost 200,000 students between FFA manage the SAE program (Dyer & Osborne, membership and student enrollment in 1996). A number of related studies (Dyer & agricultural education programs. Of the Osborne, 1995; Dyer & Williams, 1997; components in the three-component model Steele, 1997) conclude that many teacher- of agricultural education, instruction occurs educators, teachers, and program with the greatest frequency. If this model is administrators fail to fully implement composed in such a way that classroom SAE in the agricultural education instruction, FFA, and SAE are integrally program, even though SAE has a proven linked and equally weighted components, economic impact (Retallick & Martin, then why do the FFA and SAE components 2005). Dyer and Osborne (1996) generally subordinate themselves to found that no common standards existed instruction? Figure 1 describes this model.

Formal Instruction

Supervised FFA Experience

Figure 1. Diagram of the integrated three-component agricultural education model.

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Hirsch’s (1988) Cultural Literacy Model information were subjected to internal is the theoretical model for this study, and is criticism for accuracy and external criticism based on the premise that agricultural for authenticity. Readers should not assume educators need to have a basic literacy of that the findings and conclusions of this agricultural education in order to function in study are causal elements for modern their professional environment. Cultural theories associated with agricultural literacy in agricultural education underpins education. the public discourse about the profession. Reading the scientific and popular literature Findings in the agricultural education profession is a complex skill that requires a specific The first known agricultural educators knowledge of the range of subjects that on the North American continent were influence the profession. Learning is thus native indigenous peoples who passed down dependent upon both specific broad methods for cultivation to successive knowledge and a diversity of prior generations. The first formal compulsory knowledge. Hirsch’s Cultural Literacy education system arrived on the continent Model encourages professional educators to through the passage of the Massachusetts continue to learn and deepen their Act of 1642 (Barger, 2006). Prior to this, knowledge of the profession and find deeper most youth were educated through meaning in issues related to the development apprenticeships in the various trades in of the model by which agricultural education colonial America. The Massachusetts Act is performed in the United States. provided for the formal study of religion and the laws of the Commonwealth of Purpose and Procedure Massachusetts. Schools became the place where classical education was provided, The overall purpose of this research with studies concentrating on Latin and the project was to determine the origin of the basics of reading and mathematics (Urban & three-component model of agricultural Wagoner, 2000). education in the United States. The In the mid to late eighteenth century, objectives for this research project were to organizations and societies began promoting identify the origins of each of the three agricultural education outside of the formal components of the integrated agricultural school establishment. The Philadelphia education model and to establish the origin Society was established in 1785 for the of the integrated agricultural education purpose of familiarizing members with model. This research project also sought to improved agricultural methods. In 1792, the provide a contextual base for future research Massachusetts Society for Promoting on the three-component model for Agriculture set up meetings for the purpose agricultural education. This is a historical of inviting farmers to learn new methods of research study. A preliminary improving agriculture. In the 1850’s, bibliographical source was created agricultural societies began to disseminate consisting of primary and secondary research in agricultural practices in rural sources. Primary sources of information communities, primarily through included reports from the Federal Board for publications, newspaper articles and Vocational Education and the published lectures. Agricultural fairs, formerly an manuscripts of agricultural educators in the outlet for selling farm animals and products, early twentieth century. Secondary sources gradually began to include educational included, but were not limited to, data from exhibits promoting the best agricultural refereed journal articles and historical practices (True, 1969). Massachusetts, information available from established Kansas and other states began to hold institutions. Secondary sources were farmer’s institutes in the 1850’s. The compared to selected primary sources to Massachusetts Board of Agriculture ascertain their accuracy. Using the methods appointed a committee in 1858 to develop prescribed by Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) meetings similar to teacher institutes for the and Howell and Prevenier (2001), sources of purpose of teaching agricultural topics. This

Journal of Agricultural Education 112 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008 Croom The Development of the Integrated… same board published agricultural promoting agriculture and home economics. information in the Agriculture of The course of study was approved by the Massachusetts publication as early as 1854 state school superintendent and the farm-life (True). school advisory board, and had to include The United States government and practical farm work (Stimson & Lathrop, agricultural colleges and universities began 1942). Eventually, the federal government to support agricultural instruction through would recognize the need and importance of agricultural short courses made available to agricultural education and create legislation farmers. The Alabama State Agricultural that specifically encouraged states to College encouraged farmers to hold develop agriculture teacher training meetings regarding agricultural problems, programs and fund local agricultural and these meetings began in the summer of education programs. Before the first 1884. On June 23, 1868, the Kansas significant federal funding for agricultural Agricultural College recommended that education arrived in 1917, at least 30 states faculty lecture to assemblies of farmers on had agricultural education programs the application of modern and approved operating in schools (Hamlin). agricultural practices. In addition to farming Supervised experience was probably the topics and home economics subjects, first component of the agricultural education programs often included rural school model to be developed and was probably in improvement, road improvement, keeping the form of youth apprenticeships to skilled youth on the family farm, and rural tradesmen or as informal education at home. recreation (True, 1969). On November 18, Evidence of apprenticeship can be found in 1868, the Illinois Industrial University the archeological evidence of the earliest established a two-week course on approved known civilizations, and supervised practices in farming. Massachusetts, Illinois, experience in the form of apprenticeships Iowa, and New Hampshire also adopted arrived in the American colonies with the similar institutes. By 1880, public institutes first settlers (Struck, 1945). As the were in operation in 26 southern and central apprenticeship method thrived in the new states. State boards of agriculture conducted American colonies, schools were established many of these institutes (True). State to encourage children to develop basic skills appropriations for these institutes appeared in reading, mathematics, history, Latin and in 1891 in 14 states. In 1888, the Office of Greek (Urban and Wagoner, 2000). One of Experiment Stations (established by the the first federal laws to establish some form Hatch Act) recognized the value of farmer’s of agricultural education specifically suited institutes and began collecting data and to supervised experience was the researching the work of the institutes. At the Civilization Fund Act of 1819, which turn of the twentieth century, agricultural provided funding to teach Native Americans education had begun to expand outward “the mode of agriculture suited to their from farmer’s institutes and university short situation” (Fraser, 2001, p. 47). courses into public schools. In 1906, school Significant achievement in establishing officials in Michigan, Arizona and Georgia supervised experience in schools was would invite institute speakers to visit local accomplished by Rufus W. Stimson, schools and speak to the students (True). principal of the Smith Agricultural School. Public school agricultural education Stimson developed the concept of the probably originated around 1858 with the project method that taught students the introduction of vocational agricultural basics of agricultural production methods. training in two Massachusetts schools These students then applied these methods (Hamlin, 1962). The New York legislature on their home farms instead of a school farm passed the Nixon Law in 1897, which (Moore, 1988). The project method involved provided for agricultural education in public study directly related to the student’s home schools under the supervision of the Cornell project. Subject study is more general, and University Agricultural College. The North used to supplement the project method. The Carolina state legislature passed the Farm project method allows students to proceed at Life Act of 1911 that created schools their own pace through the instructional

Journal of Agricultural Education 113 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008 Croom The Development of the Integrated… program. Stimson (1919) believed that boys. There is also some evidence that the school projects were unacceptable because first boys club was organized in the South at they could not be made profitable. School Holmes County Mississippi. W.H. Smith, projects often involved too many students the local school superintendent, organized engaged in a single project and thus the club (True). Agricultural clubs for girls disengaged from real work. Furthermore, may have begun in the South in Aiken there was no personal ownership in school County, South Carolina in 1910 (True). projects, as all earnings went back to school At some point, agricultural clubs were accounts. Stimson proposed that projects organized in schools for the purpose of must be on a farm and be completed under socialization and to stimulate interest in specific learning conditions with measurable academic work. These clubs met monthly results. Projects could improve existing and agricultural subjects were discussed. farming projects, explore new areas of Elementary children were organized into agriculture, and be entrepreneurial in nature. junior project clubs (Berry, 1924). In his Stimson’s curriculum included the study of agricultural education training handbook, production agriculture, individual project Berry (1924) referred to the advising role of work, and class discussion of student teachers in agricultural clubs. Agriculture projects (Stimson). teachers should be present in the club While vocational agriculture and meetings to lend formality to the meeting, supervised experience continued to gain and to offer advice on the matters being support and acceptance, the third component discussed. “The wise teacher utilizes pupil of the agricultural education model began to activities to as great extent as possible, grow. Organizations for agricultural youth thereby developing leadership qualities in grew out of the boys and girls clubs pupils” (Berry, p. 196). established at the turn of the twentieth With the passage of the Smith-Hughes century (Davis, 1912). There is some Act in 1917, the national coordination of question as to when boys and girls agricultural education naturally made it agricultural clubs were established in the convenient for the development of an United States. McCormick and McCormick organization for rural youth that encouraged (1984) proposed that A. B. Graham best practices in agricultural production, and organized boys and girls clubs in January provided an outlet for personal growth and 1902 in the Springfield Township School development. The National FFA community in Clark County, Ohio. Club Organization (FFA) was formed in 1928 to meetings were held once per month in an encourage social development and assembly room of the county building. agricultural skill development. These were corn clubs. Later the clubs were In the 1930’s and 1940’s, school broadened to include vegetable projects. administrators began to question the role of The procedure for girls and boys clubs were FFA in the agricultural education program. as follows: a few days before the monthly The Smith-Hughes Act created a partnership meeting, each boy and girl was requested to between the federal government, state read or study selected passages from a text education agencies, and local schools in the in order to prepare for the subject being administration of agricultural education discussed at the upcoming meeting programs, but did not specifically define the (McCormick & McCormick, 1984). role of FFA in agricultural education. True (1969) raised the possibility that Agricultural education students were W.B. Otwell may have actually created the participating in FFA field trips, judging first boys and girls clubs in agriculture. contests involving livestock, and other FFA These clubs were created in response to the activities that created liability issues for problem of poor attendance at Macopin locals education boards (Tenney, 1977). County, Illinois farmer’s institutes. To Furthermore, state and federal employees encourage attendance, Otwell distributed were administering the FFA organization, seed corn to local boys and started a contest even though it was a private organization to see who could make the most yields from (Talbert et al., 2006). Prior to the FFA, it. The first year’s contest involved 500 local agriculture clubs were not well

Journal of Agricultural Education 114 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008 Croom The Development of the Integrated… coordinated. Once agriculture clubs became recognized the need to link together FFA chapters, there was a concern about the classroom instruction and supervised degree of responsibility and liability for FFA farming projects. activities by local school boards. Efforts to The Vocational Education Act of 1947, resolve this and other administrative matters also known as the George-Barden Act or eventually led to a Congressional charter for Public Law 79-586, extended the provisions the National FFA Organization in 1950. of the Smith-Hughes Act by providing This charter established the FFA funding to be used by teachers for the organizations purpose, in part, to “create, purpose of supervising apprentices on the foster, and assist subsidiary chapters job, and for the purpose of attending composed of students and former students of meetings and activities of educational vocational agriculture in public schools associations and other organizations qualifying for federal reimbursement under (Hawkins, Prosser, & Wright, 1967). This the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act presumably refers to FFA meetings and (20 United States Code 11-15, 16-28” activities. This provision probably arose out (National FFA Organization, 2006b). of the previously noted concern that schools The second objective of this research were not sufficiently insured against the project was to determine the origin of the liability of students attending off-campus integrated agricultural education model. The FFA activities. This measure provided the United States government eventually legal basis for teachers to supervise students established direct federal funding for at off-campus FFA activities (Tenney, agricultural education through the passage 1977). of the Vocational Education Act of 1917. Nolan (1918) proposed that agricultural This act, also known as the Smith-Hughes clubs’ agendas include plans to buy, sell, or Act, provided funding for the purpose of exhibit an agricultural product, plans for training teachers in agricultural education, social activities, a calendar, and instruction industrial arts education and home on technical content germane to club economics education. The act paid the projects. Under this method, boys and girls salaries of teachers in these subjects, who were to take agricultural subjects in provided funding for the establishment of school were organized into clubs. In these teacher education programs in colleges and clubs, they were assigned specific home universities, and funded the hiring of projects. All students completed the same supervisors to manage the expenditure of projects for the first two years and assumed funds at the school level. These supervisors new projects as the situation warranted provided direct assistance to teachers in the (Nolan). Hammonds (1950) proposed that teaching of their respective subjects. The the agriculture teacher is equally responsible Smith-Hughes Act also created a state board for both the instructional program and the for vocational education in each of the states FFA program and that the FFA is an integral receiving funding under the Act, and created part of vocational agriculture. Hamlin the Federal Board for Vocational Education (1962) proposed that the Smith-Hughes Act (Talbert et al., 2006). The reports of the provided federal funding, but the local Federal Board for Vocational Education and schools were responsible for local policy, the various agencies that eventually assumed developing a local purpose for agricultural responsibility for the administration and education, and the implementation of oversight of vocational education provided agricultural education in the local some insight as to the development of the community. Hamlin also proposed that the integrated model. The U.S. Office of FFA performed citizenship education and Education provided direction to teachers and promote civic responsibility, and as such, state administrators as to the appropriate use the FFA was important enough to be integral of federal funds to supervise student farm to the program. Supervised farming stresses projects (United States Department Of The individual effort while the FFA encourages Interior, Office of Education, 1937). Thus, group effort (Hamlin). Stevens (1967) as early as 1917 with the passage of the supported the inclusion of FFA and Smith-Hughes Act, the federal government identified the basic unit of FFA as the local

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FFA chapter in a school. Binkley and integral components of the vocational Hammonds (1970) supported the agriculture program. Instead these programs agricultural education model by stating that, were sub-components of the integral “Each student in vocational agriculture components. Specifically, farm mechanics should have a supervised experience was a sub-component of supervised farming program… because practice is essential to programs, and the community food learning” (p. 18), yet, “The FFA is an preservation activities were a good feature in important part of vocational agriculture…. vocational agriculture programs for Membership is voluntary” (Binkley & increasing community support and Hammonds, p. 18). Furthermore, awareness of the total program (Cook, advancement in FFA depends in large part 1947). on a student’s SAE. SAE will help students Later editions of the Handbook on get established in a vocation (Binkley & Teaching Vocational Agriculture (Phipps & Hammonds; Snedden, 1923). Cook, 1952; Phipps, 1966, 1972, 1980; Glen C. Cook wrote a number of Phipps & Osborne, 1988) continued to textbooks designed to prepare agriculture support the three-component model of teachers for field service. Cook’s Handbook agricultural education with one caveat. The on Teaching Vocational Agriculture was component devoted to youth organizations first published in 1938, and subsequent was expanded to include the New Farmers editions of it appeared in 1947 and 1952. of America and Young Farmers in the 1966 Under the new authorship of Lloyd Phipps, and 1972 editions of the Phipps text (Phipps, the handbook continued to be published as 1966, 1972). References to the New late as 1988. This textbook, in its various Farmers of America in the agricultural editions, was used for more than five education model disappeared after their decades in teacher education programs in the assimilation by the Future Farmers of United States. In the 1938 handbook, Cook America. In the 1988 edition of the identified four phases of vocational handbook (Phipps & Osborne), references to agriculture: classroom work, supervised Young Farmers in the model had farm practice, farm mechanics, and disappeared, and the four instructional extracurricular activities. Cook (1938) components became classroom instruction, considered supervised farm practice as an supervised experience, laboratory integral part of the vocational agriculture instruction, and vocational student program but stopped short of making the organization. same judgment about the FFA. FFA The various editions of the Cook’s activities were included as part of a group of handbook provided some of the background extracurricular activities acceptable for into the development of the agricultural agricultural education students. These education model but did not reduce the extracurricular activities included 4-H and model exactly to the present day three- agricultural clubs in addition to the FFA. component version. In the 1970’s, the FFA However, in Cook’s 1947 Handbook on began a series of teacher development Teaching Vocational Agriculture, the major programs designed to create high quality phases of instruction were identified as agricultural education programs (C. classroom activities, supervised farming Coleman Harris, personal communication, programs, farm mechanics, community food September 12, 2006). The outgrowth of preservation activities, and Future Farmers these teacher development programs caused of America activities. the inclusion of the integral three- Cook (1947) defined the primary aim of component model of classroom and vocational education in agriculture as laboratory instruction, supervised preparing current and future farmers for experience, and FFA in the 1975 version of proficiency in farming but concluded that the FFA Advisors Handbook (National FFA both supervised farming programs and the Organization, 1975). Page seven of the text FFA were integral parts of the vocational has the Venn configuration of three agriculture program. Cook does not overlapping circles graphically portraying explicitly state that farm mechanics were these three components. The model was

Journal of Agricultural Education 116 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008 Croom The Development of the Integrated… explained in the handbook in such a way as education model originated at different to justify the integral nature of FFA with the times in American history but were instructional program. FFA activities require developed simultaneously. Supervised a combination of supervised experience and experience was probably the first of the instruction. The handbook defines three components to originate in the United instruction as the classroom component States but reached a highly sophisticated involving the practical application of level of development when it paired first instruction in agricultural sciences. with formal instruction in agricultural Instruction is explicitly referred to as a education and then later with formal “component” of the model. Supervised instruction and the FFA. Formal instruction agricultural experience is defined as the in agricultural education probably began in individual and independent application of 1858, and although the FFA was officially knowledge acquired in the agricultural established in 1928, similar agricultural classroom by a student under the supervision youth organizations probably began either at of the agriculture teacher. The 1975 FFA the end of the nineteenth century or the Advisors Handbook gives the following beginning of the twentieth century. This example of the integral nature of the three study did not find evidence of an established components in the model: date or recognized event that created the three-component agricultural education The FFA Proficiency Award program is model. The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 a good example of this interrelationship. established agricultural education and, to a In the classroom students learn the minor extent, the relationship between advanced methods of beef cattle instruction and supervised experience. production. Through the supervised However, the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 occupational [sic] experience program, provided a more sophisticated linkage the students put the principles and between classroom instruction and practices learned in the instructional supervised experience. Federal legislation program to practical use. The FFA Beef amending the provisions of the Smith- Proficiency Award program provides the Hughes Act of 1917 supported the vehicle whereby students receive incorporation of FFA into the local recognition for their accomplishments. agricultural education program. The federal (National FFA Organization, 1975, p. 7). charter incorporating the FFA created an opportunity for the FFA organization to Bender, Taylor, Hansen and Newcomb exist in schools supported by the (1979) describe the FFA as an integral part Smith-Hughes Act. Furthermore, this study of agricultural education, but the purpose of did not find evidence of a significant SAE is to encourage participation in legal basis for the integral nature agricultural careers. There is no direct of the three-component agricultural mention of SAE as being integral to education model. State and federal agricultural education. The purpose of SAE legislation may have influenced the adoption is to provide specialized knowledge about of the model, but no government mandate agricultural subjects, help students get was found that compelled agriculture started in agricultural occupations, and teachers to adopt the model for use in their create an opportunity for a student to earn programs. money. Wall (1969) proposed that in order The integrated model for agricultural for the FFA to effectively contribute to the education seems to describe the instructional program, FFA activities should philosophical thought surrounding support SAE and be a learning tool led by agricultural education in the early twentieth the members. century, and as such, became the guide for what agricultural education was to be or Conclusions, Discussion and become. While many agricultural education Recommendations professionals see classroom instruction, This study concluded that each of the supervised experience, and the FFA as three components of the agricultural integral components of a larger model, there

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are others who do not share the same organization. Journal of Agricultural sentiment. For the model to be successful to Education, 42(2), 28-37. a significant degree, there must be a commitment by all stakeholders to deliver Davis, B. M. (1912). Agricultural all components collectively to those education in the public schools. Chicago: students who can be served by it. It is University of Chicago. recommended that the nature of the three-component agricultural education Dyer, J. E., & Osborne, E. W. (1995). model be examined to determine if each Participation in supervised agricultural component is actually needed in the model. experience programs: A synthesis of the Furthermore, a study of alternative research. Journal of Agricultural Education, models for the delivery of agricultural 36(1), 6-14. education would be very useful to the profession. Dyer, J. E., & Osborne, E. W. (1996). Developing a model for supervised References agricultural experience program quality: A synthesis of research. Journal of Barger, R. N. (2006). Massachusetts Agricultural Education, 37(2), 24-33. education laws of 1642 AND 1647. Retrieved November 16, 2006, from Dyer, J. E., & Williams, D. L. (1997). http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/masslaw Supervision of supervised agricultural s.html experience programs: A synthesis of the research. Journal of Agricultural Education, Bender, R. E., Taylor, R. E., & Hansen, 38(4), 59-67. C. K., & Newcomb, L. H. (1979). The FFA and you. Danville, IL: Interstate. Fraser, J. W. (2001). The school in the United States. New York: McGraw-Hill Berry, J. B. (1924). Teaching Higher Education. agriculture. New York: World Book. Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. Binkley, H., & Hammonds, C. (1970). (1996). Educational research: An Experience programs for learning introduction (6th ed) White Plains, NY: vocations in agriculture. Danville, IL: Longman. Interstate. Hamlin, H. M. (1962). Public school Cheek, J. G., Arrington, L. R., Carter, S., education in agriculture. Danville, IL: & Randell, R. S. (1994). Relationship Intersate. of supervised agricultural experience program participation and student Hammonds, C. (1950). Teaching achievement in agricultural education. agriculture. New York: McGraw Hill. Journal of Agricultural Education, 35(2), 1- 5 . Hawkins, L. S., Prosser, C. A., & Wright, J. C. (1967). Development of Cook, G. C. (1938). Handbook on vocational education. Chicago: American teaching vocational agriculture. (4th ed). Technical Society. Danville, IL: Interstate. Hirsch, E. D. (1988). Cultural literacy: Cook, G. C. (1947). A handbook on What every American needs to know. New teaching vocational agriculture. Danville, York: Vintage. IL: Interstate. Howell, M., & Prevenier, W. (2001). Croom, D., & Flowers, J. (2001). Factors From reliable resources: An introduction to influencing an agricultural education historical methods. Ithaca, NY: Cornell student’s perception of the FFA University Press.

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D. BARRY CROOM is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural and Extension Education at North Carolina State University, Box 7607, Raleigh, 27695-7607. E-mail: [email protected].

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