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Georeferencing Georeferencing GIS 5210 Jake K. Carr Week 3 Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Georeferencing Recall from last time that the most primitive structure of geographic data is an atom which links a place, often a time, and some descriptive property (attribute) to that place Time is an optional element in geographic information, but location is essential!! There are many terms used to describe the act of assigning locations to geographic data, including: georeference, geo-locate, geocode, and/or geotag Georeferences must be unique so each location has its own georeference and its meaning must be shared among users Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Systems of Georeferencing Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Placenames An early, simple form of georeferencing Some are more universally (globally) accepted, and others are accepted by locals New York = New York City? New York State? Horseshoe = Ohio Stadium Different scales there are names for continents, small villages, neighborhoods Almost 20 states have a city named Columbus Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Places called \Santa Barbara" Is \Santa Barbara" a valid georeference? Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Postal Addresses and Postal Codes Every dwelling and office is a potential destination for mail Dwellings and offices are arrayed along streets, and numbered accordingly Streets have names that are unique within local areas Local areas have names that are unique within larger regions (hopefully) If these assumptions are true, then a postal address is a useful georeference Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Postal Codes Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Postal Addresses Points identifying the residential unit (Inward) postcode have been used to plot the locations of a doctor's patients The Outward Code areas have been shaded according to the density of patients per square kilometer Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Linear Referencing Systems Linear referencing-an incident's position is determined by measuring its distance along a road from a well-defined point (an intersection with another street) Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Cadasters and the U.S. Public Land Survey System A map of land ownership in an area, maintained for the purposes of taxing land, creating a public record of ownership, or military draft Widely used in property record (deed) to record land parcels The Public Land Survey System (PLSS) is used to explicitly locate a cadastral unit for many states where cadasters are organized as townships and sections townships are laid out in 6 mile squares on either side of an accurately surveyed principal meridian Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Cadasters and the U.S. Public Land Survey System Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Ontario, CA Google Earth view looking east along Baseline Road in Ontario, California The road that follows the original survey baseline for Southern California laid out by Colonel Henry Washington in 1852 The monument marking the intersection between the baseline and the principal meridian is atop Mount San Bernardino, which appears on the horizon Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Address Matching The purpose of address matching is to: find the location (x, y) of an event which has been recorded at a street address This process is also called geocoding1!! Common Types of Errors: incorrect street numbers Ninth Street or 9th St.? street name errors \Route 123" or \US HWY 123"? 1A more in depth discussion next time? Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Address Table Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Geocoded Addresses Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Georeferencing and Coordinate Systems A coordinate system is a reference framework that uses points, lines, and planes to determine positions in 2 or 3-dimensional space Requires a model of the earth!! The earth is `round', but we know that it is not a perfect sphere the distance along the equator is longer than from pole to pole Also, there are significant variations in elevation highest at Mount Everest (29,029 feet) lowest at the Marianas Trench (-35,827 feet) Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Sheriods/Ellipsoids Models of the earth are called spheriods/ellipsoids a mathematical model approximating the shape of the earth. averages the irregularities Based on estimates of the equator, distance from pole to pole, as well as curvature Spheriods/Ellipsoids are defined by the length of the major and minor axes Halves of the major/minor axes are referred to as semi-major/semi-minor axes Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Sheriods/Ellipsoids The definition of the ellipsoid is formed by rotating the ellipse about its minor axis Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Datums/Ellipsoids A datum is constructed on a particular spheriod/ellipsoid to model the surface of the earth for a specific area the selected datum & spheriod/ellipsoid “fit” the particular area really well we call the estimate of the model surface the geoid Along with the datum, there usually is a set of ground control points and associated triangulation lines Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Ground Control Points Actually on the ground!! Precisely surveyed points are called bench marks In the U.S., these points are maintained by the National Geodetic Survey (NGS) Some bench marks are controlled through astronomic observations And many more points are obtained via surface surveys Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Datums (& Sheriods/Ellipsoids) North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) Spheriod: Clarke 1866 Semi-major axis: 6378206.4 meters Semi-minor axis: 6356583.7999 meters North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) Spheriod: Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80) Semi-major axis: 6378137.0 meters Semi-minor axis: 6356752.314140 meters World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84) Spheriod: World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) Semi-major axis: 6378137.0 meters Semi-minor axis: 6356752.314245 meters Georeferencing Jake K. Carr NAD27 vs NAD83 (and WGS84) The North American Datum of 1927 is based on Clark 1866 ellipsoid a point near Meades Ranch, Kansas, was used as the geodetic base point for all land survey has about 26,000 control points The North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) is based on the GRS80 ellipsoid earth-centered reference! uses the center of the earth to locate points Shift from NAD27 to NAD83 can be up to 100 m NAD83 has been adjusted using new data Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Geographic Coordinate Systems A Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) uses a datum & spheroid to describe locations on the curved surface of the earth GCS uses angular units of measure ) most often in degrees The \x-coordinate," measured as the angle from a prime meridian, is called Longitude (λ) Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Geographic Coordinate Systems The \y-coordinate," the angle between the equator and a line drawn perpendicular to the ellipsoid, is called Latitude (φ) Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Lats and Lons Latitudes (φ) are called parallels, Longitudes (λ) are called meridians The earth is divided into 360◦ (D) around the equator one degree is 60 minutes (M or ') one minute is 60 seconds (S or ") Lats and Lons are angles ) values are often quoted in: degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS) decimal degress (DD) M S Conversion: DD = D + 60 + 3600 Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Derby Hall! Derby Hall is located at 154 N. Oval Mall Columbus, OH 43210: Degree Minutes Seconds Direction Latitude 40 00 02.49 N Longitude 83 00 44.99 W In decimal degrees (DD): 00 2:49 ◦ Latitude = 40 + 60 + 3600 = 40:000069 N 00 44:99 ◦ Latitude = 83 + 60 + 3600 = 83:012497 W Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Distance Calculations Straight-line distance is given by: q 2 2 dij = (x1 − x2) + (y1 − y2) Only works if locations are found on a flat plane The shortest distance between two points on a sphere is an arc of a great circle, defined by slicing the sphere through the two points and the center of mass Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Distances from Degrees (Lats/Lons) Given an estimate for the radius of the earth (R), the distance on a sphere between two locations (φ1,λ1) and (φ2,λ2) is: R × arccos[sin(φ1) sin(φ2) + cos(φ1) cos(φ1) cos(λ1 − λ1)] Nicest aspect of this: distances measured have the units of the radius! Suppose WGS geoid, then the R estimates are: 6378137 meters or 6378 kilometers 20925646.33 feet or 3963.19 miles Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Projections and coordinates Map projections are mathematical formulas applied to a GCS, defined by a datum & spheroid, to convert lat/lon (φ/λ) to a plane surface representing a grid Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Why? Projections are needed because many technologies for working with geographic data are flat, including paper and printing processes The problem of accurately measuring directions, distances, lengths, or areas on the earth's surface led to the need to define locations in linear units while we saw that we can measure distance with degrees, no nice formulas exist for similar calculations of area or direction Degrees just can't do it all! Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Projections and coordinates The Cartesian coordinate system assigns two coordinates to every point on a flat surface, by measuring distances from an origin parallel to two axes drawn at right angles we often talk of the two axes as x and y, and of the associated coordinates as the x and y coordinate, respectively Because it is common to align the y axis with North in geographic applications, the coordinates of a projection on a flat sheet are often termed easting and northing Two geographic datasets can differ in both the projection and the datum, so it is important to know both for every dataset Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Projection Classes Three basic classes based on developable surfaces { cylindrical, planar, and conic Georeferencing Jake K. Carr Cylindrical Projections Cylindricals are true \along the middle", often at the equator and distortion increases outwards, toward the poles if wrapped around the Equator Georeferencing Jake K.
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