THE QUEST FOR MULLU: CONCEPTS, TRADE, AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION, OF SPONDEUS IN THE ANDES A Thesis Subrnitted to the Cornmittee on Graduate Studies in Partial fulfilhnent of the Requirernents for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Facuiîy of Arts and Science TRENT UNMZRSITY Peterborough, Ontario, Canada CI Copyright by David Blower 1995 Anthropology MA. Program May 19% The author bas grimtbd a non- L'auteur a accon% me licence non exclusive licence ailowing the exc1uSivepum~Bla NaticmaiLi'braryofCrmedato Biblioth&penationale du Canada de reproduce, 1- distnUorsell Iepmduk,pr&r, ~'buerou copies ofhïskr fbesis ôy any means vedre des copies & sa thbe & andhanyformorfamiat,makhg this thesis available to interested fomque ce soit pour mettre des pefsO= exemplaires de cette th&= à la The author retains omdpof the L'auteur comme la proprieté du copyright m hisha thesis. Neither droit d'auteur qui protège sa thèse. Ni the thesis nor mbstanM exîmds &om it may be prÉated or otherwise reproduced with the author's permission. ABSTRACT The Quest For Mullu: Concep- Trader And The Archaeologïcai Disnibution, Of Spondvlus In The Andes David Blower This thesis is desiped to ident- the nature of the relationship between Spon&lus. a sea mollusk and mullu a Precolumbian Andean concept, with the intention of undemandino the sheli's value and meanM in a system of made and exchange. By dennino the riaial and ceremonid value of the shell it is possible to undentand why it was an important trade commodity, and why it might have been the foundation on which a trade network was based. Through a review of the available literature and original sources, and an anaiysis of the shelPs appearance and context in archaeological sites' the concept of mullu is defined as more complex than previously considered. It is seen to hction on different levels of ritual ceremony and in varied contexts and associations. The importance ofmuilu to trade networks and the ideology of the Andes foms the basis for its designation as a rinial and trade complex. This thesis would not have evolved into its present state without the support and contributions of supervisory committtee who read and commenteci on the eariier drafts: Dr. John Tepic‘ Dr. Theresa Tepic‘ and Dr. Joan Vastokas. Dr. John Topic has supe~sedthe deveiopment of this work corn its early dr& to completion, but both he and Dr-Theresa Topic have been involved completely in my exposure to Andean archaeology, through course work and field study, since my time as an under-mduate. The two field seasons of work in Ecuador which led to this study were conducted under the support of gants awarded to both Dr. John Topic and Dr. Theresa Topic. To both of them 1 express my appreciation for the opportunity to work in the Andes and the chance to observe and experience the culture firsthand. Thanks also to Dr. Daniel Sandweiss who not on- acted as my extemal examiner, but who was able to recornmend source material which afEected my understanding of pre-Columbian open-sea navigation and the issue of Chincha trade. ïhe information provided through these additionai references was greatiy apprec iated. During- the two seasons spent in Ecuador 1 was fomuiate enough to meet two persons who could introduce me to local customs, discuss their own experiences in Andean archaeology, and who were very patient with my attempts at Spanish conversation. in the nrst season, ALfredo Melly Cava fkom Trujillo, Pen: and in the second Jhonny Villon Mordes, Guayaquil, Ecuador, provided companionship and fnendship during my stay. In both instances theu efforts helped -preatiy with my pneral understanding of Latin Arnerican culture?and also opened a few doors that would have remaineci closed to a novice gringo. While examinino the collections of Spondvlus material at various Ecuadorian institutionst 1 was to meet many individuds who offered heip and encouragement I would like to th& two in panicular. In Quito. Rosa Ordofiez Romero, Auxiliar 'ïécnico, at the Museo Sijon Y Caamailo. Universidad de Catolim was very helpfid with my examination of the Spondvlur figurines and artifacts hmCerro Namio. During my coastal travels to visit archaeoiogical sites and collections related to the early use of Spndvlus 1 had the pleasure of meeting Sr. Olaf Holm, former Director of the Museo of the Banco Central in Guayaquil. Sr. Hohoffered encoqement and information on some of the more obscure references to muilu and Spondvius. for which 1 mi@ still be searching, and who has continued his support through correspondence since my departure kmEcuador. The contributions of the people mentioned? and others not mentioned. have had an effect on the final appearance of this thesis, but without the support of my wife Vem and our daughters Devon and Morgaq 1 am doubtful that there would be a thesis at ail. To them goes my deepest appreciation and love. While the above individuds have greatly &êcted the final thesis, they are in no way responsible for any omissions, misconceptions. misunderstanding or other errors that appear in this text 1 have always been capable of making those mistakes on my own. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page ONE: Introduction WO Spondylus Spondvlus And Its Habitat Spon4viw princeps Spondvlus princeps princeps Spondvius princeps leucacantha Spon&ius princeps cdcifer Spondvlus unicoior Spondvlus Physiology Deteminino the Clrigin and of Spondylus Material TmEEi Mullu Onho-nrap hic Variation Things That Are Mullu Technicolour Muliu: Colour in The Chronicles Gender?Duality And The Vagina Dentata Rab Lakes, And Springs: Water Association Food For The Gods. Food For The People Mullu Swival In The Colonial Period And Beyond s-ary FOUR Procuremen& Transportaào~and Tmde Spondvhîs Procurement Transprtation: Delivering The SheII ïhe Vaiue of Spondvlus The Mulïu Trade: Building A Network Maritime or Land Trade: Amcuiating Systems Chincha: The Centre of Trade? The Mesoamerican Comection System Operators: Trade Specialists Summq FISE Spondylus Distribution Archaeolo@cal Distributions and the Evidence of Trade Ecuador: From Coast to Hi-@lands Petq Over Theand Space Summq SIX Conclusions References Figures Appendices A Andean Sites Containing Spondvlus Materials B Toponyms Containing Variations Of The Word Mullu In Ecuador C SpondyZus Material In The Museo de Jacinto Jijon y Caamaiio (Quito) D The Use of Spo~lusIn Mesoarnerica vii List 0fFog.res El Segundo MW Febrero. Pavcar Varai QuilIa 139 idolos 1 Vacas De Los Chinchai S~YS.Los yndios 140 idoles I Vacas De Los Andi Svios. SacrEcauan Ande Suyo 141 1dolos 1Vacas De Los Colla Svios 142 fdolos 1 Vacas De Los Conde Svios 143 Paccha in the fonn of a plate of Spondjlus hmChimu 144 Spondvlus princeps 145 Spondvlus princeps leucacantha 146 S'ondvlus caicifer 146 Spondylus princeps unicolor 147 Spine pattern differeaces on princeps unicoior and prntcepsprinceps 148 Roll-out of the TeHo Obelisk 149 The Smiling God fiom Chavin de Huanthr 150 Staffgod (C-1) 151 Staffgod (C-4 ) 152 Coricancha cornogram by Santacruz Pachacuti Yamqui 153 Staff Goddess i~iustra~gthe vagina dentata 154 SWGoddess showing variation of the vagina dentuta 155 Spn@Ius sheil diving scene fiom a Middle Sican silver earspool 156 Middle Sican gold earspool with Spondyius diving me 157 Middle Sican -Id earspool Spon~vlusshell diving scene - 158 Middle Sican metal earspool SpondvIus divin$ scene 158 Middle Sican silver cylinder showïn~Spondjdus diving 159 Diving motif hmthe North Coast of Peru Middle Sican spatuia showa Spondvlus shell diver MtlZZu Toponyms in Ecuador Hatvn ChasqM. Chvrv Mvllv Chesqvi .Cvraca. Chm rnullo chasqui Eciirrtinrianbalsa& Construction view of sea-going vessei Dimibution of Spn&&tls habitat and routes ofSpm&I~exchange Andean Spondylus Sites List of Mole and Worked Shell by Site Figurines fkom Cern Narrio Ecuador Chronolow Peru Coastai Chronology Pem Himand Chronology CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The cosmology of the Precolumbian Andes incofporated many beliefs and materials of ritual or sacnficial importance. One such materiai was Spondylus? a wann water sea moilusk whose naturai habitat extends fiom the GuIf of California to Ecuador. Important to Ptecolumbian Andeans for its use in dedicatory offerinos and sacrifice, Spondylus is found in archaeolo@cal sites thtoughout the coasts and highlands of Ecuador, Pew Bolivia Chile and into Argentina. However, it is not unique to this area. 'Ruoughout the Americas Spondvlus appears in archaeological contexts that illustrate its valued position and function across cultural boundaries. In Mesoamerica Spondylus appears in situations sirnilar to that of the Andes* but its presence in the prehistoric cultures of North Americ* Melanesia and Europe give evidence of a more universal relationship bebveen people and shells fkom the sea (Claassen and Sigmann 1993; Haistead 1993; Shackleson and Etderfield 1990). In the absence of written records, the role that this shell played in Andean cosmology is pieced together in this thesis through a compilation of ethnohistoric chronicles, indigenous oral accounts and the published results of archaeoiogical investigation. While Spondvlus shell is a recoverable artifact that can illustrate patterns of use over space and tirne, it is the Quechua tem mullu, as it refers to Spandvius. that mua be defhed and understood. Both the physical and conceptuai definitions of Sporuiylus are linked to each other, and are important to an understanding of the mullu concept, but at tirnes the word mullu and the physical object referred to as SpondvIus may differ- The question "if Spondylus is mullu is mullu necessarily Spondvltst' must be answered. Are the two terms as synonymous as they first appear to be, or are there conceptuai associations to rnullu that make it more complex than just an equivdent linguistic gioss for Spondvlzîs? 1 wÏIl argue here that mullu describes a concept broder than Spon4vizîs and that use of the two tems as synonpous is inappropriate and confushg.