CUIMUN-HS 2021

The Fifth Session of the Cambridge University International Model United Nations High School Conference will be held on September 18th-19th, 2021. It will be online ONLY.

______Human rights council: TOPIC A: The Question of Human Rights Of LGBTQ community Topic B : The Question of Human Rights in the Humanitarian Crisis in

1 LETTER FROM THE CHAIRS Honorable Delegates Welcome to the United Nation’s Human Rights Council. We are excited and pleased to have you here. The topics we have chosen, while at times have an ideological component to them, ultimately have a human rights issue at their core. In this committee, we strive to cut through “political correctness” ideologies to get to the issue at hand: is there a human rights violation present? Regarding our topics of The Question of Human Rights Of LGBTQ community, while in some nations they are accepted, punishments as extreme as the death penalty are still in place for members of the LGBTI community. Is their right to express themselves, to love whomever they want, a dignified human right under all circumstances? Can a country regulate how people carry out their lives in this regard? Must nations comply with lifestyles that go against their institutionalized religion? While most times these questions seem to have simple answers, in the fabric of a nation that venomously opposes homosexuality it becomes your job to defend your sovereignty for your political and diplomatic agenda. In regards to the topic, The Question of Human Rights in the Humanitarian Crisis in Yemen we will give you background information on the topic. However, we expect you to conduct your own research on the more specific aspects of this topic to prepare you for debate on the days of the conference.

All this and so much more will be discussed in our passionate Human Rights Council where we will try to decide where and how human rights are being violated. From this, we will propose comprehensive solutions to achieve the advancement of international human rights. Be ready to defend your country’s position, learn where you can compromise, listen to other delegations, and above

2 all, enjoy the experience. While this study guide will help guide your preparation for the committee, it is ultimately up to you to finish the research.

We look forward to meeting every one of you!

INDEX 1. Introduction of the committee ( p.4) 2. The history of the united nations human rights council (p.5) 3. History of the topic (p.6) 4. Current state (p.8) 5. Past UN resolutions (p.11) 6. Important questions (p.12) 7. Bibliography(p.12) 8. Introduction to the topic (p.13) 9. brief historical context (p.13-14) 10. timeline of events (14-15) 11. possible solutions (15-18)

3 INTRODUCTION OF THE COMMITTEE

“It is important that we have institutions like the Human Rights Council which can monitor the state of human rights in the world and ensure all are protected.” -Wangari Maathai, 2004 Nobel Peace Laureate – at 1st session of the Human Rights Council, June 2006

What are Human Rights? Before diving into the topics at hand, we first want to discuss what exactly makes up a human right. These rights have been accepted as universal, transcending time and culture. However, “Human Rights” are constantly used to defend any type of political ideology both for and against most topics. Each one contains complexity and depth that have ramifications affecting every aspect of human society. Let’s take the Right to Life for example Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: “Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person”.1 Simple, right? But what does it mean? What is life? When does it begin? When does it end? Is there a legitimate reason to restrict that right? Can you voluntarily give it up? What does liberty mean? Does it mean I’m free to do as I please? Can I kill someone else? Where do my right to life and my right to liberty begin and end? While we could go on to write an entire dissertation on each of the 30 rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that is not what this committee is all about.

To understand a bit more of what Human Rights are and where they came from, we have to look no further than the Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (a document we highly recommend reading in preparation for this committee)

UN General Assembly. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, art.3, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. UN General Assembly. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, art.18, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ UN General Assembly. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, art.8, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/.

So, what does it mean to be part of the Human Rights Council? It means that you are one of 47 countries tasked with promoting and protecting Human Rights around the Globe. It will be your job to determine where the line between the people’s rights and the government’s rights is.

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4 THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL The Human Rights Council was founded in 2006 by UN GA Resolution 60/251 succeeding the United Nation’s Human Rights Commission established in 1946. The Human Rights Council has been tasked with the promotion and protection of Human Rights around the globe by addressing “situations of violations of human rights, including gross and systematic violations, and make recommendations thereon.”

The Council is meant to serve as a forum for dialogue among states. The Council may issue a resolution calling on a state or states to implement certain actions or uphold certain principles as well as create mechanisms to investigate or monitor questions of concern.

While decisions made by the Human Rights Council are not legally binding, the committee does include a series of subsidiary bodies that monitor the Human Rights situation around the globe. In addition, the committee is charged with monitoring specific instances of Human Rights violations creating a Universal Periodic Review of the Human Rights situations for all members of the United Nations, and submits to those countries a series of recommendations that, if accepted by the state, are expected to be enacted.

The Human Rights Council also has a Complaint Procedure geared towards victims, giving them a voice in Human Rights violations around the world. With these procedures among others, along with advisory committees and other working groups, the Human Rights Council works to achieve its goal of protecting and promoting Human Rights around the world.

UN General Assembly. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, preamble, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ General Assembly resolution 60/251, Human Rights Council, A/RES/60/251 (3 April 2006), available from https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/502/66/PDF/N0550266.pdf?OpenEl ement. International Justice Resource Center. Human Rights Council. https://ijrcenter.org/un-human-rights-council/

5 TOPIC: The Question of Human Rights Of LGBTQ community

HISTORY

Documented forms of homosexuality date back to ancient Egyptian and Greek societies, and attitudes towards homosexuality have always been controversial. The rise of Christianity in the early First Century AD led to greater condemnation of homosexuality, followed by differing attitudes throughout the later centuries. It was not until after World War II that institutions were created on behalf of the LGBT community. LGBT movements during this time took place primarily in the United States of America and Europe. Greater awareness of homosexuality, as a product of post-World War II globalization, brought to light “political demands for fair treatment in mental health, public policy, and employment”.

The 1960s Civil Rights Movement in the US marked a turning point with its Stonewall Revolution, during which homosexuals resisted police raids in New York City. This period was followed by the 1970s gay liberation movement, during which groups organized advocacy organizations and planned public demonstrations. The 1900s and 2000s overall yielded the greatest advancement for LGBT people, but inequality between groups based upon sexual orientation continues.

The issue of LGBT rights has never been addressed by the UN until December 2008, when a Dutch/French-initiated, European Union-backed statement supporting LGBT rights was presented to the United Nations General Assembly (UN GA). That statement was sponsored by 96 UN Member States and prompted an Arab League-backed statement opposing it. Until today, none of the statements have been officially adopted by the UN GA and both are still open for signature. In 2003, numerous European countries put forward the Brazilian Resolution within the UN HRC, stating the intention that lesbian and gay rights should be considered as fundamental as the rights of all human beings.

Following the steps of the European countries, all 34 member countries of the Organization of American States unanimously approved a declaration affirming that human rights protection also extends to sexual orientation and gender identity. On December 15th, 2011, the UN HRC passed its first report on the human rights of LGBT people, describing how people around the world are killed or endure hate-motivated violence, torture, detention, criminalization, and discrimination in employment, health care and education because of their real or perceived sexual orientation or gender identity.

6 The map shows all GREEN Countries which have signed General Assembly declarations on LGBT rights and/or sponsored the Human Rights Council 2011 resolution on LGBT rights (96 members). RED: Countries that signed a 2008 statement opposing LGBT rights (initially 57 members, now 54 members)

Three years later, in 2014, it was announced that as an employer, the UN would extend equal benefits to its employees who have entered into same-sex unions in jurisdictions where they are legal. Under this new policy, staff who is married to a same-sex partner in a jurisdiction has the right to receive the core same benefits and recognition as those in heterosexual marriages, regardless of whether same-sex marriage is legal or illegal in their country of citizenship. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has supported a move towards greater respect for LGBT rights over recent years. In conclusion, the United Nations has been working with the Member States to reject discrimination and criminalization based on homophobia and transphobia. While the denial of human rights for LGBT persons persists throughout the world today, over 30 countries have decriminalized homosexuality in the past 20 years. In the face of resistance, determined efforts from the U.N., associated NGOs, and representatives of Member States to guarantee the human rights of LGBT persons have been gaining momentum. Today, under the leadership of Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, there is no doubt that the U.N. is making progress toward the global inclusion of LGBT rights in our basic human rights.

7 CURRENT STATE OF THE ISSUE Day to day life Many LGBTQ people continue to face discrimination in their personal lives, in the workplace and the public sphere, and their access to critical health care.

This experience of discrimination leads to many adverse consequences for their financial, mental, and physical well-being. Many LGBTQ people report altering their lives to avoid this discrimination and the trauma associated with unequal treatment.

Younger generations generally report higher levels of discrimination and attendant problems than do older generations, and problems associated with discrimination are most pronounced among transgender individuals, individuals of color, and disabled individuals

Anxiety about the coronavirus adds another layer of concern in this community, particularly among those respondents who are the most exposed in terms of their health or front-line employment status. Same-sex marriage Around the world, there are 23 countries where same-sex marriage is legal. The majority of nations are in the Americas and Europe, with South Africa and New Zealand also on the list. In the UK, gay marriage is devolved to national parliaments, so is only legal in England, Wales, and Scotland. In Mexico, only certain jurisdictions have legalized same-sex marriage.

8 Gay-friendly’ nations and LGBT rights

While same-sex marriage is a strong indicator of nations opening up to the LGBT community, it does not guarantee that those nations are “gay-friendly” in a broader sense. In the United States, for example, numerous political candidates for the 2016 presidential elections are running on a platform of removing same-sex marriage and other LGBT protections. Europe is arguably the most “gay-friendly” continent. When asked which countries were most gay-friendly, a recent survey showed that 8 out of the top ten were in Europe.

Nevertheless, Europe as a whole still has much work to do. In May 2015, ILGA released its LGBT equality ratings. The UK and Belgium lead the continent with over 80% of full equality achieved in both countries. Much of western Europe also achieves high levels of equality, but as the map moves further east, those numbers begin to plummet.

9 Same-sex relationships are still criminalized – or even punishable by death There are many places in the world where being LGBT is not only illegal but punishable by death. The data on what is specifically happening to LGBT individuals in a given country of persecution is sometimes difficult to verify. In countries such as Sudan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen all have active legislation leading to the death penalty for LGBT people.

Is the situation improving?

In the west, LGBT rights continue to improve. Better education, changing cultural norms and the growing evidence of the economic benefits of diversity have all contributed to a more inclusive environment for LGBT people. Changes in legislation and LGBT portrayal in the media are important, but a change in cultural attitudes must also follow. Despite Europe’s progress, a 2012 report from the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights showed that 47% of LGBT people had reported being the victims of harassment. Lesbian, in particular, were targets (55%) as were people in lower-income (52%).

10 Religion The relationship between religion and homosexuality has varied greatly across time and place, within and between different religions and denominations, with regard to different forms of homosexuality and bisexuality. The present-day doctrines of the world's major religions and their denominations vary vastly in their attitudes toward these sexual orientations.

Among the religious denominations which generally reject these orientations, there are many different types of opposition, ranging from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among their adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of homosexuality, supporting criminal sanctions up to capital punishment, and even to condoning extrajudicial killings. Religious fundamentalism often correlates with anti-homosexual bias. Psychological research has connected religiosity with homophobic attitudes and physical antigay hostility, and has traced religious opposition to gay adoption to collectivistic values (loyalty, authority, purity) and low flexibility in existential issues, rather than to high prosocial inclinations for the weak. Attitudes toward homosexuality have been found to be determined not only by personal religious beliefs, but by the interaction of those beliefs with the predominant national religious context—even for people who are less religious or who do not share their local dominant religious context.Many argue that it is homosexual actions which are sinful, rather than same-sex attraction itself. To this end, some discourage labeling individuals according to sexual orientation.[6] Several organizations assert that conversion therapy can help diminish same-sex attraction.

However, some adherents of many religions view homosexuality and bisexuality positively, and some denominations routinely bless same-sex marriages and support LGBT rights, a growing trend as much of the developed world enacts laws supporting LGBT rights.

Historically, some cultures and religions accommodated, institutionalized, or revered same-sex love and sexuality;[7][8] such mythologies and traditions can be found around the

11 world.The status of homosexuality in Hinduism is ambiguous. Hindu texts contain few specific references to same-sex relations, though some punish it. Regardless of their position on homosexuality, many people of faith look to both sacred texts and tradition for guidance on this issue. However, the authority of various traditions or scriptural passages and the correctness of translations and interpretations are continually disputed

Same-sex intercourse illegal: Death penalty for homosexuality Death penalty on books but not applied

According to the ILGA seven countries still retain capital punishment for homosexual behavior: Saudi Arabia, Yemen (for adultery), Iran, Afghanistan, Mauritania, Sudan, and northern Nigeria.

The most important lesson for progress will be to remember that we are not yet finished. That is why we encourage you delegates do to your research and participate in the fruitful debates that we are looking forward to seeing in the committee.

PAST UN RESOLUTIONS ● https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/discrimination/pages/lgbtunresolutions.aspx ● https://www.hrc.org/news/ten-ways-the-united-nations-has-protected-lgbtq-hu man-rights ● https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/06/30/un-makes-history-sexual-orientation-g ender-identity

12 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS : ● What can be done to push forwards on LGBT rights? ● Is the situation improving? ● What kind of human rights violations are LGBT people exposed to? ● Can depriving LGBT people of their human rights be justified on grounds of religion, culture, or tradition? ● What role do prejudice and discrimination play in the lives of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people? ● What can people do to diminish prejudice and discrimination against lesbian, gay and bisexual people?

Proposed solutions

● Encourage LGBT activism ● More leadership from the UN ● Understand the context ● Increase acceptance with creative ideas

13 BIBLIOGRAPHY ● https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/explainer-the-state-of-lgbt- rights-today/ ● https://www.apa.org/international/pi/2012/06/un-matters ● https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/lgbtq-rights/reports/2020/10 /06/491052/state-lgbtq-community-2020/ ● https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq/orientation ● https://www.unfe.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/LGBT-Rights-FAQs .pdf ● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion ● https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-netw ork/2016/feb/16/13-steps-to-greater-lgbt-equality

TOPIC: The Question of Human Rights in the Humanitarian Crisis in Yemen

14 INTRODUCTION

By many bodies, including the UN, the World Food Programme and International Rescue Committee, Yemen is regarded as one of the nations suffering some of the most appalling human rights crises in the world. March 22, 2015 marked the dawn of the Yemen civil war, and since then, the nation has been torn apart by the fighting of two local groups, resulting in a war. Not only has this civil war ruined the nation's infrastructure and killed thousands, but it has also had staggering effects on the conflict that has caused a failure in the health care system and a terrible famine. Due to all this, Yemen has been deemed to be suffering the world’s “Worst Humanitarian Crisis” as all these factors have proved disastrous.

The question is, how did it all start? All this resulted from a failed political transition from President to Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi. Details on this will be provided below. In terms of the conflict, there are primarily two opposing sides, as the Yemen civil war is occuring as what is called a ‘proxy war”, meaning that two long-term rivals are indirectly fighting with each other by supporting opposing sides of a civil war. In this case, those two countries are Iran and Saudi Arabia. Except for proxy warfare, this rivalry is also called the Cold War of the Middle East.

As a result of the Saudi Arabian intervention, which shall be discussed later, supplies and humanitarian aid have been prevented from entering the country to support Yemeni civilians, which is the reason why the famine has spread significantly and the health crisis’ with cholera and covid-19 have been compounded so excessively.

BRIEF HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Yemen was divided between the Ottoman and British Empire in the 1800’s. Given the position of Yemen to the Red Sea; the area that used to be known as Yemen dominated the supply of frankincense, myrrh and spices. Later, it would become one of the places where coffee was grown commercially in the 16th century.

Politically, relations between the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful and hostile. The South was supported by the Eastern bloc. The North, however, wasn't able to get the same connections. In 1972, the two states fought a war. The war was resolved with a ceasefire and negotiations brokered by the Arab League, where it was declared that unification would eventually occur. In 1978, Ali Abdullah Saleh was named as president of the . After the war, the North complained about the South's help from foreign countries, which included Saudi Arabia. In 1979, fighting erupted between the North and the South. There were

15 renewed efforts to unite the two states. In 1986, thousands died in the South, when a civil war erupted between supporters of former president Abdul Fattah Ismail and his successor, Ali Nasser Muhammad. Ali Nasser Muhammad fled the country and was later sentenced to death for treason.

TIMELINE OF EVENTS

1918 - The Northern part of Yemen (at this point its own state) gained independence after the Ottoman Empire has been dissolved

1962 - The son of the leader of is assassinated leaving the state vulnerable (or being an indication of the vulnerability of the state?). Army officers seize the state and form the Yemen Arab Republic.

1967 - Britain retreats from the South and leaves what later becomes the People’s Republic of Yemen

1969 - A commnist coup renames it the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen

1972 - There are border clashes between the two Yemen’s and the Arab League broker a ceasefire

May 1990 - As the Soviet Union dissolves, the two Yemen’s unite under President Saleh with the conflict between the two former states continuing

1994 - The South attempt to break away with this being squashed after the northern troops overran them

1995 - Yemen and Eritrea clash over the Hanish islands

2000 - The Al-Qaeda attacks begin

2002 - Yemen begins to expel Muslims in order to crack down on al-Qaeda

2004- al-Houthi leads an insurgence against the government

2012 - Hadi is inaugurated as President

2014/early 2015 - Houthi seize control of most of Sanaa prompting Hadi to relocate to in the South declaring Aden it’s de facto capital

16 2015 - IS carries out major attacks in Yemen in which over a 100 people are killed. Civil war breaks out with Saudi Arabia leading other Arab countries against the Houthis

2017 - Hadi sacks governor al-Zubaidi who had a habit of favouring the autonomy of

2018 - A separatist force, mainly of STC supporters, an authority that was set up by the fired governor, seizes Aden including the presidential palace. After the Hadi government is backed by the Security Belt Forces (backed by the UAE), the separatists lift the siege

2019 - Hadi’s government accuses UAE of backing a coup which Abu Dhabi denies. In late August, Hadi’s government claimed they are in full control of the presidential palace but are then forced to retake this statement once Houthi retake control of the city.

March 2020 - Trump administration cuts off millions of dollars of aid for the UN’s appeal for Yemen

2020 - STC declares self rule from the South after they are dissatisfied with the government’s lack of military organisation in their favour and Southern representation in government

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Amnesty International in 2020 published an article urging the UN Security Council to fix it's monitoring and reporting mechanisms impacted by armed conflict as not to enable human trafficking. In creating a more robust method of tracking the magnitude of the problem, it becomes easier to find effective solutions. The response from Amnesty International acknowledges that there is a mechanism in place but that it is not fulfilling the role it should be.

Many have also written about how partition of the territory into North and South is the only viable solution. Fraz Naqvi is one of them who details in a 2019 article of the blog authored by academics and students at the London School of Economics the necessity of such action. He argues about the historical precedent such a solution has which suggests that not only is such a process possible but there is also an example to retrospectively take inspiration on what the next steps should be. Another thing pointing towards the division of Yemen is the reaction of the unification as there

17 is conflict from the government and separatists. Naqvi thus reckons that this is the most peaceful method of resolution

The Conduit describes more solutions that the average individual without the reach of an international economic agency can do. This includes things such as the use of social media. Outside of being a way to peek into our close circles' personal lives, social media can help us become informed on issues around the world and the kind of funds and projects that are being carried out in aid of such causes. In fact, grassroots projects can be begun via the collaboration of multiple people from different sectors across the world and advertised on the very networks in which they were first brought together. Otherwise, the responses of politicians can reveal where their priorities lie. In being more informed of the representatives who are interested in curtailing the scale of the humanitarian crisis, individuals can vote accordingly and enact change in this way. Additionally, lobbying local governments for more action can be another way to put pressure on the necessary figures in order to create change.

The Houthis

The Houthis, which originate from Northern Yemen, are a significant party involved in the overall conflict. The Houthis took part in major uprisings against Ali Abdullah Saleh during the arab spring, but due to their sidelining by the GCC regarding the government of Yemen, them and Ali Abdullah Saleh, with some of the former presidents’ allies, took over sanaa in 2014.

There are two completely opposite interpretations and perspectives of this takeover. On the one hand, this was a means of correcting the wrongs of the political transition in 2011, on the basis that it preserved the corruption in the nation's elite (that view is by the Houthi supporters), or International Response

● Part of the response is the Suggestions for Resolution There have been numerous resolutions suggested from individuals of many different perspectives. Amnesty Internationals (2020) suggests the UN Security Council must fix its monitoring and reporting mechanisms for children impacted by armed conflict as to not increase human trafficking.

Fraz Naqvi in a 2019 article of the LSE blog write that partition is the only solution to end Yemen’s crisis. He argues about the existence of a historical precedent suggesting it is not only possible for examplaru. Another thing pointing towards the division of Ymen is the reaction of the unification as there is conflict from the government and seperatists. Naqvi thus reckons that this is the most peaceful method of resolution

18 ○ https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/mec/2019/11/04/partition-the-only-solution-to-en d-yemens-crisis?

The Conduit writes about what individuals without the political power of government agencies or non profit organisations can do. For one, we can spread the word. This is where the value of social media is tested. On one hand, it can reveal the opinions of politicians where they can choose to stay silent which is equivalent to complicity. The politicians who do choose to speak out against these issues with tangible solutions which acknowledge the role of global networks can be pushed to the forefront and given more political power in order to make more change. This also suggests that getting the word out with poetry and photography of Yemen people is another innovative tool for conflict resolution Secondly, the development of grassroot projects. This includes youth centres, solar power water pumps and micro investment. This can also be helped with increased access of Yemeni people to technology and awareness of their issue so tools and skills can be shared. Finally, the lobbying of governments. Women's Rights

● Wahiba Fara’s was appointed Ministry of State for Human Rights in 2001 (Embassy of Yemen: Human Rights and Women's issues Archived 2007-05-19 at the Wayback Machine accessed 9-8-2006) ● One of the greatest rates of child marriage ("Early Marriage: A Harmful Traditional Practice". UNICEF. 15 April 2005. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2016.) ● The right to divorce is not given equally to men and women (Daragahi, Borzou (June 11, 2008), "Yemeni bride, 10, says I won't", Los Angeles Times, archived from the original on 18 February 2010, retrieved 16 February 2010) ● "IRIN - Early marriage a challenge to development, experts say". IRIN. Archived from the original on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2016. ○ Girls do not have much decision making power when it comes to their pregnancies or much access to health care. ● https://yemen.unfpa.org/news/two-year-conflict-yemen%E2%80%99s-takes-h eaviest-toll-women-and-girls ○ Like with most socio economic issues the humanitarian crisis has put the greatest toll on women and girls ■ E.g. with people fleeing as refugees does this leave them more vulnerable to being exploited in human trafficking? ● Amal Basha writes in her book about women’s rights in Yemen how women were perceived historically using examples such as The Queen of Sheba and Queen Arwa ○ Does this extrapolate to common women of the time? (11th century)

19 LGBT+ Rights The Prevalence of Human Trafficking ,Freedom (of press, speech or religion) ,Other

● Marriage is legally required before sexual intercourse can occur and since there is no age limit to marriage there is no age of consent (https://www.ageofconsent.net/world/yemen)

1 UN General Assembly. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, art.3, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. 2 UN General Assembly. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, art.18, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ 3 UN General Assembly. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, art.8, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/. 4 UN General Assembly. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations, 217 (III) A, 1948, Paris, preamble, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ 5 General Assembly resolution 60/251, Human Rights Council, A/RES/60/251 (3 April 2006), available from https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/502/66/PDF/N0550266.pdf?Open Element. 6 International Justice Resource Center. Human Rights Council. https://ijrcenter.org/un-human-rights-council/ 7 Nelly Hanna (2005), “Society and Economy in Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean", 1600–1900: Essays in Honor of André Raymond. American University in Cairo Press. p. 124. ISBN 9774249372 8 John Pike (11 July 2011). "Yemeni Civil War (1990–1994)". Global Security. Retrieved 22 February 2013. 9 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Yemen#Two_states

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