ADVANCED CELLARING & STORAGE

Content contributed by Brice Dowling, Imperial Beverage

The term “aging like fine wine”, although in common usage, is a derivative of a practice and process not so commonly understood. All wines are subject to the same chemical process that causes them to age, but the time it takes for each to reach its peak varies according to the juice in the bottle and the conditions under which it is stored. For best results when storing wine, one must consider how wine ages, which wines are candidates for cellaring, and where wine should be stored. Wine ages as oxygen interacts with the acids, sugars, minerals, and other compounds found in the wine. These oxidized compounds form larger, more complex molecules that change both scents and flavor profiles. Sufficient oxygen to stimulate the aging process is found dissolved in the liquid and in the headspace between the wine and the cork.

All wines are subject to the same chemical process that causes them to age, but the time it takes for each to reach its peak varies according to the juice in the bottle and the conditions under which it is stored.

Some wines are more suitable than others for cellaring, the practice of storing wine in a controlled environment until it has matured to its peak drinking age. Consumer demand dictates that most wine is produced to be drunk within a year of bottling. However, the best (and, typically, most expensive) wines of the world are sold well before they have reached their peak. For reds, these tend to be highly tannic wines from dryer vintages or regions. The best Old World examples are Crus Classes of Bordeaux, Chateauneuf-du-Pape, Barolo, Brunello di Montalcino, Chianti Classico Riserva, Ribera del Duero, and Rioja; while the New World offers Cabernet from California, along with Zinfandel, Merlot, and Pinot Noir, and Malbec from Argentina. Contrary to some notions, reds are not the only wines suitable for cellaring. Many whites with high acidity and sufficient structure are also age-worthy. Sweet fortified wines are often good candidates for aging, as well.

The best (and, typically, most expensive) wines of the world are sold well before they have reached their peak.

Those wines that are worth waiting years to drink should be properly stored in order to maximize their maturation process. The basic principles of wine storage include light restriction, temperature stability, and moderate humidity. Consistent direct light will cause undesirable chemical reactions, as will fluctuations in temperature. 50°F, plus or minus 10°, is the optimal temperature; but consistency is the most important factor. Heat does increase the maturation process, and temperatures exceeding 90°F should be avoided. ADVANCED CELLARING & STORAGE

As oxygen is the agent in aging wine, air exposure to the liquid must be limited. For this reason, and because many wine bottles still use a cork closure, some moisture in the air is beneficial. This keeps the cork from drying out and letting more air into the bottle. This is the same reason that wine bottles are best stored on their sides, or even upside down. Large format bottles are oftentimes preferred due to the lower ratio of air in the bottle to volume (and surface area), thus slowing the oxidative process on the wine. While many professionals and collectors rely on specially built and maintained facilities to store and protect their wine during the maturation process, any place fulfilling these principles would work. One of the easiest places to convert to a wine storage area in many homes is underneath the basement stairs, hence the term cellaring. So long as this spot is not near a window, furnace, dehumidifier, etc., a converted staircase may allow even a novice enthusiast to begin a collection, all of which have begun with a single bottle.

Contrary to some notions, reds are not the only wines suitable for cellaring. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BORDEAUX

Content contributed by Kimberly Bricker, Imperial Beverage

Do you ever hear about a bottle of wine selling for $3,000 and wonder what makes it so special? While part of the answer is subjective, another answer is the 1855 Classification of Bordeaux. Paris was preparing to host the World’s Fair in 1855. London had established their international supremacy by their World’s Exhibition of 1851, which featured the Crystal Palace (or glass house). France and England have a long storied past of being at odds with a constant competitive energy between them. The wine industry of Spain and Portugal, in its entirety (at the time), was created by the British who, at various times throughout history, didn’t want to buy wine from the French. Napoleon III was determined to show England the supremacy of France and spent approximately five million dollars to that end. Wine has always been one of the great achievements France has contributed to the world. Napoleon III thought it would be a good idea to create an official classification of the world’s best wines. The Chamber of Commerce of Bordeaux was given the daunting task to rate the chateaus of Bordeaux. They decided to have the local wine merchants create this political minefield of a list instead. The ranking of each chateau was done entirely upon the prices their wine fetched. While this can vaguely be interpreted to be a verdict on their quality it is important to remember it was on price alone that these chateaus were ranked. After a brief two weeks the local merchants produced a list of 58 chateaus- including 4 first growths, 12 second growths, 14 third growths, 11 fourth growths, and 17 fifth growths. In 1973, after much campaigning, Mouton-Rothschild was promoted from a second growth to a first growth. This is the only change made to the classification since its inception. There are currently 61 classified chateaus due to divisions of property over the years. Of note is that this system ranks the Chateaux rather than the land. Over time some chateaus have grown significantly in land size. Some chateaus have various plots of land that are not even contiguous. Many chateaus have been divided, or held split ownership, due to Napoleons Law of Succession. (This eliminated primogeniture, or the policy of the oldest son inheriting everything upon the death of his father, and decreed that all assets be divided equally among the children.) Some first growths have taken over lesser growths, gained their land, and thus all the wine produced is labeled as a first growth. The newer land is also typically used to create a ‘second label’ wine that ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BORDEAUX

represents the high quality of the chateaux but not quite the best it has to offer. Presently the classified wines of Bordeaux represent such large sums of money that they are rarely held in private ownership. Most of these prestigious grand chateaus are owned by large corporations. While much has changed since 1855, the classification remains the same. These wines were, and remain, benchmarks for the heights wine can reach. You never forget the powerful and mysterious taste of your first 1st growth even if the current prices ensure that few will have the opportunity.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING Because this topic is so broad, and detail on each of the 60+ classified chateaux locations would be severely cumbersome, Raising the Bar has provided the following links. For more reading on the topic of Classifications of Bordeaux, be sure to visit these sites: Jancis Robinson http://www.jancisrobinson.com/ocw/CH768.html Analysis of wine price change and reevaluation/reclassification http://www.thewinecellarinsider.com/2011/05/livex-exchange-updates-1855-bordeaux-classification/ Reflections of Clive Coates MW http://www.clive-coates.com/observations/classifications-old-and-new Berry Brothers and Rudd on the 1855 Classification http://www.bbr.com/wine-knowledge/bord-classifications Revised classification- based on current prices http://www.wineanorak.com/blog/2009/03/new-1855-bordeaux-classification.html Map of Bordeaux http://www.jancisrobinson.com/map/083/title/Bordeaux.html ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BORDEAUX

CHART OF BORDEAUX GROWTH CLASSIFICATIONS 1855 Classification Village, Acreage, Production, 2nd Label, Owner, and Pricing

FIRST GROWTHS ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BORDEAUX

SECOND GROWTHS ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BORDEAUX

THIRD GROWTHS ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BORDEAUX

FOURTH GROWTHS ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BORDEAUX

FIFTH GROWTHS ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

Content contributed by Kimberly Bricker, Imperial Beverage

Burgundy, its vacillating wines and maze of vineyards, is enough to make you crazy. On the one hand, the wines are so sublime that many wine lovers fall hard and fast for Burgundy’s beautiful vinous concoctions. Pinot Noir, that difficult starlet, shines brightest on Cote d’Or’s small intricate stage. On the other hand, Burgundy is the most difficult wine region to understand. The land is classified as Grand Cru, Premier Cru, Village, or Regional. This is unique from Bordeaux where they classify Chateau. Each delineated piece of land can be vinified by one (Romanee-Conti) to more than 80 (Clos de Vougeot) different winemakers. So the land is key to potential, the winemaker is essential to quality, and vintages can vary widely. Knowledge is not only power, but necessary here to navigate through all the variables. To further complicate matters, the Grand Cru’s of Burgundy are much more elusive than the noble Chateaus of Bordeaux. One of the best Grand Crus in Burgundy, Romanee-Conti, produces about 500 cases a year. This pales in comparison to the 20,000 cases of first growth Lafite Rothschild (not to mention the 25,000 additional cases of their second label). Plus there is the $15,000 price tag for Romanee-Conti, which means about 1%, or less, of the population will get to taste it. Lafite Rothschild is a comparative bargain at about $1,800. While Burgundy may be confusing, and you may stumble upon a bottle of two of unremarkable wine, the rewards of a great bottle will compensate you for your patience! While most student and aficionados of wine know that Bordeaux was classified in 1855, most don’t know that Burgundy was classified in that same year! Dr. Jules Lavalle published History and Statistics of the Cote d’Or, an informal overview and classification dividing the land into five levels, in 1855. The Beaune Committee of Agriculture formalized this in 1861 and named 34 climats as Grand Crus. Once the National Institute of Appellations of Origin INAO was formed in 1935 this was made official by the AOC.

RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING Analysis of Burgundy classification- does it hold up? http://www.decanter.com/people-and-places/wine-articles/483390/the-classification-system-in-burgundy Overview of Burgundy http://www.jancisrobinson.com/ocw/CH516.html Overview- and broad map of all Grand Crus http://www.thewinedoctor.com/regionalguides/burgundypart03.shtml Map of Burgundy http://www.jancisrobinson.com/map/055/title/Burgundy.html Map of Burgundy- Cote d’Or http://www.jancisrobinson.com/map/056/title/C%F4te+d%27Or:+The+Quality+Factor.html Many more detailed maps available at Jancis Robinson (individual villages).

BURGUNDY GRAND CRUS Village, Grand Cru, Acreage, Production, and Price Each Grand Cru is listed with information for the whole Cru, the top three land holders, and the smallest one. Starting on the next page, the table averages are given. This information is approximate- and as with all things in wine, subject to change. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

REGION OF COTE DU NUITS

VILLAGE OF GEVREY CHAMBERTIN Chambertin Acreage Annual case production Average 2009 price Total Grand Cru 31 acres 4,333 cases Rousseau 5.3 acres 740 cases $1571 Jean Trapet 4.7 acres 650 cases $326 RossignolTrapet 3.9 acres 550 cases $156 Denis Mortet 0.4 acres 55 cases $539 55 separate parcels: average parcel is .56 acres and produces about 78 cases. Average acre produces 139.75 cases.

Clos de Beze Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 38 acres 5,155 Pierre Damoy 13.2 acres 1,790 cases $282 Armand Rousseau 3.5 acres 475 cases $1,371 Drouhin-Laroze 3.4 acres 460 cases $156 Joseph Drouhin 0.3 acres 40 cases $619

Approximately 40 parcels: average parcel is .95 acres and produces about 129 cases. Average acre produces 135.66 cases.

Chapelle-Chambertin Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 13.6 acres 1,800 cases Pierre Damoy 5.5 acres 730 cases $236 Ponsot 1.7 acres 225 cases $380 Jean and JL Trapet 1.5 acres 200 cases $171 Claude Dugat .25 acres 33 cases $379

Approximately 8 parcels: average parcel is 1.7 acres and produces about 225 cases. Average acre produces 132.35 cases.

Charmes- Chambertin/ Mazoyeres- Chambertin Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 76 acres 10,900 cases Camus 14.6 acres 2,100 cases $175 Perrot-Minot 3.9 acres 560 cases $382 Taupenot-Merme 3.5 acres 500 cases $160 Hubert Lignier .27 acres 39 cases $259

*Mazoyeres growers have always been able to label their wines Charmes-Chambertin and most do. Only a few producers actually use the Mazoyeres moniker (Camus, Perrot-Minot, and Taupenot-Merme- also the three producers with the most land) so the Grand Cru information is listed together here. Approximately 39 parcels: average parcel is 2 acres and produces about 287 cases. Average acre produces 143.42 cases. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

Griotte- Chambertin Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 6.75 acres 1,000 cases Ponsot/Chezeaux 2.2 acres 325 cases $408 Rene Leclerc/Chezeaux 1.85 acres 275 cases $236 Joseph Drouhin 1.3 acres 190 cases $351 Joseph Roty .2 acres 39 cases $536 Approximately 7 parcels: average parcel is .96 acres and produces 143 cases. Average acre produces 148.15 cases.

Latricieres- Chambertin Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 18 acres 2,825 cases Camus 3.73 acres 585 cases $111 Faiveley 3 acres 470 cases $183 Rossignol-Trapet 1.87 acres 295 cases $149 Duroche .7 acres 110 cases $75 Approximately 10 parcels: average parcel is 1.8 acres and produces 282 cases. Average acre produces 156.94 cases.

Mazis- Chambertin Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 22.5 acres 3,550 cases Hospices de Beaune 4.32 acres 680 cases $197 Joseph Faiveley 2.95 acres 465 cases $194 Dugat-Py .54 acres 85 cases $790 Confuron-Cotetidot .2 acres 32 cases $179

Approximately 19 parcels: average parcel is 1.18 acres and produces 187 cases. Average acre produces 157.78 cases.

Ruchottes- Chambertin Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 8 acres 1,275 cases Armand Rousseau 2.62 acres 417 cases $370 Dr. Georges Mugneret 1.6 acres 255 cases $357 Frederic Esmonin 1.4 acres 225 cases $125 Marchand-Grillot .2 acres 32 cases $103

Approximately 7 parcels: average parcel is 1.14 acres and produces 182 cases. Average acre produces 159.38 cases. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

VILLAGE OF MOREY-SAINT-DENIS Clos de la Roche Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 42 acres 6,275 cases Ponsot 8.25 acres 1,230 cases $616 Dujac 4.82 acres 720 cases $619 Armand Rousseau 3.66 acres 545 cases $296 Lignier-Michelot .76 acres 114 cases $189

Approximately 18 parcels: average parcel is 2.3 acres and produces 344 cases. Average acre produces 149.40 cases.

Clos Saint-Denis Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 16.35 acres 2,555 cases George Lignier 3.9 acres 610 cases $105 Dujac 3.6 acres 565 cases $628 Drouhin 1.7 acres 265 cases $151 Michel Magnien .3 acres 47 cases $193 Approximately 17 parcels: average parcel is .96 acres and produces 150 cases. Average acre produces 156.27 cases.

Clos des Lambrays Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 21.8 acres 3,280 cases Domaine des Lambrays 21.4 acres 3,220 cases $139 Jean Taupenot-Merme .4 acres 60 cases $200

This Grand Cru is almost a monople of Domaine des Lambrays. Only 2 parcels: average parcels is 10.9 acres and produces 1,640 cases. Average acre produces 150.46 cases.

Clos de Tart Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 18.6 acres 2,555 cases Mommessin 18.6 acres 2,555 cases $408

This Grand Cru is a monopole of Mommessin. Average acre produces 137.36 cases. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

VILLAGE OF CHAMBOLLE-MUSIGNY Le Musigny Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 26.85 acres 3,335 cases De Vogue 17.6 acres 2,185 cases $921 Jacques-Frederic Mugnier 2.8 acres 350 cases $1,457 Jacques Prieur 1.9 acres 235 cases $340 Joseph Faiveley .07 acres 9 cases $3,108 Le Musigny and Corton are the only Grand Crus that can be red or white. Approximately 11 parcels: average parcel is 2.44 acres and produces 305 cases. Average acre produces 124.21 cases.

Les Bonnes-Mares Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 37.2 acres 5,180 cases De Vogue 6.7 acres 935 cases $477 DrouhinLaroze 3.9 acres 545 cases $139 George Roumier 3.4 acres 475 cases $1.047 Charlopin-Parizut .3 acres 42 cases $179 Approximately 35 parcels: average parcel is 1.06 acres and produces 147 cases. Average acre produces 139.25 cases.

VILLAGE OF VOUGEOT Les Bonnes-Mares Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 125 acres 20,000 cases Chateau de la Tour 13.5 acres 2,160 cases $125 MeoCamuzet 7.5 acres 1,200 cases $222 Rebourseau 5.5 acres 880 cases $119 *Bertagna .75 acres 120 cases $123

*Over 40 proprietors farm on more than .5 acres but less than 1.5 acres. Bertagna is one of the smaller properties just to pick an example. Clos de Vougeot is famously known for its more than 80 parcels. This is the largest Grand Cru in the Cote du Nuits. Approximately 80 parcels: average parcel is 1.56 acres and produces 250 cases. Average acre produces 160 cases.

VILLAGE OF VOSNE ROMANEE AND FLAGEY ECHEZEAUX The village of Flagey Echezeaux has two Grand Crus (Grands-Echezeaux and Echezeau) but all 1er Cru or village wines as labeled as Vosne Romanee.

Romanee-Conti Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 4.47 acres 500 cases Monoploe of Domaine 4.47 acres 500 cases $15,602 de la Romanee-Conti

Average acre produces 111.86 cases. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

La Romanee Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 2.1 acres 344 cases Monopole of Chateau 2.1 acres 344 cases $2,033 de Vosnee-Romanee (Liger-Belair)

Average acre produces 163.8 cases.

La Tache Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 17.97 acres 1,678 cases Monopole of Domaine 17.97 acres 1,678 cases $3,784 de la Romanee-Conti Average acre produces 112.1 cases.

Richebourg Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 19.83 acres 2,533 cases Dom. Romanee-Conti 8.67 acres 1,107 cases $2,025 Leroy 1.95 acres 249 cases $1,728 Gros Frere et Soeur 1.7 acres 217 cases $385 Clos Frantin .17 acres 22 cases $439

Approximately 11 parcels: average parcel is 1.8 acres and produces 230 cases. Average acre produces 127.74 cases.

Romanee-Saint-Vivant Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 23.32 acres 2,589 cases Dom. Romanee-Conti 13.07 acres 1,451 cases $1,776 Leroy 2.45 acres 272 cases $1,703 Louis Latour 1.88 acres 209 cases $263 Sylvain Cathiard .42 acres 47 acres $1,123 Approximately 9 parcels: average parcel is 2.6 acres and produces 289 cases. Average acre produces 111.02 cases.

La Grand Rue Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 4.08 acres 667 cases Monopole of Domaine 4.08 acres 667 cases $319 Francois Lamarche

Average acre produces 163.5 cases. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

Grands-Echezeaux Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 22.58 acres 3,222 cases Dom. Romanee-Conti 8.72 acres 1,244 cases $1,571 Mongeard-Mugneret 3.56 acres 508 cases $156 Louis Jadot 2.22 acres 317 cases $236 (Mugneret/Naudant) RbertSirugue .32 acres 46 cases $162

Approximately 21 parcels: average parcel is 1.107 acres and produces 153 cases. Average acre produces 142.7 cases.

Echezeaux

Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 93.1 acres 13,333 cases Dom. Romanee-Conti 11.53 acres 1,651 cases $972 Mongeard-Mugneret 6.18 acres 885 cases $103 EmmanualRouget 3.53 acres 505 cases $488 Cecile Tremblay .45 acres 65 cases $180

Approximately 84 parcels: average parcel is 1.11 acres and produces 159 cases. Average acre produces 143.21 cases.

REGION OF COTE DE BEAUNE

VILLAGE OF ALOXE-CORTON, LADOIX, AND PERNAND-VERGELESSES

Corton and Corton Charlemagne Village Acreage CAN be used for Corton Charlemagne Aloxe-Corton 298 acres 120 acres Ladoix 55 acres 15 acres Pernand-Vergelesses 43 acres 43 acres Total 396 acres 126 acres

Corton (red) Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 241 acres (232 red/9white) 39,222 cases Louis Latour 37.7 acres 6,371 cases $59 Hospices de Beaune 15.8 acres 2,670 cases $106 D’Ardhuy 11.7 acres 1,977 cases $75 Nudant .27 acres 46 cases $79

Approximately 63 parcels: average parcel is 3.68 acres and produces 621 cases. Average acre produces 169 cases. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

Corton-Charlemagne Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 178 legal/126 actual 23,055 cases Louis Latour 23.8 acres 4,355 cases $108 Bonneau du Martray 23.5 acres 4,300 cases $137 Bouchard 8 acres 1,464 cases $114 Patrick Javillier .42 acres 77 cases $136

Approximately 53 parcels: average parcel is 2.38 acres and produces 435 cases. Average acre produces 183 cases.

VILLAGE OF PULIGNY-MONTRACHET AND CHASSAGNE-MONTRACHET Le Montrachet Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 19.76 (9.9PM/9.85CM) 4,367 Joseph Drouhin 5 acres 1,105 cases $491 Bouchard 2.2 acres 486 cases $494 Dom. Romanee-Conti 1.68 acres 371 cases $4,692 Leflaive .2 acres 44 cases $465

In the village of Puligny-Montrachet and Chassagne-Montrachet. Approximately 15 parcels: average parcel is 1.3 acres and produces 287 cases. Average acre produces 221 cases.

Chevalier-Montrachet Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 18.2 acres 2,833 cases Bouchard 6.27 acres 978 cases $209 Leflaive 4.94 acres 770 cases $439 Louis Jadot 1.28 acres 200 cases $317 Vincent Girardin .4 acres 62 cases $290

Entirely in the village of Puligny-Montrachet. Approximately 12 parcels: average parcel is 1.52 acres and produces 237 cases. Average acre produces 156 cases.

Batard-Montrachet Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 29.6 acres 5,711 cases Leflaive 4.47 acres 863 cases $353 Bachelet-Ramonet 1.38 acres 266 cases $117 Pierre Morey .98 acres 189 cases $234 Jean-Marc Morey .18 acres 35 cases $205

In the village of Puligny-Montrachet and Chassagne-Montrachet. Approximately 28 parcels: average parcel is 1.06 acres and produces 205 cases. Average acre produces 193 case. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY

Bienvenues-Batard-Montrachet Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 9.1 acres 1,978 cases Leflaive 2.87 acres 623 cases $333 Ramonet 1.38 acres 300 cases $290 Vincent Girardin 1.16 acres 252 cases $152 Louis Carillon .27 acres 59 cases $373

Entirely in the village of Puligny-Montrachet. Approximately 10 parcels: average parcel is .91 acres and produces 197 cases. Average acre produces 217 cases.

Criots-Batard-Montrachet Acreage Annual case production Average price Total Grand Cru 4.32 acres 767 case Roger Belland 1.5 acres 265 cases $310 Fontaine-Gagnard .82 acres 145 cases $160 Blain-Gagnard .52 acres 92 cases $177 D’Auvenay (Bize-Leroy) .15 acres 26 cases $1,115

Entirely in the village of Chassagne-Montrachet. Approximately 7 parcels: average parcel is .62 acres and produces 110 cases. Average acre produces 177 cases. ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY ADVANCED CLASSIFICATION OF BURGUNDY ADVANCED CLIMATE

Content contributed by Anne Drummond, Imperial Beverage

THE WINKLER SCALE The Winkler scale, sometimes known as the heat summation method, is a technique for classifying the climate of grape growing regions. In the system, geographical areas are divided into five climate regions based on temperature, known as Regions I through V.

The Winkler scale, sometimes known as the heat summation method, is a technique for classifying the climate of grape growing regions.

HOW THE WINKLER SCALE WORKS Developed at the University of California, Davis by A. J. Winkler and Maynard Amerine, the system is based on the hypothesis that grapevines do not grow if the temperature is below 50 °F (10 °C). Days of growth in the specified growing region are hypothesized as follows: Northern Hemisphere April 1-October 31 Southern Hemisphere October 1-April 30

Of these days, each is assigned “degree days” according to the amount that the day’s average temperature exceeds its threshold; one degree day per degree Fahrenheit over 50 degrees. Celsius may be used, but should be multiplied by 1.8 to convert to Fahrenheit degree days for the following list. All days in the locale are then added up, with the sum used to determine the region's classification as follows: 2,500 degree days or fewer: Region I Of these days, each is assigned 2,5013,000 degree days: Region II “degree days” according to the amount 3,0013,500 degree days: Region III 3,5014,000 degree days: Region IV that the day’s average temperature Greater than 4,000 degree days: Region V exceeds its threshold; one degree day per degree Farenheit over The system is used officially in California, and 50 degrees. other United States growing regions such as Oregon and Washington. It is less widely used elsewhere. However degree days can be computed for any location for which detailed climate data is available. ADVANCED CLIMATE

APPLYING THE WINKLER SCALE Different varieties of grapes are generally considered to best thrive in certain climate regions. Cote d’Or, Champagne, Region I Coolest Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Riesling Rhine, Willamette Valley Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Riesling, Region II Bordeaux Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Merlot Region III Rhone Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, Syrah, Zinfandel Barbera, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Barroca, Region IV Spain Touriga Nacional, Tinto Cao, Tinta Amarela Region V Hottest North Africa Muscat, Verdlho

California has growing regions which lie in all five regions; from Mendocino and Sonoma in the north (which lie in regions I-III) to the San Joaquin Valley and points south, which lie in regions IV and V. AREAS FOR CONCERN; LIMITATIONS The climate regions of California only describe one aspect of an area's climate mean daily temperature. Many other important factors that contribute to a region's suitability for viticulture (and its terroir) are excluded; among them sun exposure, latitude, precipitation, soil conditions, the likeliness of extreme weather, which might damage grapevines, and pollution. The climate regions are also macroscopic in nature; there is often a wide variety of microclimates in a given geographical area, and a region that has marginal grape-growing weather overall may have microclimates that produce excellent grapes. A notable example is the Willamette Valley (firmly within region I), which was long regarded as too cold and wet to grow grapes, yet has vineyards planted on numerous south-facing hills in the rain shadow of the Coast range, which produce world-class Pinot Noir and many other excellent wines.

California has growing regions which lie in all five regions; from Mendocino and Sonoma in the north (which lie in regions I-III) to the San Joaquin Valley and points south, which lie in regions IV and V.

More complex climate indices have been introduced to address perceived shortcomings in the Winkler scale. In viticulture, there are several levels of regional climates that are used to describe the terroir or immutable characteristics of an area. These levels can be as broad as a macroclimate, which includes entire wine regions or as small as a microclimate, which includes the unique environment around an individual grapevine. In the middle is the mesoclimate, which usually describes the characteristics of a particular vineyard site. LEVELS: Macroclimate, in viticulture, refers to the regional climate of a broad area such as an American Viticultural Area (AVA) or a French Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC). It can include an area on the scale of tens to hundreds of kilometers. On smaller scales are the related designations of mesoclimate and microclimate. Mesoclimate refers to the climate of a particular vineyard site and is generally restricted to a space of tens or hundreds of meters. Microclimate refers to the specific environment in a small restricted space-such as a row of vines. The more delineated term “canopy microclimate” refers to the environment around an individual grapevine.[1] Although many viticulturlists use the term "microclimate" when talking about an individual vine and the effects of canopy management. ADVANCED CLOSURES

Content contributed by Jenny Parker, Imperial Beverage

Screw caps have been associated with cheap wines in the past and have had some serious perception hurdles. However, they are definitely on the rise with many winemakers in the U.S. and abroad. New Zealand is leading the wine industry with the majority of wineries converting from cork to cap. Wineries in Australia, Spain, South Africa, South America, Canada, the U.S. and France are all testing capping as well. Currently there are three ways to close a bottle of wine: natural cork, synthetic cork and screw caps.

A “corked” bottle has a musty smell and taste that stems from TCA (2,4,6-Trichloroanisole) - a substance used to sanitize the natural cork prior to bottling. The result is a flat, moldy flavor devoid of fruit-filled taste and aroma.

NATURAL CORKS Natural cork closures have a centuries-long heritage. However, they allow for a bottle of wine to be “corked” as the saying goes. A “corked” bottle has a musty smell and taste that stems from TCA (2,4,6-Trichloroanisole) - a substance used to sanitize the natural cork prior to bottling. The result is a flat, moldy flavor devoid of fruit-filled taste and aroma. It is estimated that about 5-10% of wines available on merchants' shelves are “corked”. A majority of the world’s corks are grown and harvested in Portugal.

Pros: Cork has a long history; it has been used as the sealing method of choice for over 400 years. They’re a renewable resource (the trees are not killed when the bark is stripped to make cork). They’re readily biodegradable. And they support an entire industry of corkscrews and other cork-removal products. Cons: Wine corks often go bad. Estimates vary. Depending on which figures you believe, as little as 1% or as much as 20% of all wine sold is “corked”, which is to say, damaged by a problematic cork). Wine corks can be difficult to remove, and sometimes break off into the bottle.

SYNTHETIC CORKS Synthetic corks, derived from plastic, appeared to be a viable alternative to traditional corks. However, their track record has been tarnished due to their inability to keep oxidation at bay for any real length of time, significantly decreasing the shelf life of a wine and short-changing the maturing process of select wines. On average, they are warranted to prevent oxidation of the wine in the bottle for 2 years.

Pros: Plastic is immune to cork taint, so wine is much less likely to spoil. [Depending on the vintner’s tastes,] They’re recyclable, and the same cork-removal equipment can be used. Cons: If not recycled, plastic corks also pose a more direct threat to the environment. The plastic may not retain its elasticity well over time, making it unsuitable for wines meant to age for decades. ADVANCED CLOSURES

SCREW CAPS Screw caps provide the best seal for bottled wines, and eliminate both the “corked” and oxidation problem. New Zealand is the leader in using screw-cap closures for its wines. While screw caps do diminish the drama and romance of bottle opening it is well worth the sacrifice to ensure an untainted wine that offers consistent aging, maintained flavor and freshness with optimum quality control.

Pros: Screw caps, like plastic corks, avoid problems of cork taint. They are less expensive than natural or plastic corks. And they can be removed without any special equipment. Cons: As with plastic corks, screw caps imply environmental issues associated with the loss of cork farming. Natural cork closures are used for about 80% of the 20 billion bottles of wine produced each year. After a decline in use as wine-stoppers due to the increase in the use of cheaper synthetic alternatives, cork wine-stoppers are making a comeback and currently represent approximately 60% of wine-stoppers today. There are about 2,200,000 hectares of cork forest worldwide. Portugal produces approximately 50% of cork harvested annually worldwide.

ABOUT CORKSherry Description Variations

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• Fino- Amontillado/Amontillado- FUN FACT! Fino: as the flor thins and dies, the wine picks up body, a richer, As late as the mid-17th century, French vintnersnu didttier nose, not an d more intense use cork stoppers, using oil-soaked rags stuffedfl avors,into morph thei ng from Fino- Amontillado into Amontillado- necks of bottles instead. Fino

ALTERNATIVEMa nzWINEanilla ACLOSURE Manzanilla Sherry is a type of • Manzanilla Pasada: a Sherry Fino that has biologically aged Manzanilla that has lost its flor Alternative wine closures are substitutein contacclosurest w ithused flor. in It the is wine industryand mafort uresealings in di winerect c bottlesontact in place of traditional cork closures. The emergenceparticul ofarly these aroma alternativestic due to the has grownwith the in responseair for a short to qualityto control efforts by winemakers to protect againstpredom "corkinance taint" of thecaused yeast by S. the presencemodera ofte ptheerio chemicald of time trichloroanisole (TCA). Beticus in the velo. • Manzanilla Amontillado: a S. Beticus characteristically Manzanilla that has lost its flor thrives in the cooler, more and matures for a prolonged ADVANCED CLOSURES

The closures debate, chiefly between supporters of screw caps and natural corks, has increased the awareness of post-bottling wine chemistry. The concept of winemaking has also grown to include the bottling process, because closures with different oxygen transmission rates may lead to wines that taste different when they reach consumers. The cork-industry group APCOR cites a study showing a 0.7-1.2% taint rate. In a 2005 study of 2,800 bottles tasted at the Wine Spectator blind-tasting facilities in Napa, California, 7% of the bottles were found to be tainted.

The closures debate, chiefly between supporters of screw caps and natural corks, has increased the awareness of post-bottling wine chemistry. The concept of winemaking has also grown to include the bottling process, because closures with different oxygen transmission rates may lead to wines that taste different when they reach consumers.

SYNTHETIC CORKS A synthetic cork is designed to look and function like natural cork. Synthetic corks are made from plastic compounds designed to look and "pop" like natural cork, but without the risk of TCA contamination. Disadvantages of some wine synthetic corks include a risk of harmful air entering a bottle after only 18 months, as well as the difficulty in extracting them from the bottle and using the plastic cork to reseal the wine. James Laube of Wine Spectator notes that some can also impart a slight chemical flavor to the wine.

SCREW CAPS (Photo - Stelvin cap, disassembled) Screw caps, or "Stelvin caps", are closures made only from aluminum material that threads onto the bottleneck. They are the predominant closure used by New Zealand wineries. This can be attributed in part to the New Zealand screw cap initiative which promotes the use of screw caps instead of cork. Screw caps form a tighter seal and can keep out oxygen for a longer time than cork. These benefits aid in maintaining the wine's overall quality and aging potential. Extensive quality tests show convincing results: apart from protecting against cork taint, screwcaps are also beneficial in the aging of wine, particularly preserving the aromatic freshness. ADVANCED CLOSURES

VINO-SEAL (VINO-LOCK) (Photo - Glass Stopper compared with corkstopper) Vino-Seal, or Vino-Lok, is a plastic/glass closure released by Alcoa. Since its introduction into the European market in 2003, over 300 wineries have utilized Vino-Seal. Using a glass stopper with an inert o-ring, the Vino-Seal creates a hermetic seal that prevents oxidation and TCA contamination. Disadvantages with the Vino-Seal are the relatively high cost of each plug (70 cents each) and the cost of manual bottling due to the lack of compatible bottling equipment outside of Europe.

ZORK (Photo - A bottle of wine sealed with a Zork STL) ZORK is the company name of an Adelaide Australian business that designs and manufactures alternative closures. The ZORK STL's inspiration came from Conor McKenna and was designed by John Brooks in Adelaide, South Australia. Zork STL is an alternative wine closure for still wines that seals like a screw cap and pops like a cork. It is made in Australia, the USA & Europe (Italy). The ZORK STL closure consists of three parts; an outer cap providing a tamper evident clamp that locks onto the band of a standard cork mouth bottle, an inner metal foil which provides an oxygen barrier similar to a screw cap, and an inner plunger which creates the pop on extraction and reseals after use.

Although environmentalists lament the loss of cork forests to commercial crops such as eucalyptus, advocates of artificial corks claim that natural corks are just "granules and dust bonded with solvents", and no more biodegradable than the artificial product. "Granules and dust bonded with solvents" describes agglomerate corks. These differ from natural corks that are one piece made out of cork bark.

OPPOSITION There is continuing opposition to the use of alternative closures in some parts of the Winemaking industry. In March 2006, the Spanish government outlawed the use of alternative wine closures in 11 of Spain's wine producing regions as part of their (Denominacion de Origen) D.O. regulations. Although environmentalists lament the loss of cork forests to commercial crops such as eucalyptus, advocates of artificial corks claim that natural corks are just "granules and dust bonded with solvents", and no more biodegradable than the artificial product. "Granules and dust bonded with solvents" describes agglomerate corks. These differ from natural corks that are one piece made out of cork bark.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES: The study "Analysis of the life cycle of Cork, Aluminum and Plastic Wine Closures", was commissioned by cork manufacturer Amorim and made public in December 2008. It concluded that cork is the most environmentally responsible stopper, in a one-year life cycle analysis comparison with the plastic stoppers and aluminum screw caps. ADVANCED COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED WINE FAULTS

Content contributed by Rob De La Rosa, Imperial Beverage

The situation is common. The wine you have ordered arrives at your table, the bottle is opened, a taste is poured and the wine smells wrong. You are not sure what is behind the malodorous scent, but you are quite sure it smells of moldy attic. You are desperate to send it back, but nervous the "attic" excuse will come off as uninformed and incorrect. Don’t worry because there is a method to decoding wine faults so that no one should have to suffer through the unpleasantness of a flawed wine. Taste, however, is the most arbitrary dimension of wine and it can be affected by everything from your morning coffee to the waiter’s hand soap. The flavors of a wine, what you taste, are probably not that much different from what the next person might taste. Therefore, below are listed the most encountered faults among all wines. Each one affects different facets of a wine’s structure, but all of them take away from the intended experience of the winemaker and the true expression (read: flavor) of the grapes.

TRICHLOROANISOLE ("TCA") This wine fault is actually the one of the most common. Caused by chlorine-contaminated cork bark or wood, which in turn leads to what we know as "cork taint" or "corked" wines. Affected wines smell of moldy or wet cardboard, musty air, etc., lack fruit intensity on the palate and are destined to grow more intensely foul-smelling as the problem persists.

BRETTANOMYCES ("BRETT") Caused by the spoilage yeast Brettanomyces, "Brett" - as this fault is most often called - leads affected wines to smell like a host of unpleasant descriptors (barnyard, sweaty saddle, chicken coop and wet dog are some of the more colorful ways it's been characterized). In low concentrations, Brett can be interpreted by some tasters as pleasant, but if it overwhelms, ask to try a different wine as additional bottles of the same wine are likely to be affected.

VOLATILE ACIDITY ("VA") The result of the overproduction of acetic acid and ethyl acetate in wine, this fairly common wine fault causes its vinous victims to smell of aromas including nail polish remover, vinegar and paint thinner. In its most intense incarnations, wines with excessive VA come across simply as vinegar both in aroma and taste. This can also be a widespread problem among bottles of the same wine, generally if one bottle out of a case shows this then they all will.

OXIDATION Occasionally described as maderized, this fault occurs in table wines that have been needlessly exposed to oxygen through poor handling or rapid temperature changes (most often heat-related) during their life in the winery or in the bottle. Affected wines will turn brown in color, a defect most apparent in whites, and taste stale, flat or generally lifeless. ADVANCED WINE FAULTS

MERCAPTANS Caused by the improper handling of sulphur compounds in the winery, this fault results in wines that smell unappetizingly like skunks or rotten eggs. Easily one of the most unpleasant wine faults in terms of off-scents it produces, mercaptans is thankfully encountered rather infrequently.

CLOUDINESS / HAZINESS Cloudiness in a wine is a visual flaw that most often does not indicate a serious problem unless the cloudiness is excessive. Unfiltered wines are known for being a bit more opaque than their crystal-clear, filtered cousins, though this is not technically a flaw; if your wine resembles a something seriously murky, however, it could be mycoderma, a yeast-related fault that can affect not only clarity but taste as well.

TARTRATE CRYSTALS Perhaps the most visually shocking of all wine faults, tartrate crystals resemble tiny shards of glass in the bottom of some white wine bottles - but are in fact harmless. Known to present in wines that have not been cold stabilized (as is often the case with many European whites), tartrate crystals are formed from solidified potassium or calcium (cream of tartar) and present no threat to the flavor of the wine.

HERBACIOUSNESS (“GREEN FLAVORS”) Not to be confused with herbaciousness as aroma or flavor in a wine. This is an overabundance of methoxypyrozine that produce a cooked green pepper or highly vegetal aroma. It is found predominantly in red wines where early picking or harvesting in wet conditions is commonly practiced. BUBBLES Occasionally you will find yourself uncorking a so-called "still wine" that boasts a few or a lot of bubbles in its midst. When seen in young white wines, particularly off-dry versions such as Vinho Verde, Mosel Riesling, etc., this is often intentional, as a touch of CO2 is known to make these wines taste light and refreshing. In an older red, however, bubbles signal an unintentional secondary fermentation in the bottle, and are most definitely a fault. ADVANCED FERMENTATION

Content contributed by Michael Fox, Imperial Beverage

Fermentation, simply put, is the conversion of sugar and yeast to alcohol and carbon dioxide. In winemaking, temperature of fermentation, as well as length of fermentation are key considerations. Fermentation can last from 5-14 days for primary fermentation, and potentially another 5-10 days for secondary fermentation. Fermentation may be done in stainless steel tanks, wood barrels, open vats, or inside individual bottles, as in the production of many sparkling wines.

THE PROCESS Both ambient yeasts (naturally present wild yeasts) and cultured yeasts (specifically isolated and inoculated for use in winemaking) can be used for making wine. Wild yeasts tend to produce very high quality, and unique wines. They are, however, unpredictable, and more likely to introduce undesired traits to the finished wine. Many traditional winemakers, particularly in Europe, advocate the use of ambient yeasts, which are said to better reflect the terroir of the region. Many winemakers prefer the control and consistent results achieved by using cultured yeasts. There are hundreds of species of yeast, each providing the winemaker with a slightly different fermentation. Some affect the heat and/or speed of fermentation, while others may enhance or suppress certain flavor characteristics of the wine.

Before being added to the grape must, cultured yeast must be “activated” by adding the dry yeast to warm water or diluted grape juice. Once activated, the yeast is added to the must and fermentation will begin. Fermentation is a biochemical process consisting of about 30 different chemical reactions, where grape sugars are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Heat is also a byproduct of fermentation. Upon completion of fermentation, the dead yeast sinks to the bottom of the tank as a sediment called “lees”. Sur Lie fermentation is the process of stirring the lees in order to maintain contact with the wine.

HOW TEMPERATURE IMPACTS FERMENTATION Several decisions need to be made by a winemaker during fermentation. The most important is temperature. The biochemical process of fermentation creates heat, which may raise the temperature of the must to a level that is not ideal for that wine. White wines are typically fermented between 64 and 68 F. Reds are typically fermented much hotter, around 85 F. Some winemakers choose to ferment their reds at temperatures closer to that of white wines, in order to bring out more fruit flavors. Heat it typically controlled by fermenting in tanks with built in cooling rings. It can also be controlled by using various sizes of fermenting vessels, or as in ancient Bordeaux, by placing the fermentation vessel atop blocks of ice. ADVANCED FERMENTATION

BOTTLE FERMENTATION Bottle fermentation is a method used to produce sparkling wine. Bottle fermentation originated in Champagne, and is the preferred method for high quality sparkling wine. After the wine has undergone primary fermentation, it is bottled along with sugar and some additional yeast, known as “liqueur de triage”. The wine then ferments in the bottle, producing carbon dioxide, which is what makes the wine sparkling.

MACERATION Carbonic maceration, also known as “whole grape fermentation” is very common in Beaujolais. The result is a very soft, fruity wine. During carbonic maceration, fermentation takes place within the individual grapes. To achieve this, whole clusters of grapes are stored in closed containers where oxygen is replaced with carbon dioxide. Unlike normal fermentation, in carbonic maceration, enzymes within the grape break down the cellular matter to form ethanol.

MALOLACTIC FERMENTATION Malolactic fermentation is the conversion of tart tasting malic acid into softer tasting lactic acid. Malolactic fermentation creates a rounder, more full bodied mouthfeel. Malic acid is said to taste like green apples, while Lactic acid is richer and buttery. Malolactic fermentation usually occurs after primary fermentation. The key to this process is bacteria – specifically Oenococcus Oeni, Lactobacillus and Pediococcus. These bacteria convert the malic acid to lactic acid. ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

Content contributed by Kimberly Bricker, Imperial Beverage

Wine was originally fortified, or strengthened, to better sustain itself during the journey to those importing it. The addition of brandy or neutral grape spirit would kill off the yeasts, which are constantly in the process of converting sugars to alcohol. Once the alcohol by volume reaches 16-18%, yeasts die. The remaining sugars are never converted into alcohol, and the natural sugars of the wine persist. Wines can be fortified at various stages in their fermentation, sweetened or colored with a variety of techniques. Different grape varietals can be used. Grapes can be dried. Wines can be boiled and reduced, cooked, aged in a solera, or aged in a boat that travels halfway across the world and back. They can be enjoyed immediately or aged for over 200 years. Port, Sherry, Madeira, Marsala, Malaga, Montilla-Moriles, and Vin Doux Naturels (VDN’s) are all Fortified Wines.

Most people think of stuffy British old men drinking out of little glasses in a mahogany Sherry library with their pinkies out when they “Oh I must’ve been a dreamer think of Sherry- if they think of Sherry. And I must’ve been someone else While that image may have relegated Sherry, as an old-fashioned wine, to the And we should’ve been over back of the cool class, that is only part of Oh Sherry, our love the picture. Both Christopher Columbus Holds on, holds on…” and Ferdinand Magellan filled their ships ‘Oh Sherry’ by Steve Perry with Sherry when they set sail to discover the New World. Jackie Kennedy drank Sherry- and so did James Bond. The Beatles enjoyed Sherry and even traveled to Jerez and autographed some large casks. Tom Waits always enjoys his Sherry. Every top chef, including Feran Adria, Thomas Keller, Grant Achatz, Jose Andres, and Wylie Dufresne, touts the taste and pairing ability of Sherry. People in Spain drink Sherry with their meals, and chug it in celebration after winning a soccer match! But if you don’t like Sherry, and think it is a drink for your grandma, that just means more delicious Sherry for the rest of us to enjoy. Today Sherry is lauded by a small group from the culinary curious to expert epicurean leaders. Sherry is made in a wide variety of styles, sweetness levels, and alcohol strength. It is the least acidic and most aldehydic wine in the world! An Aldehyde is an oxidized alcohol and adds aromas of roasted nuts, caramel, and straw. This legendary fortified wine is made in Jerez de la Frontera, Sanlucar de Barrameda, and Puerto Santa Maria in the Andalusia region of Southwest Spain. Palomino, Pedro Ximenez, and Muscat of Alexandria are the only three authorized grapes in the region. Palomino is the primary varietal and accounts for 95% of all vineyard plantings. The Jerez DO (Denominacion de Origen) is distinguished by its chalky porous Albariza soils. There are two main types of Sherry: Fino and Oloroso.

Both Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan filled their ships with Sherry when they set sail to discover the New World. ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

Fino has a final alcohol of 15.5%, is the finest quality, and ages biologically (in contact with the film of yeasts called flor). Oloroso has a final alcohol of 18%, is lesser quality, and ages physiochemically (in direct contact with air). Let’s make some Sherry! Palomino grapes, and occasionally others, are pressed. This occurs most frequently with a bladder press. Acidification takes place if necessary, and then the wine is racked. Fermentation lasts three to seven days and takes place at 75-84°F/24-29°C. Wild yeast ferments the wine, as opposed to selected yeast strains being inoculated into the wine. (Wild yeast fermentation results in a wine with more rose/floral/honey aromas, a wild rustic nature, and maderized/sherry aromas.) Malolactic fermentation occurs, and the whole process takes place mostly in stainless steel tanks. Now that the base wine is made, it is classified into Fino or Oloroso. Fino is the palest, clearest, and best and tends to come from the highest percentage of Albariza soils, free run juice, older vines, and delicately handled fruit. A base wine is classified as Oloroso when it is not the palest and clearest. Color, clarity, aroma, and flavor are all analyzed to determine what category of Sherry it will be. If it is not clearly one type or the other the wine can be classified as mosto sobretablas, or undecided.

Sherry is made in a wide variety of styles, sweetness levels, and alcohol strength. It is the least acidic and most aldehydic wine in the world! An Aldehyde is an oxidized alcohol and adds aromas of roasted nuts, caramel, and straw.

FINO has a final alcohol of 15.5%, is the finest quality, and ages biologically (in contact with the film of yeasts called flor). OLOROSO has a final alcohol of 18%, is lesser quality, and ages physiochemically (in direct contact with air).

Now for the fortification. For Fino, a half neutral grape spirit half sherry mixture is added, which brings the alcohol level up to 15-15.5%. Olorosos are increased to 18% alcohol by volume with the addition of neutral grape spirits. The aging process comes next, and this is one of the unique features of Sherry. In the Fino casks, a flor develops. This is a yeast in the same family of the yeasts that turn grape juice to wine, but a different strain (Saccharomyces Cerevisiae Beticus). This film of yeasts can only develop in a humid aerobic environment. Development is encouraged by seasoned barrels, absence of residual sugar, less than 16% alcohol, and a high acid wine. Flor ages the Sherry biochemically. It basically eats the acids and ethanol and converts them into aldehydes and fusel oils. The barrel is then aged within the solera system. This is a tiered system of stacked barrels with the youngest vintage put in barrels at the top. The last tier is actually called solera and all the younger tiers are called criaderas (nurseries). A simple solera can be composed of three of four rows of criaderas and a complex solera can contain as many as 14. Once the wine from the solera (oldest wine on the bottom row in this case) is drawn off (usually just 10-15% of the barrel) and bottled, it is replaced with wine from the first row above and then everything is moved down. The very top is filled up with the newest, youngest wine. At bottling, anywhere from 5-34% of the oldest wine can be bottled- but never more than 35%. Bottling too much would weaken or dilute the whole solera. Before bottling, the Sherry can be sweetened, color added, and/or alcohol added depending on the style ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

Wild yeast fermentation results in a wine with more rose/floral/honey aromas, a wild rustic nature, and maderized/sherry aromas. desired. Pedro Ximenez grapes are used in creating sweetening agents and Moscatel adds the coloring. Vino de Color is Moscatel grape juice reduced to 1/3 to 1/2 its original volume. This is typically used to make East Indian and Brown Sherries. Vino Dulce is raisinated Pedro Ximenez or Palomino grapes. Dulce Apadago is unfermented grape must with grape spirits added or sweet wine with fermentation arrested by adding grape spirits. Dulce Alimbar is a sweet mixture of half glucose and half fructose.

SHERRY Sherry Description Variations Job Aid Fino Sherry Fino Sherry is made from the • Palma: the most delicate of Palomino grape alone. Its Finos unique flavor and aroma is derived from the biological • Entre-Fino: a Fino lacking in action of flor and controlled delicacy oxidation. It is one of the least acidic and most aldehydic • Palma Cortada: a more robust wines in the world with a taste Fino, leaning toward Amontillado that is very similar to roasted in style almonds. Pale Cream Sherry: a Fino sweetened with dulce de almibar

• Fino-Amontillado/ Amontillado-Fino: as the flor thins and dies, the wine picks up body, a richer, nuttier nose, and more intense flavors, morphing from Fino- Amontillado into Amontillado- Fino

Manzanilla A Manzanilla Sherry is a type of • Manzanilla Pasada: a Sherry Fino that has biologically aged Manzanilla that has lost its flor in contact with flor. It is and matures in direct contact particularly aromatic due to the with the air for a short to predominance of the yeast S. moderate period of time Beticus in the velo. • Manzanilla Amontillado: a S. Beticus characteristically Manzanilla that has lost its flor thrives in the cooler, more and matures for a prolonged humid, maritime climate of time in direct contact with air Sanlúcar de Barrameda; thus, Manzanilla Sherries can only be made from butts aged in this town. It tastes like salted, roasted almonds.

Amontillado An Amontillado sherry begins • Pale Cream Sherry: an Manzanilla Sherries can only be made from butts aged in this town. It tastes like salted, ADVANCEDroasted almFORTIFIEDonds. WINE PRODUCTION

Amontillado An Amontillado sherry begins • Pale Cream Sherry: an SHERRY Sherry its life as a Fino. After the flor Amontillado sweetened with Job Aid dies, this Sherry spends vino dulce or dulce de almibar considerable time aging in direct contact with the air • Medium Sherry: an deepening in color, filling out in Amontillado sweetened with body and picking up more vino dulce pronounced maderized aromas and flavors. Its flavor profile is often likened to roasted hazelnuts.

You will note that the only difference between an Amontillado and a Manzanilla- Amontillado is that the Manzanillas are aged in Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Otherwise, the process is the same.

Palo-Cortado is an extremely rare Sherry. The aging is all physiochemical—no flor. It has the aroma of an Amontillado, without having had any contact with film yeast, yet the flavor and color of an Oloroso. Few soleras of Palo Cortado have been maintainable since the phylloxera epidemic, and it is uncertain as to why. Palo Cortado tends to lose its ability to straddle the gustatory middle-road between the two Sherry styles and degenerates into a full-blown Oloroso, now that the vines are grafted onto American rootstocks.

Oloroso Oloroso Sherry is aged (all sweetened) Sherry through the pure physiochemical process of • Cream/Milk Sherry: A British oxidation. An Oloroso changes favorite, originating in the town in color from light to dark of Bristol brown as it ages, increasing in body, alcohol and aroma. • Brown Sherry: a very dark, Glycerin gives a perception of sweet Sherry; a blend of Raya, sweetness to an otherwise dry Oloroso, vino de color and vino wine. Olorosos taste like dulce toasted pecans. • Pajarete: an extremely sweet form of Brown Sherry

• East India Sherry: a form of Sherry whose flavor profile simulates that created by the bygone practice of placing Sherry into the holds of sailing ships as they traversed the tropics. The heat and the movement of the ship concentrated flavors and matured the wines more quickly.

Raya Sherry Rayas are aged through the • Rayas Olorosos: a better, less pure physiochemical process of coarse Raya oxidation. They are similar to Olorosos in flavor, but have • Rayas Finas: a lighter-styled less delicate aromas. Raya

ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

Sherry - Styles & Solera

PORT “Sip your spirits and cure your cold, but I will take Port that will cure all things, even a bad character. For there was never a port drinker who lacked friends to speak for him” –William Thackery

Port was created because the English hated the French. At times, French wine was prohibited to be imported into England, and at other times high punitive taxes were levied on French goods. While the English had long been a fan of the great wines of Bordeaux (it was the closest wine region to England and easiest to ship), they explored other options to get their wine fix on. The deep, rich, tannic wines of Portugal’s Douro were discovered. To ensure safe travel on the ship back to England brandy was added to stabilize and protect the wine. Port comes from the Oporto region in Northern Portugal in the Douro Valley (its name meaning ‘River of Gold’). Within the Douro Valley there are three sub regions: Baixo Corgo, Cima Corgo, and Duoro Superior. The soil here is comprised of schist, granite, sand, clay, and quartz. A vineyard ranking system has been established to identify the best land. Created by the Cadastro, this system evaluates soil composition, production/yields, slope, stoniness, locality, altitude, shelter, sun exposure/aspect, grape varieties, training method, age of vines, and density. Scored on each category the highest score possible is 2,031 points- but any property with over 1,200 points gets an A rating. To receive an F, or failing grade, a vineyard must score fewer than 200 points. The Instituto do Vinho do Porto (IVP) controls overall Port production, can inspect a port house anytime, and calculates how much Port can be produced each vintage. The production permitted is based on the Cadastro rankings and point system. Poor F ranked vineyards rarely get to make any Port- but no real loss as who wants to drink a failing Port? The Casa do Douro is the governing body that represents growers and the Commissao Interprofessional da Regiao Demarcada do Douro (CIRDD) represents both growers and shippers. Port is traditionally made in Douro in Northern Portugal and shipped down the Douro River to Villa Nova de Gaia. Along with Istanbul, Villa Nova de Gaia is the most humid city in Europe. High humidity supports the aging process with low evaporation. While Port no longer has to be aged in Villa Nova de Gaia, it usually still is. When aged in the hot Duoro, there is a noticeable caramelization of flavors commonly referred to as Douro Bake.

The Duoro is one on the oldest delimited wine regions, being demarcated as an official production zone in 1756. While there are 80 grape varieties allowed in Port, only eight are recommended. ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

Port has a residual sugar of 8-12% (but legally it can range from less than 4% to more than 13%). This puts port in the sugar range of soda (Coke= 10.8%, Pepsi=11.55%, Mountain Dew=12.4%, and Red Bull =10.8%) but port is typically served in 2-3 ounce portions. Transporting barrels of Port

The Duoro is one on the oldest delimited wine regions, being demarcated as an official production zone in 1756. While there are 80 grape varieties allowed in Port, only eight are recommended: Red varietals: Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Barroca, Tinta Roriz (also known as Tempranillo), and Tinta Cao White varietals: Gouveio (also known as Verdelho), Malvasia Fina, and Viosinho Let’s make some Port! To make Port the fermentation is arrested by adding grape spirits, which stops the fermentation (conversion of sugars to alcohol) that results in a sweet wine. The shorter fermentation time could mean less color and tannin extraction. To concentrate the pigment and tannins an aggressive pressing and maceration take place. The grapes were traditionally pressed by vineyard workers feet (feet are strong enough to crush the skin and pulp while keeping the bitter pip intact) in large shallow lagares. Wild yeasts begin the fermentation, fermentation gets hotter, and more pigment and tannins are extracted. After 24-36 hours, the fermenting grape juice is about half converted to wine, initial sugar measurement of 12-13 Baume has been half converted to alcohol leaving 6-8 Baume. The juice/wine is transferred from the large square lagares where it is pressed into giant vats. A neutral grape spirit, Aguardente, is added that is about 77% alcohol by volume. Geropiga, or extra sweet Port, can be added to the blend to increase sugar if necessary. Once the alcohol is added, it reaches 18-20% ABV and all ambient yeasts are killed. The alcohol level is too high for yeasts to live and continue converting sugar to alcohol so the fermentation process is completed. The resulting Port has a residual sugar of 8-12% (but legally it can range from less than 4% to more than 13%). This puts port in the sugar range of soda (Coke= 10.8%, Pepsi=11.55%, Mountain Dew=12.4%, and Red Bull =10.8%), but port is typically served in 2-3 ounce portions. Sidenote: The high sugar content of Port wine does not make it ideal for volume consumption. If you ever find yourself in Portugal drinking Port all night chances are high you will wake up with a serious hangover!

There are several types of Port and they fall into two catergories: Bottle Aged - Vintage and Single Quinta Ports- the reductive aging process means the wine will deteriorate faster once the bottle is opened. Barrel Aged - all other Ports - the oxidative aging process means the wine will hold flavor for longer periods once the bottle is opened. -Small barrel aging is used to make Tawny Port in a controlled oxidative process. Douro Valley Map -Large barrel aging is used to make Ruby Port to retain its color. ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

PORT Bottle-Aged Port Job Aid Port Type: Blend of: Filtered/ Aging Regimen Of Note:

Fined?

Vintage (ruby) Grapes No; it will 2 yrs in cask Takes 10 yrs or throw a more to mature. Vineyards crust.

Single Quinta Grapes No; it will 2 yrs in cask Takes 10 yrs or Vintage (ruby) throw a more to mature. crust.

Wood-Aged Port

Port Type: Blend of: Filtered/ Aging Regimen Of Note:

Fined?

Simple Ruby Grapes Yes; no 3 yrs in cask

Vineyards Crust

Vintages

Simple Tawny Grapes Yes; no 3 yrs in cask crust Vineyards

Vintages

Late-Bottled Grapes 4-6 yrs in cask Filtered LBVs Optional receive a T-cork; Vintage (LBV) Vineyards unfiltered LBVs (ruby) receive a driven cork. This is a single vintage port, bottled late.

Vintage- Grapes Yes; no 4-6 yrs in cask This is NOT a Character (ruby) crust vintage port. It is Vineyards a blend of several.

Vintages

Old Tawnies Grapes Yes; no 10-40 yrs in cask crust Vineyards

Vintages

Colheita (tawny) Grapes Yes; no 7 yrs minimum in This single- crust cask, can stay up vintage tawny is Vineyards to 10-50 yrs in the rarest of all wood port.

White Grapes Yes; no 3-4 yrs in cask There are two crust styles: Vineyards Dry: 3% RS Vintages Normal: 6% RS

ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

MADEIRA Madeira is delicious, adventurous, and the longest lived fortified wine. Bottles of Madeira from 1795 have recently been poured by the glass at a few top restaurants. Imagine drinking a bottle of wine that was made during the presidency of George Washington! In Shakespeare’s Henry IV, the Prince of Wales is accused of selling his soul for a glass of Malmsey (Madeira) and a chicken leg. Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all enjoyed Madeira. The inauguration of George Washington as President, Washington chosen as the capital city, and the writing on the Declaration of Independence were all historic moments marked with a glass of Madeira. The island of Madeira, where the fine fortified wine is made, was discovered by Joao Goncalves Zarco ‘the one eye’ or ‘the squinter.’ Yep, a rugged old warrior pirate of a man discovered the island that makes the refined and posh Maderia. When his ship neared the island he described "there hung over the sea a thick impenetrable darkness, which was guarded by a strange noise." They believed they had founds the gates to Hell. Good old Zarco populated the island with prisoners and grape vines. Madeira takes its name from the Portuguese word for wood, as the island was covered with ancient trees. Legend has it that he accidentally set the island on fire and that it burned for seven years. All the charred tree ashes helped to create the rich fertile soil of Madeira. The islands location well off the Southern Portuguese coast in the Atlantic Ocean made it an ideal stopping point for travel to the West Indies the New World, England, and many other destinations. Originally an unfortified table wine, the wines of Madeira frequently traveled on Dutch East India Company boats to India. The long hot voyage transformed the wines into something even more spectacular. Vinho da Roda was a type of early Madeira that aged on a ship for a round trip to India and back. By the 1800’s estufas, or hot rooms, were created to simulate this voyage and transform the wine of Madeira into Madeira. Alcohol was added to protect the wine from breaking down, and this practice was standard by the 1750’s. There are five main grapes used in Madeira production and each has its own unique style and classification. Sercial and Verdelho are fermented until almost dry and then fortified. Bual and Malmsey are fortified earlier in fermentation. • Sercial- this is the driest and tastes of almonds (.5-1.5% RS) • Verdelho- moderately sweet and smokey (1.5-2.5% RS) • Bual- Sweet and raisiny (2.5-3.5% RS) • Malmsey- The sweetest with nutty and grapey flavors (3.5-6.5% RS) • Tinta Negra Mole- the most widely planted grape on the island, but only used in the production of bulk Madeira. It is fermented dry and then fortified. Madeira Zarco

There are five main grapes used in Madeira production and each has its own unique style and classification: Sercial and Verdelho are fermented until almost dry and then fortified. Bual and Malmsey are fortified earlier in fermentation. ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

Madeira can be made in three ways: • Wine is in a concrete vat, and hot water (as hot as 122F/50C) circulates through a coil submerged in the vat. The maderization process takes 3 months, and then it is sweetened and fortified. This is the cheapest and fastest method. • Wine is in a cask, and fortified prior to heating for a more integral flavor. An estufa (or oven at 85-105F/30-40C) heats a hot room, called a Armazens de color, for 6 to 12 months. • Fortified wine is aged in a cask in a non-temperature controlled warehouse. This process takes several years, and is an expensive lengthy process. The resulting wine should be 17-18% ABV.

Types Of Madeira MADEIRA Type of Madeira Sugar Level Flavor Characteristics Job Aid Sercial Dry; .5-1.5% RS Almonds

Verdelho Semi-Sweet; 1.5-2.5 % RS Smoky

Bual Sweet; 2.5-3.5 % RS Raisin-like

Malmsey Very Sweet; 3.5-6.5% RS Nutty grapiness

Madeira Classifications

Type of Age Type of Type of Bottle Grape Of Note: Madeira Aging age? Estufa Varieties Granel 18 mo Tank Bulk None Tinta Negra Mole Represents 40% of the island’s production

Finest 3-yrs Tank Bulk None Tinta Negra Mole

Reserve 5-yrs Tank Bulk None Tinta Negra Mole Some of the wine may have spent time in cask

Special Reserve 10-yrs Cask Cask None Noble Grape Varieties

Extra Reserve 15-yrs Cask Cask None Noble Grape Varieties

Vintage 20-yrs Cask Cask 2-yrs Noble Grape Varieties Made from one vintage

MARSALA Marsala is made on the Italian island of Sicily in both sweet and dry styles. Catarratto, Grillo, and Inzolia are the grape varietals used and the blend is fortified during fermentation. Marsala production began in Sicily when a British lover of Sherry, Port, and Madeira named John Woodhouse noticed that Sicily had a good climate for fortified wine production. Marsala can be fortified in two different ways: Grape spirit can be added or late picked must mixed with alcohol (sifone) can be added. Marsala can also fall into three color catergories: Oro (golden) Ambra (amber- sweetened by mosto cotto or concentrated must), and Rubino (ruby). ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

Marsala is catergorized into sweetness level in the following way: Secco (dry)- 4% RS Semisecco (semidry)- 4-10% RS Sweet- more than 10% RS

Marsala is categorized according to aging regimen: Marsala Fine- minimum 1 year aging Marsala Superiore- minimum 2 years aging Marsala Superiore Riserva- minimum 3 years aging Marsala Vergine/Marsala Solera- minimum 5 years aging- cask solera system Marsala Vergine Stravecchio Riserva- minimum 10 years aging- cask solera system

MALAGA Continuing our tour of fortified wines, we return to Andalusia, Spain (home of Sherry) where Malaga is made. Malaga was incredibly popular in the 17th century, and by the mid-19th century, vine plantings here were so extensive as to be Spain’s second largest wine region. Remember that Spain’s La Mancha region is not only Spain’s largest, but the largest region in all of Europe. The double defeat of powdery mildew and phylloxera devastated the region and it never quite recovered. There are now about 14 bodegas making Malaga today, where there were well over 100 at the height of its popularity. Pedro Ximenez, Airen, and Moscatel de Alejandria are the grapes used to create Malaga wine. Grapes were dried on straw mats, which reduced the water content and concentrates the flavors. Malaga can still be made in this way. These wines are aged in a solera system within the city of Malaga. They can range from 15-23% ABV and can be finished either dry or sweet. ADVANCED FORTIFIED WINE PRODUCTION

MONTILLA-MORILES Montilla-Moriles is very similar to Sherry. It is also a region in Andalusia, Spain located just north of Malaga. It is made in Fino and Oloroso styles- the first with flor and the second without. Added complexity and integration of flavors that the solera system provides in Sherry is utilized here too. Fortification takes place after fermentation. The main point of differentiation is that Pedro Ximenez, Airen, and Moscatel Alejandria are the main varietals used in Montilla-Moriles production. Pedro Ximenez is the dominant grape planted here, and can reach 14-16% ABV without fortification.

VIN DOUX NATURELS This is a broad term to describe a French wine whose fermentation is arrested by the addition of neutral grape spirit. Typically, they are made from the Muscat family of grapes or Grenache. This technique of arresting fermentation with neutral grape spirits to kill off the remaining yeasts that results in a wine with high alcohol and residual sugar may sound familiar. This is the same fortification process for Port, Madeira, Marsala, and Malaga. This process was originally mastered 400 years before Port was ever produced by Arnaldus Villanova in 1299 at Monpellier University’s Medical School. The neutral spirit added to make VDN’s is a higher percentage (95% ABV compared to Port’s 77% ABV neutral spirit) but less is added and the resulting wine is around 15% ABV. In the Languedoc, the VDN’s made are Muscat de Frontignan, Muscat de Lunel, Muscat de Mireval, Muscat de St.-Jean-de-Minervois. In the Rousillon Muscat de Rivesaltes, which is Muscat based as the name suggests, and Grenache based VDN’s Banyuls and Maury. Muscat de Beaumes de Venise and Grenache based Rasteau are the VDN’s of the Rhone. ADVANCED HOW TO READ A WINE LABEL

Content contributed by Anne Drummond, Imperial Beverage

There are several elements contained within all wine labels. The following will showcase these items that are similar across all countries of origin, but will also point out differences.

OLD WORLD Wines of the Old Word, are often more challenging than New World (wines produced outside traditional wine growing areas of Europe, which includes Australia, Argentina, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, South Africa and the US) labels. With some European wines, the region or place of origin is key. For instance, wines of Chablis, Chianti, Rioja, are more important than the actual varietal. In other countries, such as Germany, the grape appears far more prominently, along with descriptive words regarding the sweetness or maturation level. New World labels are more consistent, though not identical. The emphasis is on the brand or producer and the grape variety or blend, not necessarily the region or appellation. Regardless of the country of origin, one should always find: Country of origin Name and address of the producer or importer Package size (volume of wine contained within) Alcohol By Volume Percentage Vintage (year in which the grapes were harvested (Not the year bottled!) Grape Varietal or Style

VARIETALS OR STYLE NOTES There are easily 5,000+ known varieties of grapes. Of these, 150 or so are planted commercially in amounts that are significant or notable. In the New World, wines are often bottled under the name of their primary grape. In the US, Argentina, Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and South Africa, many wines are known by a varietal name and sometimes by grape combinations such as Cabernet-Shiraz. Proprietary names are often used for blends that do not contain the minimum percentage of a single variety. A relatively new phenomenon, this has developed as some wine producers have begun to create wines with unique names that are owned as a trademark of the brand. The “proprietary name” gives producers greater range and freedoms when blending. A proprietary name is normally found on only one brand. The only exception to this rule is “Meritage”, which is owned by an association of wineries that has set rules for the grape variety composition and usage. There are some notable elements when viewing Regions, Sub-Regions, or Appellations. Wine producing areas, known as regions, are largely distinguished by their geography. Further, these large areas are sub-divided, thus the “sub-region”. Occasionally divided due to topography, usually these distinctions are relative to micro-climate or geography. In the Old World, the finest wines are known first by their geographical growing region, known as an appellation. The world appellation refers to the place where the grapes are grown. Most appellations carry with them a governmental designation or distinction. This official status bestowed by either a governmental body or trade bureau, offers assurance to the consumer of both quality and authenticity. Systems for officially identifying and regulating wine growing regions are evolving in countries of the New World. In the US, American Viticultural Areas (AVA) are used to distinguish the growing region or sub-regions. considerable time aging in direct contact with the air • Medium Sherry: an deepening in color, filling out in Amontillado sweetened with body and picking up more vino dulce ADVANCED HOWpronounced TO maderized READ aromas A WINE LABEL and flavors. Its flavor profile is often likened to roasted DESIGNATIONS AND THEIRhaze IMPORTANCElnuts. In the Old World, there are a number of distinctions that designate a wine’s origin and quality. The following chart will assist: You will note that the only difference between an Amontillado and a Manzanilla- Denominazione di Origine Ctrollata e Garantita Italy DOCG Amontillado is that the Manza(guaranteednillas are age placed in name) Sanlúcar de Barrameda. OtherDenominazionewise, the process diis Originethe CXotrollata Italy DOC same.(protected place name)

Italy ITGT Indicazion Geografica Tipica (Typical place name) Palo-Cortado is an extremely rare Sherry. The aging is all physiochemical—no flor. Italy Vini diIt tavolahas the aroma of anTable Am owinesntillado, without having had any contact with film yeast, yet the flavor and color of an Oloroso. Few soleras of Palo Cortado have been maintainable since thVinse ph yd’Appellationlloxera epidem d’Origineic, and it i sControlee uncertain as to why. Palo France AOC Cortado tends to lose(Appellation its ability to softr acontrolledddle the gustato Origin)ry middle-road between the two Sherry styles and degenerates into a full-blown Oloroso, now that the vines are grafted onto American rootstocks. Vin Delimites de Qualite Superieure France VDQS (Wines of superior quality)

France Vins deOlo rPaysoso OloroCountryso Sherry Wines is aged (all sweetened): Sherry through the pure France Vins de Table physiocTablehem Winesical process of • Cream/Milk Sherry: A British oxidation. An Oloroso changes favorite, originating in the town in colorStatus from referslight to to dar ak classification of Brofi swinestol primarily France Premier cru Classe brown as it ages, increasing in from the Bordeaux region body, alcohol and aroma. • Brown Sherry: a very dark, Glycerin gives a perception of sweet Sherry; a blend of Raya, Status refers to a classification of wines primarily France Premier cru Superieur sweetness to an otherwise dry Oloroso, vino de color and vino wine.from Olorosos the tBordeauxaste like region dulce toasted pecans. • The highest category for FrenchPaj awinesrete: anclassified extremely in sweet France Premier Grand Cru Classe form of Brown Sherry the Appellation of Saint Emilion • East India Sherry: a form of Spain dO Denominacion de Origen (DenominationSherry whose of fl avorOrigin) profile simulates that created by the Denominacion de origen Calificadabygone practice of placing Spain DOC (Denomination of Qualified Origin)Sherry into the holds of sailing ships as they traversed the tropics. The heat and the Spain Gran Reserva Aged a minimum of 5 years movement of the ship concentrated flavors and Spain Reserva Aged a minimum of 3 years matured the wines more quickly. Spain Crianza Aged a minimum of 2 years Raya Sherry Rayas are aged through the • Rayas Olorosos: a better, less pure physVinhoiochem de Calidadical process (Quality of winecoarse produced Raya in a geographically Portugal DOC oxidalimitedtion. Th eregiony are s isubjectmilar to to strict regulations) Olorosos in flavor, but have • Rayas Finas: a lighter-styled less dIndica’oelicate ar deoma Prveni’ncias. RegulamnetadaRaya (Wines from newer regions that are candidates for DOC status. Although Portugal IPR or VQPRD created in 1990 to designate wines of “intermediate” quality, this classification is not typically used anymore.)

Vinho Regional (Regional wines that do not adhere to the Portugal VR same strict regulations as IPR or DOXC classifies wines) Wines produced in a specific region from at least 85% of Portugal CVR locally grown grapes ADVANCED HOW TO READ A WINE LABEL

Portugal Vinho de Mesa Table wines

Portugal VEQPRD Sparkling Wine produced in a demarcated region

Quaitatswein mit Pradikat Germany QMP (Quality wine with special Attributes)

The first of the Pradikat wines in Germany, this is typically the Germany Kabinett lightest and most delicate style that an estate will produce

German for late harvested, Spatlese has more richness and body that Kabinett because the grapes are allowed to ripen Germany Spatlese for an extra week or more. Once harvested, the wine can be fermented fruity (Lieblich), half dray (Halbtrocken) or dry (Trocken) depending on the preferences of the winemaker.

Grapes specifically selected during harvest, cluster by custer. Germany Auslese Often made in the fruity style with residual sweetness, considered the finest of acheivements by winemakers.

A rare dessert wine made from extremely overripe grapes Germany Beerenauslese that are full affected by botrytis mold. The grapes are selected one berry at a time.

Literally, ice wine. Made from overripe grapes that have Germany Eiswein frozen solid on the vine.

Qualitatswein Bestimmter Anbaugebiete Germany QBA (Quality Wine from Specific Appellations.)

Germany Deutscher Landwein Superior Table Wine

Germany Deutscher Tafelwein Superior Table Wine

OTHER TERMS THAT CAN BE FOUND ON A LABEL Bottling and Winery Information terms can be cumbersome at least, and confusing at best. The following will outline the meanings of some of this additional detail.

Estate Bottles or Chateau Bottled 100% of the grapes used were grown in the winery’s own vineyards or came from vineyards controlled by the winery in the same appellation. These wines must be vinified and bottled at the winery as well. Grown, Produced, and Bottled By Indicates that the grapes were grown at the winery’s vineyards (or vineyards controlled by the winery) and that the wine was vinified and bottled at the winery. Produced and Bottled By The winery crushed, fermented and bottle at least 75% of the wine in that particular bottling, but not that the winery grew the grapes. Made and Bottled By A minimum 10% of the wine was fermented at the winery. The remaining 90% could be from other sources. This designation does not generally indicate the quality implied by the phrase “Produced and Bottled By”. Bottled By This alone on a label indicates that the only role the winery most likely played in the wine’s production was to purchase and bottle wine made somewhere else.

READING THE LABEL’S CONTENTS Now that you are aware of the contents of a label created in either Old or New World, the following examples should offer practical application. (See examples 1-4) ADVANCED HOW TO READ A WINE LABEL

How to Read an American Wine Label

Winery Name Grown Entirely On The Estate Denotes Special Vineyard Designation

Grape Variety A.V.A. American Viticultural Area

Vintage

Alcohol Content

How to Read a French Wine Label

Standard Of Quality Indicator

Name Of Domaine

Alcohol Content Name Of Wine

Contents Of Bottle

Address Where the Country Of Origin Wine Was Bottled ADVANCED HOW TO READ A WINE LABEL

How to Read an Italian Wine Label

Name of Wine Standard of Quality Indicator Grape Variety /Blend

Contents of Bottle Vintage Country of Origin Alcohol Content Name of Producer

How to Read a German Wine Label

Producer (Winery)

Vintage

Varietal Sugar Level Country Of Origin Address Where the Region/Appellation Wine Was Bottled Contents Of Bottle Alcohol Level ADVANCED MICHIGAN WINES

Content contributed by Jenny Parker, Imperial Beverage

Michigan has a unique and diversified agriculture – second only to CA. Michigan ranks 4th among states for grape production and ranks 13th among states for wine production. With a long history of quality fruit production and the influence of the Great Lakes, Michigan has over 90 wineries. Michigan wine growers claim over 50 wine grape varieties planted in the state. Their styles vary from fruit-forward wines to bone dry wines and fortified wines to late harvest and ice wines. The overall wine quality is good/excellent and improving. Currently there are over 2,000 acres of wine grapes, with Riesling being the leading white and Pinot Noir being the leading red grape varietals planted. Four wine trails also dot the state lending to increased tourism and consumer awareness of this great Michigan treasure. Growing popularity of Michigan wine is leading to the number of wineries increasing. Acreage is increasing, quality is increasing and industry members are working together – creating wine trails, raising funds to supplement state funding, expanding research and educational programs – both informal professional development and programs leading to accreditation are growing at a high rate.

Currently there are over 2,000 acres of wine grapes, with Riesling being the leading white and Pinot Noir being the leading red grape varietals planted.

Michigan has four AVA’s (Accredited Viticultural Areas). In the Northwest part of the state, near Traverse City, is the Leelanau Peninsula and the Old Mission Peninsula. This area grows 51% of Michigan's wine grapes. In the Southwest part of the state is the Lake Michigan Shore and Fennville appellations, where 45% of Michigan's wine grapes are grown. The Western shore of Michigan's lower peninsula has been the primary region of commercial wine grape production in the state.

Each year, Michigan’s wine, grapes, and grape juice products and related industries:

produce nearly $790 million of total economic value to the State of Michigan pay more than $42 million in state and local taxes in Michigan, and an additional $42 million in federal taxes

account for more than 5,000 jobs across the state, for a payroll of more than $190 million ADVANCED MICHIGAN WINES

Harvest starts around the state (for early hybrid varieties) at the end of August and in the Southwest it may extend into November for late-ripening parcels. Most of Michigan's quality wine grapes grow within 25 miles of Lake Michigan. Here, the "lake effect" protects the vines with snow in winter, retards bud break in spring helping avoid frost damage, and extends the growing season by up to four weeks.

There are three types of grapes that are used for wine in Michigan. Vinifera varieties - These are the classic European varieties such as Chardonnay, Riesling (the most widely planted white), Pinot Noir (the most widely planted red), Pinot Grigio/Gris and Cabernet Franc; about 65% of Michigan's wine grapes are vinifera. Since 1997, 90% of the new plantings in Michigan have been vinifera varieties. Hybrid varieties (sometimes called French/American hybrids) - These are botanical crosses between vinifera varieties and grapes native to North America. Their typical names are Vidal, Chambourcin, Marechal Foch and Vignoles; about 35% of Michigan's wine grapes are hybrids. Native varieties - These are actually close relatives of true native varieties. Their typical names are Concord and Niagara; about 3% of Michigan's wine is made from these varieties.

HYBRID VARIETIES (sometimes called French/American hybrids) These are botanical crosses between vinifera varieties and grapes native to North America. Their typical names are Vidal, Chambourcin, Marechal Foch and Vignoles; about 35% of Michigan's wine grapes are hybrids.

MICHIGAN WINE GRAPE VARIETIES Michigan grows a wide variety of wine grapes. Beginning more than a century ago with only a few native American varieties, today Michigan grows more than 50 different grape varieties, offering consumers a broad range of quality wines. There are three general categories of wine grapes in the United States: European varieties, native American varieties, and French/American hybrids.

EUROPEAN VARIETIES These are all varieties of the single species of grapes native to Europe - vitis vinifera. Chardonnay, Merlot, Riesling and Pinot Grigio are well-known names, but there are thousands of others. As Roman culture pushed north into Europe, the vines they brought adapted themselves to progressively cooler growing areas. Some of the greatest growing regions in Europe, such as Champagne, Germany and Alsace, are not unlike Michigan; the northernmost region of grape growing in Michigan is at the 45th parallel - the same as Bordeaux and Chianti. These European varieties grow best along the shores of Lake Michigan, where the "lake effect" moderates the temperatures. Riesling This is an excellent cool climate grape that is best known in Germany and Alsace but also does well in Michigan. Many ADVANCED MICHIGAN WINES

wineries produce excellent dry versions as well as the better known semi-dry and sweeter styles. There are also sparkling Riesling and extradordinary ice wines. Many serious wine lovers regard Riesling as the world's most famous white wine grape. Chardonnay A cool climate is important to keep the balance in this grape. Many wineries have invested in French oak cooperage for those special flavors so frequently sought after. But several Michigan wineries also make traditional versions that are not aged in oak at all. Pinot Gris/Pinot Grigio This grape, from the cooler parts of Northern Italy and Alsace, is also at home here in Michigan. In Europe, grapes are referred to as noir (black), blanc (white), and the mid-range that we call pink is "grey" - gris in French, grigio in Italian. Many people think that this is one of our best white varieties, and much more is being planted. Cabernet Franc Known as one of the sources of great Bordeaux, its wine is similar to Cabernet Sauvignon but lighter and less astringent. This is the second most widely planted red vinifera in Michigan. Merlot This exceedingly popular grape can be grown in Michigan, if planted in the right areas, tended correctly and not over cropped. Michigan's version is usually not as soft as those from California. Pinot Noir This is a great red grape of Burgundy. Commonly used in sparkling wine production, this is the most widely planted red vinifera. When grown on good vineyard sites and cropped at levels appropriate for out climate, the Pinot Noir also makes complex and elegant wines. Gewürztraminer This superb variety has an exotic aroma and flavor - reminiscent of lichee nuts, rose petals and orange peel. It is a difficult grape to grow, but delicious examples from several wineries prove it can be successful in Michigan. Pinot Blanc A variety that makes very appealing light white wines.

NATIVE AMERICAN VARIETIES In contrast to Europe, there are many different species of grapes native to America. The best known is vitis labrusca. The well-known varieties Concord, Niagara and Catawba are close relatives of these native vines. When the Ohio River region, near Cincinnati, was the biggest wine growing region in the country, Catawba was its most important grape variety. Today, it is relatively unknown, and the largest use for Concord and Niagara is in juice. You can, however, sample wines made from these three varieties at any St. Julian tasting room.

FRENCH/AMERICAN HYBRIDS These are hybrid crosses between European and native American varieties. Such hybrids are resistant to disease and cold. They are popular with growers in the eastern United States because they adapt well to the climate and growing conditions, and contribute unique and intriguing flavors to the wines. Vignoles This remarkable white-skinned grape plays a strong role in Michigan’s viticulture. It rivals Riesling as the world's most versatile grape - producing quality sparkling wines, dry barrel-fermented wines, and most importantly, intense and balanced semi-dry and late-harvest wines. ADVANCED MICHIGAN WINES

Chambourcin This is perhaps the finest of the black-skinned hybrid grapes. Because it is a relatively late ripener, it grows best in the Southwest portion of the state where the growing season is about 20 days longer. It can produce dark, concentrated wines with excellent structure as well as light, pleasant wines. Seyval Blanc In many respects, this is the workhouse white hybrid grape. It blends well, its slight neutrality adding elegance to more assertive grapes like Vidal and Vignoles. In Michigan, it is not usually seen as a varietal wine. Vidal Blanc This is another workhorse white hrybrid. Semi-dry versions have pleasant aromas. It is often blended with other varieties to make some of Michigan's most important proprietary wines including Trillium from Good Harbor Vineyards and Tabor Hill Classic Demi-Sec. Chancellor This is a well-regarded red hybrid that grows successfully in the Southwest portion of Michigan. It can be dark and mouth filling without astringency. Marechal Foch Named for the famous French general, this grape is widely planted in Michigan. It can produce an exotic red wine, but is also a good blush wine grape. Chardonel This relatively new Chardonnay/Seyval hybrid produces a lighter, attractive wine not unlike Chardonnay. Traminette This is a new hybrid relative of Gewürztraminer with an attractive spiciness. ADVANCED SAKE Content contributed by Anne Drummond & Jenny Parker, Imperial Beverage

We all have favorites. A rich, luscious, buttery Chardonnay on a hot, hot summer day, served outdoors under an ancient shade tree. A stinky, spicy, tongue drying Cabernet served with our favorite carnivorous treat. But Sake? In the aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami in March 2011, not to mention a crisis of nuclear proportion, Japan’s Sake industry has taken a blow. With power outages rampant and little promise of revival imminent, many breweries are fearing the worst. Wine & Spirits (June, 2011) reports that from Tokyo to the west, however, breweries are operational, and exports will not cease to exist. (Kudos to W&S for ending the article thus: “…it might be a good time to familiarize yourself with a map of Japan.”)

ABOUT SAKE Just as grape varietals impact the development of a wine, excellent Sake requires the finest rices. This grain contains a high starch content in its core, allowing the integrity of the rice to remain as long as possible through the brewing process. Called “Shinpaku-mai” in Japanese, the flavor profile of Sake depends on achieving balance between sweet and acid. This balance is trusted to skilled artisans that have understanding of climate, rice, water, technology, and the subtleties required in the touch of a brewing batch.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A SAKE FRAGRANCE Whether a rich, rice scent, without distracting floral essence, or a perfumy sampling, fragrance is the first stop on the tasting spectrum, providing insight into the contents of your glass. IMPACT Is the Sake quiet on the palate, or explosive in the mouth? How does the liquid “behave” on the tongue? Just as an acidic Sauvignon Blanc makes the mouth water, and a Tannat might cause you to pucker from the dry experience, so will each Sake have a behavior worth noting.

In the aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami in March 2011, not to mention a crisis of nuclear proportion, Japan’s Sake industry has taken a blow. With power outages rampant and little promise of revival imminent, many breweries are fearing the worst. Wine & Spirits (June, 2011) reports that from Tokyo to the west, however, breweries are operational, and exports will not cease to exist. (Kudos to W&S for ending the article thus: “…it might be a good time to familiarize yourself with a map of Japan.”) ADVANCED SAKE

SWEET OR DRY Dimension of sweetness is often the most perceptible, yet most difficult to convey. The gravity of a Sake, which references the density of the Sake to the density of water, offers some suggestion to the viscosity and the sweetness. Regardless, the taster walks the subjective line of sweet to dry when tasting. ACIDITY Refreshingly simple, acidity is expressed on the tongue in Sake just as it would in high citric foods, offering a cutting through the oily measures of paired fishes, sauces or cheese.

PRESENCE The wine analog here would be body, or the mouth feel and richness of the Sake. Light and delicate to rich and viscous; how does the Sake feel on the mouth? Does it have some weight, or is it light and airy? Great sakes are made that fit both descriptions. EARTHINESS A odd descriptor, perhaps, but many Sakes will provide a note of rusticity, with notes of mushroom or wet earth. This will add to the complexity or depth of the Sake, and is more common in Sake from the southern kurus. Aged Sake will also often feature this flavor note. TAIL The finish, the length, the persistence of the Sake. How long does it hang around? A well made Sake can have a surprisingly long tail, with a variety of changing flavors as it goes. Depending on mood or food, you may opt for something clean and bright, with a very short, brisk tail, or a Sake with something to savor after the last swallow.

Just as an acidic Sauvignon Blanc makes the mouth water, and a Tannat might cause you to pucker from the dry experience, so will each Sake have a behavior worth noting. The wine analog here would be body, or the mouth feel and richness of the Sake. Light and delicate to rich and viscous; how does the Sake feel on the mouth? Does it have some weight, or is it light and airy? Great sakes are made that fit both descriptions. Sake can have a surprisingly long tail, with a variety of changing flavors as it goes.

HOW SAKE IS MADE Sake is usually referred to in English-speaking countries as rice wine; however, this term is a misnomer. Unlike wine, in which alcohol is produced by fermenting sugar that is naturally present in grapes, sake is produced by means of a brewing process more like that of beer. Thus, sake is technically "rice beer" rather than "rice wine". To make beer or sake, the sugar needed to produce alcohol must first be converted from starch. The brewing process for sake differs from the process for beer, in that for beer, the conversion from starch to sugar and from sugar to alcohol occurs in two distinct steps. But when sake is brewed, these conversions occur simultaneously. Furthermore, the alcohol content differs between sake, wine, and beer. Wine generally contains 9%–16% ABV,[1] while most beer contains 3%–9%, and undiluted sake contains ADVANCED SAKE

18%–20% (although this is often lowered to about 15% by diluting it with water prior to bottling). There are two basic types of sake: Futsū-shu (ordinary sake) and Tokutei meishō-shu (special-designation sake). Futsū-shu is the equivalent of table wine and accounts for the majority of sake produced. Tokutei meishō-shu refers to premium sakes distinguished by the degree to which the rice has been polished and the added percentage of brewer's alcohol or the absence of such additives.

PRODUCTION The rice used for brewing sake is called shuzō kōtekimai (sake rice). The grain is larger, stronger, and contains less protein and lipid than the ordinary rice eaten by the Japanese. The rice has a starch component called shinpaku in the center of the grains. Since sake made from rice containing only starch has a superior taste, the rice is polished to remove the bran. If a grain is small or weak, it will break in the process of polishing. This rice is used only for making sake, because it is unpalatable for eating. There are at least 80 types of sake rice in Japan. Among these, Yamadanishiki, Gohyakumangoku, Miyamanishiki and Omachi rice are very popular.

To make beer or sake, the sugar needed to produce alcohol must first be converted from starch.

WATER Water is one of the important ingredients for making sake. Rigid restrictions are observed for the concentrations of certain chemical substances that can affect the taste and quality of sake. The water used is almost always groundwater or well water. Urban breweries usually import water from other areas, because of the difficulty of getting water of sufficient quality locally.

BREWING MOROMI, THE MAIN MASH Sake is produced by the multiple parallel fermentation of rice. The rice is first polished to remove the protein and oils from the exterior of the rice grains, leaving behind starch. Thorough milling leads to fewer congeners and generally a more desirable product. Newly polished rice is allowed to "rest" until it has absorbed enough moisture from the air so that it will not crack when immersed in water. After this resting period, the rice is washed clean of the rice powder produced during milling and then steeped in water. The length of time depends on the degree to which the rice was polished, ranging from several hours or even overnight for an ordinary milling to just minutes for highly polished rice. ADVANCED SAKE

After soaking, the rice is steamed on a conveyor belt. The degree of cooking must be carefully controlled; overcooked rice will ferment too quickly for flavors to develop well and undercooked rice will only ferment on the outside. The steamed rice is then cooled and divided into portions for different uses. The microorganism Aspergillus oryzae is sprinkled onto the steamed rice and allowed to ferment for 5-7days (Uno et al., 2009). After this initial fermentation period, water and the yeast culture Saccharomyces cerevisiae are added to the koji (rice and mold mixture) and allowed to incubate at four degrees Celsius for about seven days (Uno et al., 2009). Over the next four days, pre-incubated mixture of steamed rice (90 kg), fermentated rice (90 kg) and water (440L) are added to the fermented mixture in three series (Uno et al., 2009). This staggered approach allows time for the yeast to keep up with the increased volume. The mixture is now known as the main mash, or moromi. The main mash then ferments, at approximately 15-20 degrees Celsius for 2–3 weeks. With high-grade sake, fermentation is deliberately slowed by lowering the temperature to 10°C (50°F) or less. Unlike malt for beer, rice for sake does not contain the amylase necessary for converting starch to sugar and so it must undergo a process of multiple fermentation. The addition of A. oryzae provides the necessary amylases, glucoamylases, and proteases to hydrolyze the nutrients of the rice to support the growth of the yeast (S.cerevisiae) (Uno et al., 2009). In sake production these two processes take place at the same time rather than in separate steps, so sake is said to be made by multiple parallel fermentation. After fermentation, sake is extracted from the solid mixtures through a filtration process. For some types of sake, a small amount of distilled alcohol, called brewer's alcohol, is added before pressing in order to extract flavors and aromas that would otherwise remain behind in the solids. In cheap sake, a large amount of brewer’s alcohol might be added to increase the volume of sake produced. Next, the remaining lees (a fine sediment) are removed, and the sake is carbon filtered and pasteurized. The sake is allowed to rest and mature and then usually diluted with water to lower the alcohol content from around 20% to 15% or so, before finally being bottled.

The grain is larger, stronger, and contains less protein and lipid than the ordinary rice eaten by the Japanese.

MATURING The process during which the sake grows into a quality product during storage is called maturing.

Mature sake has reached its ideal point of growth. New sake is not liked because of its rough taste, whereas mature sake is mild, smooth and rich. However, if it is too mature, it also develops a rough taste. Nine to twelve months are required for sake to mature. Aging is caused by physical and chemical factors such as oxygen supply, the broad application of external heat, nitrogen oxides, aldehydes and amino acids, among other unknown factors. It is said that Saussureae radix from the Japan cedar material of a barrel containing maturing sake comes to be valued, so the barrel is considered indispensable.

The process during which the sake grows into a quality product during storage is called maturing. ADVANCED SAKE

TŌJI Tōji is the job title of the sake brewer. It is a highly respected job in the Japanese society, with tōji being regarded like musicians or painters. The title of tōji was historically passed on from father to son; today new tōji are either veteran brewery workers or are trained at universities. While modern breweries with refrigeration and cooling tanks operate year-round, most old-fashioned sake breweries are seasonal, operating only in the cool winter months. During the summer and fall most tōji work elsewhere, and are commonly found on farms, only periodically returning to the brewery to supervise storage conditions or bottling operations. In Japan sake is served chilled, at room temperature, or heated, depending on the preference of the drinker, the quality of the sake, and the season. Typically, hot sake is a winter drink, and high-grade sake is not drunk hot, because the flavors and aromas will be lost. This masking of flavor is the reason that low-quality and old sake is often served hot. Sake is usually drunk from small cups called choko, and poured into the choko from ceramic flasks called tokkuri. Saucer-like cups called sakazuki are also used, most commonly at weddings and other ceremonial occasions. Recently, footed glasses made specifically for premium sake have also come into use.

Tōji is the job title of the sake brewer. It is a highly respected job in the Japanese society, with tōji being regarded like musicians or painters.

Another traditional cup is the masu, a box usually made of hinoki or sugi, which was originally used for measuring rice. In some Japanese restaurants, as a show of generosity, the server may put a glass inside the masu or put the masu on a saucer and pour until sake overflows and fills both containers. Aside from being served straight, sake can be used as a mixer for cocktails, such as tamagozake, saketinis, nogasake, or the sake bomb.

TYPES OF SAKE HONJOZO These are Sakes to which a small amount of distilled alcohol has been added. This is the most common type of Sake, but don’t be fooled into thinking that Honjozos are all of lower quality. While it’s true that most poor Sakes are made this way, the simple addition of alcohol can often bring out wonderful aromas and flavors. Some of the worst Sakes are Honjozos, but so are some of the very best values. Generally lighter, and frequently very fragrant.

JUNMAI These are pure Sakes, nothing but rice, water, yeast, and the Koji mold that makes everything possible. Generally heavier and with more mouth weight than Honjozo, any Ginjo and Daiginjo Sakes are Junmai.

GINJO Ginjo Sakes are sakes that use rice with at least 40% of the kernel ground away before the brewing process begins. This removes much of the starchy outer shell, which adds little to the clarity and brightness of the Sake and can interfere with the purity of the finished product. Obviousy this is very costly, is done in a very limited number of Sakes, and currently represents about 6% of all Sakes in the market. ADVANCED SAKE

JUNMAI - These are pure Sakes, nothing but rice, water, yeast, and the Koji mold that makes everything possible. Generally heavier and with more mouth weight than Honjozo, any Ginjo and Daiginjo Sakes are Junmai.

DAIGINJO This level goes even further, with at least a full half of the rice kernel ground away. Very few Sakes carry this designation, and they are worth seeking out. Ginjo and Daiginjo Sakes are the apex of Sake making. These are generally light, delicate and beautiful, with intricate flavors and great balance. ADVANCED WINE SERVICE

Content contributed by Anne Drummond, Imperial Beverage

As a server or bartender, proper wine service is a skill you’ll not do well without. From order to presentation and follow up, there are particular steps that are important in the formal service of wine. First, all bottled wines should be presented using these steps, regardless of the cost or perceived wine knowledge of the guest in your establishment. All bottled wines being delivered to the table should be treated with the respect due the wine maker, establishment, and of course, the person ordering the selection.

TAKING THE ORDER While you may not know every detail or idiosyncrasy of a particular wine, it is important that you have a general understanding of the categories on your establishment’s list. Even if you are not a wine drinker or haven’t tasted much of the list, have a working knowledge of the categories of wines on the list, and have a “favorite” in each. This favorite should be something that is proven and well-received at the location, and should be in the mid-range price level. Any guest can see through a server that recommends only the most expensive bottle in the category. Additionally, have a by-the-glass or bottle recommendation ready when a guest orders a signature dish. Appearing knowledgeable is key. When a glass or bottle of wine is ordered, repeat the order back to the guest. Be clear and succinct. Be sure that you understand the varietal, brand, and vintage desired.

PRESENTING THE BOTTLE Assuming that appropriate, polished glassware is already at the table, approach the host with the bottle of wine he or she ordered. Treat the bottle gently, as though it were special and delicate. Tip the bottle’s top back, toward your body, with the body of the bottle cradled in your arm, label side facing the host. “Present” the bottle to him or her by standing at his or her right side and restate the name of the wine including the varietal, brand, and vintage. (All beverage service occurs from the right of the guest, with your right hand, unlike food service, which is from the left with the left hand). The host will nod or gesture that the wine is what was expected. This is your cue to begin opening.

OPENING THE BOTTLE Keeping the label facing the host as much as possible, take out your arm or service linen and place over your minor arm, holding the bottle in that same hand. With your other hand, use the wine tool to cut away the foil from the top of the bottle. The foil should be placed in your pocket or apron, not on the table. Once cut away, use your service linen to wipe the mouth of the bottle, removing any dust and debris, and generally cleaning the mouth of the bottle before the cork is removed. Using your wine key, remover the cork from the bottle. Remember, it is not about strength, but rather leverage that allows the cork’s removal. If you have difficulty tableside, practice on by the glass poured wine bottles at the bar, the next shift you work. The bartender will surely allow you to help, offering additional practice. Once the cork is removed, it is placed to the right of the host’s place setting. He or she may choose to smell, keep, or leave the cork altogether. ADVANCED WINE SERVICE

POURING THE WINE Begin the wine’s dispersement with the host. Pour roughly one ounce into the host’s glass. Step back, away from the table, and allow the host to swirl, smell, taste, and nod. If the wine is flawed, the host will stop the service and the bottle should be replaced immediately, and the steps of service repeated. If the host is pleased with the selection, he or she will indicate with a nod, gesture, or verbal announcement, indicating that you may pour for his or her guests. Pour for each guest in turn, from the right side with the right hand, beginning with the ladies and then the men, moving clockwise around the table. The host’s glass is the last to be filled, regardless of the host’s gender. When pouring white wines, please fill the glass to just above half full. For all reds, just below half. In the event that a second bottle of different varietal, brand or vintage is ordered, deliver new glasses as well.

DECANTING THE WINE Your restaurant or bar location should have a policy related to decanting wines. This policy will indicate which wines the proprietor wishes to decant tableside. Typically, rich or robust wines known for sediment are on this list, among a few others that are hand selected for this process. Be familiar with this policy, and use it whenever possible. If there is ever a question of whether or not to decant a wine, err on the side of the affirmative. Decanters offer a chance for wines to “breath” and oxygenate at a faster pace that in the bottle, thus hyper-maturing the wine and readying it for drinking. Additionally, slow and careful decanting allows wine to separate from its sediment, which, if left mixed in with the wine, will impart a very noticeable bitter, astringent flavor. Just like bottle service, formal presentation is always a must when using a decanter. Decanting a wine isn’t the mere act of shifting the liquid from one vessel to another. Decanting a young wine is easy. With little or no sediment, you may simply pour the wine into the decanter. Let it sit for about twenty minutes before serving, and the guest will notice a dramatic increase in subtlety and complexity of the wine. It will keep evolving and improving over the course of several hours. Decanting older wines with sediment requires finesse. Because the wine is older, it has aged a great deal on its own, so doesn’t need the artificial boost. You may even overexpose the wine to oxygen before serving, so older wines should be decanted immediately before serving. First, gather your tools. You will need a light source, often a short candle, the bottle of wine, and a cradle or basket. Lay the bottle, label side up. In the cradle, and follow appropriate steps to open the bottle without removing it from the cradle. With long necked bottles, this is quite simple, though deceiving. As long as the bottle’s mouth remains above the level of liquid, a spill won’t occur. Next, after cleaning the bottle’s neck with your service linen. Begin rotating the cradle slowly to pour the wine into the decanter. Position the bottle so that the light source can be seen through the neck of the bottle, and you can slow or stop pouring as sediment enters the neck. The wine you’ve just decanted should be clean and relatively clear, with a beautiful bouquet and no remaining sediment. Occasionally, you’ll come across a young wine with sediment (well-made, California Zinfandels, for example, often exhibit this trait). If this happens, follow the procedures for decanting older wines, but also allow extra time for the wine to breathe and develop. ADVANCED WINE SERVICE

OPENING SPARKLING WINES Sparkling wines follow all the bottle service instructions. However, the physicality of opening a bottle of sparkling wine or Champagne is somewhat different. Contrary to popular belief, the “POP” of the cork is not the ultimate achievement. A novice measures the skill with the sound. A veteran server or Champagne aficionado always prefers the sweet sound of air slowly escaping the bottle. Just as with a perfect swan dive, the less vulgar splash or noise achieved, the better. First, remove the foil and discard into your pocket or apron. Loosen the wire cage. Flipping down the small wire ‘key’ that is pressed against the neck of the bottle, turn it until the cage is loosened. Remove and discard the cage. Drape your service linen over the cork. Hold the cork steady through the linen, and twist the bottom—the bottle—until the cork eases out. Keeping the bottle pointed in a safe direction (away from yourself and others), grip the wine bottle and ease the twisting until the cork “pops”. To avoid foamy overflow, pour only about an inch of wine into each flute glass first, wait a few seconds, then continue the pour.

TEMPERATURE Serving wines at the following temperatures will maximize bouquet and flavor, and enhance the wine experience for the guest. Champagne, sparkling, or dessert wine 40 degrees F Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Grigio, etc. 45-48 degrees F Chardonnay, Chablis 48-52 degrees F Pinot Noir 60-64 degrees F Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Shiraz 64-66 degrees F Though wine storage temperatures (53-57 degrees Fahrenheit) are important, it’s just as important to take note of the temperature at which you enjoy your wine, its service temperature. White wines should be chilled before drinking while red wines should be allowed to come up in temperature. Ideally, whites should be between refrigerator temperature (40 degrees F) and storage temperature, and reds should be somewhere between storage and room temperature. Sizes of Wine Bottles- Wines come in three main serving sizes, 750ml, 375ml (split) and 187ml (single serving). Milliliters Ounces Number of Glasses 750ml 25.4 4 375ml 12.7 2 187ml 6.33 1

GLASSWARE Does the glass make a difference? You bet it does. A wine glass may seem like just another drinking glass to some, but to others, it can make all the difference. The shape of the glass affects the bouquet, color of the liquid, temperature, and even effervescence. The glass also positions body parts, such as the fingers and tongue in correct spots to best enjoy the particular varietal. According to Wine Cellar Secrets, wine glass maker Riedel has more than 20 types of wine glasses to cover all possible varieties of the beverage. Three main types of wine glasses exist. The best are roughly 8-10 inches tall and are made of thin glass. A red wine glass features a spherical shape, intended to allow a swirling motion to best aerate for the particular varietal. White wine glasses may be more narrow, but most importantly offer a shallower base. Champagne flutes are narrow and straight, serving to direct the bubbles upward in a visually appealing manner, as well as keep more carbon dioxide in the product to deter flattening. Riedel Glassware offers the following interactive sight (www.wineglassguide.com), where the most conducive glassware can be viewed by varietal selection. But overall, the following are the best glasses for the largest contingent of grapes. ADVANCED SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION

Content contributed by Kimberly Bricker, Imperial Beverage

Come quickly, I am drinking the stars. –Dom Perignon

This quote is often attributed to Dom Perignon, a Cistercian monk, upon drinking champagne for the first time. This is a lovely quote and story indeed, even if a bit romanticized. Dom Perignon was constantly annoyed with the bubbles (refermentation) in Champagne and tried desperately to keep the bubbles out! He finally succumbed to the inevitable sparkle and remains an iconic founding father of Champagne. Not only did he reluctantly witness the creation of Champagne- but he invented a coquard press to turn grapes into a clear liquid, studied and understood the importance of blending different grapes and vineyards, utilized strong English glass bottles, and reintroduced the cork. While the first two contributions make Champagne better, it simply could not exist without the last two mechanisms.

Wines from the cold climate region of Champagne always had a slight sparkle to them. Waiting for the grapes to ripen on the vine until late fall, they would begin to ferment only to be halted by winter’s cold temperatures. The wines were contained, and once they warmed up in spring, fermentation would resume. The carbon gas produced by the fermentation process had nowhere to go so it integrated into the wine causing a bubbly carbonation. So let’s make some Champagne! We have to start with some still wine that is preferably high in acid and low in sugars. With two fermentations required, the first fermentation should result in a low-alcohol wine. A gentle pressing with a horizontal basket or bladder press should be used. In the Champagne region of France the grapes used are Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Pinot Meunier. The juice is extracted in phases: 1st is Cuvee which is high in sugars and acids and is derived from the central pulp. 2nd is Taille which is richer in minerals and lower in both acids and sugars. It is derived from the flesh nearer to the skins and pips. 3rd is Rebeche which is too coarse for Champagne production and used to make spirits instead.

Then the juice is set (Debourbage). The solid particle sink, and are separated from the now clear juice. A warm fermentation begins at 60-70F (10-16C) and lasts for a week to 10 days. Malolactic fermentation can take place too. The resulting base wine should be 10-11% abv and can be chaptalized (sugar added for the purpose of increasing the resulting alcohol level rather than to sweeten a wine) if need be. Next the wine is racked (Soutirage), which removes the solid matter and clarifies the wine again. Now the blending begins. Most Champagnes are a blend of different grapes and vineyards and the results of which are greater than the sum of its parts. Then it is fined, racked, and Cold Stabilized to clean clarify, and let the tartaric acid precipitate out. Next we make bubbles! ADVANCED SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION

The prise de mousse, or setting the foam, is the 2nd fermentation that results in a carbonated wine. This is a longer and cooler fermentation (60-63F/10-12C) that lasts for 28-56 days. The process creates 4.9-6 atmospheres of pressure and about 1.5% more alcohol by volume (abv). The base wines are bottled, both yeasts and sugars (liquer de tirage) are added to the bottle, and then it is capped tightly. This, the liquer de tirage, is the fuel for the second fermentation. Bottles are then placed in a pupitre and stored at 12C/54F for the length of the second fermentation. A Pupitre is a framed structure with holes for bottles slanted down at a 45 degree angle and is a home for champagne-to-be bottles during their evolution. The bottles are frequently and abruptly turned- shaking the sediment and moving it slowly down to the neck of the bottle from a horizontal to vertical position. During this 4-8 week process, the wines are aged on the lees (sur lees). (Lees are dead yeast cells which give champagne its bready doughy aromas and flavors.) These days a gyropallatte is used in place of the old fashioned and less efficient pupitre.

The juice is extracted in phases: 1st is Cuvee which is high in sugars and acids and is derived from the central pulp. 2nd is Taille which is richer in minerals and lower in both acids and sugars. It is derived from the flesh nearer to the skins and pips. 3rd is Rebeche which is too coarse for Champagne production and used to make spirits instead.

So now the wine was made and turned into Champagne- but there is a big chuck of lees/sediment in the upside down bottle. To remove this it’s time for the degorgement process. The bottle is inverted and placed in a cold liquid to chill it to 45F/7C. This reduces the pressure and freezes the sediment/lees. The bottle is turned right side up, the top removed, and the frozen puck of sediments shoots out. Then the Dosage (liquer d’expedition) is added- which is a wine and sugar mixture. The wine replaces what was lost during disgorgemnet and the sugar addition determines the final sugar level of the Champagne.

Brut Nature Bone Dry No Sugar Added Extra Brut Extremely Dry Less than .6% RS Brut Dry Less than 1.5% RS *Extra Dry/Extra Sec Off Dry 1.2-2.0% RS Sec Slightly Sweet 1.7-3.5% RS Demi-Sec Sweet 3.5-5% RS Doux Very Sweet More than 5% RS ADVANCED SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION

The bottle is inverted and placed in a cold liquid to chill it to 45F/7C. This reduces the pressure and freezes the sediment/lees.

For non vintage Champagne, this wine is aged for 15 months; and for Vintage Champagne, it ages 36 months. This is the classic Champagne method known as Methode Champenoise. As its name suggests, this is the technique used to create Champagne, as well as Franciacorta in Lombardy Italy. A sparkling wine made in this method outside of the appellation boundaries of the Champagne region is called Cremant. Cava from Penedes, Spain is made in this method too- but the grapes used in the base blend are Parellada, Macabeo, and Xarel-lo. There are other methods to produce sparkling wine: Transvasage, or Transfer method, is used in sparkling wine production for small and large bottle sizes. The wine has its secondary fermentation in the bottle, is poured into a large vessel, and re-poured into the chosen bottle sizes. This can be done for splits (187ml), and above 3L only (375ml, 750ml, 1.5ml must all have second fermentation in the bottle, riddled, disgorged, and liquer de triage added. In the Tank, Cuve Close, or Charmat method both the first and second fermentation take place in a closed tank. This process simulates what happens in an individual bottle on a much larger scale. While much less labor intensive and less expensive the Tank method produces sparkling wine of much less finesse than the traditional Methode Champenoise. Prosecco is made by this fermentation process from Glera (aka Prosecco) grapes from Veneto, Italy. German Sekt is made in this way too. The most cost effective technique to make a sparkling wine is carbonation. Yes, the same thing they do to make Coca-Cola bubble can be done to wine. Carbon Dioxide is injected into the base wine and incorporated as large clumsy bubbles.

In the Tank, Cuve Close, or Charmat method both the first and second fermentation take place in a closed tank. This process simulates what happens in an individual bottle on a much larger scale. ADVANCED PROHIBITION

Content contributed by Anne Drummond, Imperial Beverage

The prohibition of alcohol, in most circles offered the simple moniker “prohibition”, is the legal act of prohibiting the manufacture, transportation, distribution and sale of alcoholic beverages. In most cases, the term refers to periods in the histories of countries during which the prohibition of alcohol was enforced. HISTORY Several incidents of prohibition have occurred worldwide. These included Prince Edward Island (Canada), Faroe Islands (Denmark), Russia and Soviet Union, Iceland, Norway, Hungary and Finland. In the United States, prohibition was enforced from 1920 to 1933. After several years in the United States, prohibition became a general failure, as bootlegging became widespread and organized crime took control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the US. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the 1920’s. After the American Revolution, drinking was on the rise and the government was at a loss to stop outlawed behaviors resulting from overconsumption. Additionally, the Temperance movement, which blamed alcohol for the ills of society, offered a zealous attack on alcohol as the scapegoat. Saloons, a social haven for men who lived in the still untamed West, were viewed by many, especially women, as debaucherous. At the onset of the 20th century, Temperance unions existed in every state. By 1916, over half of US states had statutes that prohibited the sale and manufacture of alcohol. In 1919, the 18th Amendment to the US constitution, prohibiting the manufacture, distribution, and sale of alcohol was ratified, and went into effect January 16, 1920.

In October of 1919, the Volstead Act went into effect. This act, which closed loopholes that existed in the previous amendment, stated that “beer, wine, or other intoxicating malt or vinous liquors” meant any beverage that was more than .5% alcohol by volume. The Act also stated that owning any item designed to manufacture alcohol was illegal and it set specific fines and jail sentences for violating Prohibition. Almost immediately after the ratification of the 18th Amendment, organizations formed to repeal it. The anti-prohibition movement grew in strength as the 1920’s progressed. On December 5, 1933, the 21st Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified, making alcohol legal once again. This was the first and to date, the only time in United States history that an Amendment has been repealed. ADVANCED THE CHEMISTRY OF WINE MAKING

Content contributed by Chuck Goossen, Imperial Beverage

To describe modern wine making as simply as fermenting sugars (from grape juice) and yeasts into ethyl alcohol would be akin to describing the human body as digesting food into energy in order to sustain life. The chemistry is significantly more complex with a multitude of reactions and influencers present. There is a direct correlation between the composition and quality of the grapes and the quality of the resulting wine. The chemical components present in grapes and their accompanying structures comprise a broad spectrum of compounds each with specific roles and influences in the wine making process. Some compounds are primarily used to support plant grown while others are used specifically in the wine making process either in their natural state or are transformed in some fashion and then employed in this process. Grapes are comprised of 80% clear juice, 8% skins, 4.5% seeds, 4.5% pulp, and 3% stems and collectively are known as pomace. Grape juice is made up of 79% water, 20% carbohydrates, 1% organic acids and trace amounts of organic acids, phenolicz, vitamins, minerals and nitrogenous compounds. The main chemical compounds present in grapes and or wines are listed in the chart below:

Water H20 Carbohydrates (sugars) Fructose, Glucose, Pectin, Pentoses Alcohols Ethanol, Glycerol, Higher alcohols, Methanol Aldehyde Organic Acids Acetic, Amino, Citric, Lactic, Malic, Succinic, Sulphurous, Tartaric Phenolics Simple, Hydrolysable tannins, Condensed tannins, Anthocyanins Nitrogenous compounds Amino Ammonium, Protein, Residual Minerals (ash) Calcium, Chloride, Magnesium, Phosphate, Potassium, Sodium, Sulphate

CARBOHYDRATES (SUGARS) Grapes accumulate sugars during development through the translocation of sucrose molecules which are produced by photosynthesis from the leaves. As the fruit ripens, this sucrose is hydrolyzed by the enzyme invertase into the 6 carbon sugars Glucose and Fructose. By the time the fruit is harvested the grapes are comprised of between 15-25% simple (3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 carbon) sugars. Not all of these sugars are fermentable and therefore do not play a role in fermentation. For this reason no wine is ever fermented completely “dry” without any residual sugar(s). During fermentation, the 5 carbon sugars (Glucose and Fructose) in grape juice are attacked by the yeast cells turning them into ethanol (ethyl alcohol) and carbon dioxide. In an aerobic (oxygen rich) environment, this reaction can continue converting the newly formed ethanol into water and carbon dioxide. A blanket of carbon dioxide is added to the fermentation vessel prior to the addition of yeast cells to stop this process and also stop the oxidization of phenols which are present. ADVANCED THE CHEMISTRY OF WINE MAKING

The final alcohol level of wine is directly related to the sugar levels present during fermentation. Sugar also plays an important role in the resulting wine’s body and mouthfeel. Winemakers sometimes add sugar (usually sucrose) in a process known as chaptalization. The only exception to this rule is Champagne and other sparkling wines where a small amount of liqueur d’expe’dition (typically sucrose dissolved in still wine) is added after the second fermentation in the bottle, which is knows as dosage. GLUCOSE Glucose and Fructose are the two primary sugars found in wine grapes. In wine Glucose tastes less sweet that Fructose. Initially grapes contain much more glucose than fructose (5 to 1) but as the fruit ripens more fructose is produced and this ratio evens out (1 to 1) by harvest. Late harvest wines typically have much more fructose than glucose.

Glucose is the first sugar broken down in the fermentation process. Glucose molecules link with aglycone, in a process that creates glycosides, which play a role in the resulting flavor of the wine because of the relation and interactions with phenolic compounds like anthocyanins and terpenoids. FRUCTOSE Fructose can taste nearly twice as sweet as glucose which explains why fructose is so important in the production of dessert wines. During fermentation, glucose is the first sugar consumed by the yeast and converted into alcohol. At this point fermentation can be halted (either by temperature control or by adding brandy spirits in the process of fortification) resulting in a wine with higher fructose and residual sugars. The technique of sussreserve, where unfermented grape must is added after fermentation is complete, will result in a wine that tastes less sweet than a wine whose fermentation was halted. This is because the unfermented grape must will still have roughly equal parts of fructose and the less sweet tasting glucose. This is also why during chaptalization where sucrose is added (which is 1 part glucose and 1 part fructose) will usually not increase the sweetness level of the wine. SUCROSE Sucrose will typically be found only in trace amounts because during the ripening process it is hydrolyzed into Glucose and Fructose. Any sucrose added during chaptalisation is typically consumed during fermentation. Pectins have no great importance in grape juice but must be broken down as they can create haziness in the finished wine.

ORGANIC ACIDS Malic, tartaric, and citric are the 3 main acids which occur in grapes. Acids give grape juice its acidity and act as a buffer to maintain the pH at around 3.2-3.3. Acids are also a major contributor to the flavor balance of the juice and wine, providing the sharp acidity. They also play a very important role in wine directly influencing color, balance, and taste. During fermentation, acids protect the wine from bacteria. In wine tasting, “acidity” refers to the fresh, tart and sour attributes of the wine which is evaluated in relation to how well the acidity balances out the sweetness and bitter components of the wine such as tannins. TARTARIC ACID Tartaric acid, along with malic and citric, is all present in grapes. Concentration varies by varietal (Palomino high, Malbec and Pinot noir generally low) Tartaric acid in high concentrations does not get completely metabolized like malic acid and can remain throughout the fruit ripening process. Less than half of the tartaric acid is free standing with the majority present as potassium acid salt. During fermentation these tartrates bind with the lees, pulp debris and precipitated tannins and pigments. ADVANCED THE CHEMISTRY OF WINE MAKING

Depending on the varietal, some of these deposits remain soluble in the alcoholic mixture of wine. Crystallization of these tartrates can occur and in the bottle may appear like “broken glass” though they are in fact harmless. Winemakers sometimes put the wine through a cold stabilization process by exposing the wine to sub-freezing temperatures encouraging the tartrates to crystallize and precipitate out of the wine. MALIC ACID Malic acid is often associated with the green apples flavor it projects in wine and is involved in several processes which are essential for the health of the vine. Concentration varies by grape varietal, Barbera, Carignan and Sylvaner being typically high. During plant and fruit development, malic acids levels decline due to resperation and tend to have a higher depletion rate in warmer climates. When malic acid is depleted or used up the grape is considered over-ripe or senescent. Winemakers compensate for this absence by adding extraneous acid in a process known as acidification. This process enhances the effectiveness of sulfur dioxide to protect the wines from spoilage and bacteria. Acidification also helps to preserve and stabilize the color of the wine. Excessive malic acid can be reduced during winemaking through malolactic fermentation or MLF. Bacteria convert the stronger malic acid into the softer lactic acid resulting in a wine with a higher pH (less acid) and a creamy mouthfeel. The bacteria required occur naturally in oak barrels or can be introduced via a cultured specimen. Other wines such as Chenin Blanc and Riesling can exhibit off flavors such as buttery smell of diacetyl if allowed to progress through MLF. Wines from cool climate regions, such as Riesling, will have more malic acid and green apple notes than wines from warmer growing regions. Red wines in general (more often than whites) have higher concentrations of malic acid and are put through MLF. One white wine that is a notable exception is oaked Chardonnay. LACTIC ACID Lactic acid is much milder than tartaric and malic and often associated with milky flavors. This acid is typically not present in grapes but instead is produced during winemaking by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) which includes three genera: Oenococcus, Pediococcus, and Lactobacillus. These bacteria convert both sugar and malic acid into lactic acid through MLF. Some strains of LAB can produce biogenic amines which may cause red wine headaches for some wine drinkers. Winemakers can prevent MLF by using sulfur dioxide to stun the bacteria or by racking the wine off the lees quickly since lees are the food source for them. CITRIC ACID This acid is very common in many citrus fruits but typically found in very small quantities in grapes. Although winemakers can use Citric acid during acidification, tartaric and malic acids are more commonly used. The European Union prohibits the use of Citric acid for this process. Another reason is yeasts tend to convert citric acid into acetic acid. ACETIC ACID Acetic acid is typically not found or in extremely low concentrations in grape juice. During fermentation, yeast cells naturally produce small amounts of acetic acid. If the wine is exposed to oxygen, Acetobacter bacteria will convert the ethanol (ethyl alcohol) into acetic acid. This reaction is the primary cause of wine degradation into vinegar or “corked” wine. An excessive amount of acetic acid is also considered a wine fault when concentrations reach or exceed 600mg/l. which are the human taste level threshold. BUTYRIC ACID This acid is bacteria induced and can cause a wine to smell of spoiled Camembert or rancid butter. ADVANCED THE CHEMISTRY OF WINE MAKING

PHENOLICS Phenols are present in several parts of the grape including stems, seeds, skins, and pulp. Specifically phenolic acids are primarily found in the pulp, anthocyanins and stilbenoids in the skin, and other phenols (catechins, proanthocyanidins and flavonols) in the skin and seeds. The specific type and locations play significant roles in adding flavor to both white and red wines influenced by the maceration process, i.e. contact with each of these individual parts. Phenolic acids (found in the pulp or juice) are commonly present in white wines which usually do not go through a maceration period. Red wines typically go through a more lengthy maceration period having longer contact with the skins, stems, and seeds. The amount of phenols leached out during this process is known as extraction. These compounds contribute to the astringency, color, and mouth feel of the wine. Phenols fall into two primary categories natural phenols and polyphenols and are comprised of several hundred chemical compounds. Among these are phenolic acids, stilbenoids, flavonols, dihydroflavonols, anthocyanins, flavanol monomers (catechins) and flavanol polymers. Further natural phenols can be separated into two categories flavonoids and non-flavonoids. Flavonoids include the anthocyanins (involved in the color of wine) and tannins (which influence the wines mouth feel) Non-flavonoids include the stilbenoids such as resveratrol and phenolic acids such as benzoic, caffeic and cinnamic acids. FLAVONOIDS Up to 90% of wine’s phenolic content falls under this classification. Anthocyanins are responsible for the blue to red colors found in flowers, fruits, and leaves. In most grapes anthocyanins are found only in the outer cell layers of the skin, with the juice remaining colorless. This is the reason why white wine can be made from red grapes. In order to provide color to the wine, the fermenting must needs to have contact with the skins to extract the anthocyanins. The exception to this rule is a small class of grapes known as teinturiers, such as Alicante Bouschet, which has a small amount of anthcyanins in the pulp which produces pigmented juice. As red wines age the anthocyanins react with other compounds in the wine causing a change in color to a more brick red. The resulting molecules link up to create polymers that eventually exceed their solubility and drop out of suspension and become sediment. Tannins are a diverse group of chemical compounds that can affect not only color, but aging ability and texture of the wine. Tannins typically are described as the part of wine causing the drying sensation and bitterness in the mouth created by a reaction with the proteins in saliva. Tannins are found in the skins, stems, and seeds of grapes or can be introduced through the use of oak barrels or the addition of chips or tannin powder. The amount of tannins extracted from these parts can be regulated by the length of contact with the fermenting must. An excess of tannins can also be remedied by the use of fining agents such as albumin, casein, or gelatin which bind to the tannin molecules and precipitate out as sediments. The amount of tannins found naturally in grapes varies by varietal with Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo, Syrah, and Tannat having the highest concentrations.

As wine ages, tannins form long polymerized chains which come across the palate as softer and less tannic. This process can be accelerated by exposing wine to oxygen which oxidizes tannins to quinone-like compounds that are polymerization-prone. Micro-oxygenation and decanting wines are two additional techniques to mimic the effect of aging on tannins through the introduction of oxygen. Studies have shown that tannins provide a beneficial vascular health effect by suppressing the production the peptide responsible for hardening arteries. ADVANCED THE CHEMISTRY OF WINE MAKING

NON-FLAVONOIDS The Stilbenoid Resveratrol has received lots of press most recently because of the perceived health benefits it can provide. The highest concentrations can be found in the skins of grapes which translate into higher levels found in red wines because of the longer skin contact given during the maceration of red wines versus white wines. Grape varietals grown in cool damp regions with higher risk of grape disease tend to produce more resveratrol versus grapes grown in warmer dryer regions. Phenols can come from various other environments such as oak barrels used for aging or cork stoppers used in the bottling process. Vanillin is a phenolic aldehyde that provides the vanilla notes to wines that have been aged in newer oak barrels. Guaiacol (found in natural cork) is one of these molecules responsible for the cork taint wine fault.