Abd Al-Malik, Warda, 225, 234 Al-Awba 234–6 Abduh, Muhammad, 69 Abdulaziz

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76104-8 - A Most Masculine State: Gender, Politics, and Religion in Saudi Arabia Madawi Al-Rasheed Index More information

Index

Abd al-Malik, Warda, 225, 234 Alim, Raja, 175n. al-Awba 234–6 alimas, 81, 83, 250 Abduh, Muhammad, 69 alimat al-haramayn, 80 Abdulaziz [ibn Fahd], 145 Altorki, Soraya, 15, 86 Abdullah, King, 64, 148, 161 academic work on Saudi women, education of women and, 141, 33–4 149–50 Amira (wife of al-Walid bin Talal), emancipation of women and, 20–1, 140 28–9, 150, 202, 288–9, 293 and driving ban, 140n., 169 female protestors and, 289–90 Amnesty International, 35 marriage, 96 amr bil maruf wa al-nahy an reform and, 21, 141, 153, 154, 293 al-munkar, 49. See also novelists and, 203 commanding right and forbidding Abdullah ibn Hussein, 12 wrong Abdullah ibn Juluwi, 61 Anderson, Benedict, 7 Abha, 248, 290 anti-colonial movements, 3–4, 6 Abou El-Fadl, Khaled, 45–6 absent in Saudi Arabia, 8–9, 17, 44, Abu Khalid, Fawziyya, 83, 175n. 65, 66, 68 Abu-Lughod, Lila 16, 195 in India, 6, 7, 9 academic work on Saudi women, 33–5 ulama and, 9 Adilla [al-/bint Abdullah], 96, 140, women’s emancipation and, 3, 4 143, 150, 163, 259 Arab Spring, 284–7 al-Ahmad, Yusif, 161 communication technology and, 36, Ajlan ibn Muhammad, 61 286 Ajlan’s wife participation of women in, 285, 286 role in foundation myth of the Saudi state response to, 21, 285, Saudi state, 61–2 286, 287, 293 Ajman (tribe), 63 Saudi Shia and, 286–7 Ali, Sharif, 10, 11 Saudi women and, 35, 36, 286–7, al-Ali, Muhammad, 236 292

315

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76104-8 - A Most Masculine State: Gender, Politics, and Religion in Saudi Arabia Madawi Al-Rasheed Index More information

316 Index

Arab Women Students’ Centre, al-Bishr, Shaykh Mutrif, 145n. 143 Blunt, Lady Ann, 53 Aramco, 86–7, 102, 160–1 body, female Arebi, Sadeka beauty salons, 113, 119–20 academic work on Saudi women, control of, 113, 223 34, 175, 175n., 177, 178 exercise, 119 Asir, 56, 65, 69 fatwas on, 112, 116–20, 283 Assiri (tribe), 255 hair, 117–18, 283 al-Assiri, Dr Risha, 246 in literature, 41, 195, 220, 225, Ataturk,¨ Mustafa Kemal, 4 236, 237–9, 241 authoritarian states purity and pollution, 118, 120, 251 literature and, 176 as source of ﬁtna, 116 modernisation of, 153 veiling of, 24–5, 116, 283 women and, 3–4, 6, 21–2, 28, 137, as weak, 114, 116 152, 219, 278–9, 281, 282, Western lifestyle and, 117–18 292–5 Booth, Marilyn, 215–16 Awad, Muhammad, 79–80, 82 Bourdieu, Pierre, 2 Khawatir musarraha, 79 boyat, 138n., 239, 246 Awamiyya, 286 al-Budayr, Nadine, 145, 146, 154 al-Awdah, Salman, 158 bu Humaid, Sarah, 94, 95 Bundagji, Fatin, 142 Baathism, 10 Burayda, 53, 81, 87, 159, 248, 255 badu, 13 opposition to girls’ education and, Bahrain 92–3, 94 Arab Spring, 285–6 businesswomen, 22–3, 35, 113, 138, gender reform in, 134n. 138n., 142–4. See also economy, Bakharji, Nadiya, 275 women and; educated women; al-Barrak, Shaykh Abd al-Rahman, professional women 161 businesses catering for women and, Basrawi, Fadia, 85, 86–7 113, 118 al-Bassam, Ibtisam, 249 post-9/11, 26, 138, 142, 144 al-batana, 278, 290 professional associations, 142–3 al-Baz, Rania, 139, 139n. publicity about, 26, 138 Bedouin. See also tribalism restrictions on, 143 culture, 8 honour codes, 52–3, 54, 57 capitalism in literature, 189, 196 modernity and, 282–3 sedentarisation of, 52, 67 state and, 5, 223–4, 264 traditions, 52 women and, 4–5, 213, 214, 216 women, 52, 53, 54–6. charities Bell, Gertrude, 53, 54 elite women and, 6, 91, 140 Bennabi, Malik, 272, 274 employing women, 167, 249 bin Ali, Zeine al-Abdin, 285 Islamist women and, 256, 264, 271 al-Bishr, Badriyya, 178, 192–203, state and, 167, 177 208, 209, 222, 223, 270 state control of, 152, 293, 294 as columnist, 192 terrorism and, 154 Hind wa al-askar, 194–201, 220 Charrad, Mounira, 5

Index 317

Chatterjee, Partha, 7 communication technology, 2, 36. See civil society also email; Facebook; internet; absent in Saudi Arabia, 28, 36, 176, Skype; Twitter; YouTube 202, 290 and the Arab Spring, 35, 286 curtailed by legal system, 202, 294 blogs, 11, 36 emancipation of women and, 3 education and, 24 lack of women’s pressure groups, 2, electronic campaigns, 2–3, 35, 38, 28, 32, 36, 38, 40, 176, 208, 293 288 literature as substitute for, 32, 36, Islamist women and, 247, 261 40, 176, 202 Jihadis and, 217–18, 219 clothing, 116–17, 119. See also boyat; in literature, 213, 227, 231–2 modesty; veiling novelists and, 213, 219, 237 boutiques, 113, 119 protests and, 287, 290 cross motif, 117 vulnerability of women and, as cultural indicator, 116–17 261–2 gender appropriate, 116, 246 Wahhabism and, 214 Islamist women and, 246 companions of the Prophet, 111 spending on, 23, 262 sahabiyat, 17, 265 commanding right and forbidding Consultative Council wrong, 46–7, 48, 49–51, 52, appointment of women to, 20, 21, 58–60, 75, 245, 276. See also 150, 288–9, 292 hisba criticism of religious dogma, 156 bureaucratisation of, 59–60 control of women Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and, 47–8, 50, by male family members, 15, 105, 58 171 Islamist women and, 245–6, 251 by the state, 57, 73–4, 75, 132, 133, as a mechanism for consolidating 171 Saudi rule, 50–1, 58–9 by the ulama, 39, 52–3, 107, 110, patriarchy and, 57 132, 133 rulers and, 58 Wahhabism and, 49, 52, 56, 57, 58, the subordination of women and, 90 46–7 Convention on the Elimination of All in Wahhabism, 46–8, 49–51, 52 Forms of Discrimination against Committee for Civil and Political Women (CEDAW), 275–6 Rights, 287 Cook, Michael, 50, 58–9, 60 Committee for the Promotion of cosmopolitanism Commanding Right and of elite women, 136 Forbidding Wrong, 59–60, 75, Hijazi, 10, 14 164, 245. See also haiya Islamic, 203, 269 criticised by the media, 157, 276 Islamist women and, 268–9 exclusion of women from the public in Jeddah, 160 sphere, 60 liberal women and, 136 in literature, 213, 232 in literature, 179, 227–8 opposition to girls’ education, 92 in Medina, 203–4 opposition to reform, 165 in Saudi society, 179, 187, 189, raids on private homes, 132 274 raids on public spaces, 132, 223 state and, 173–4, 274

318 Index

cosmopolitan women. See also liberal electronic campaigns against, 35, women 291 celebrity novelists as, 41, 212–43 Islamist women and, 256, 258, 271 in literature, 186–92, 213–14, media and, 157 227–36 punishment for deﬁance of, 289 in the media, 40 state ofﬁcials and, 31 the state and, 40, 173–4 teachers and, 157, 168 as symbols of modernity, 40, 41, Wahhabism and, 15 134–5, 153–4, 173 al-Duwaish, Faisal, 55

al-Dabbagh, Muhammad Tahir, Eastern Province 10–11 the Arab Spring and, 285 daiyat, 251, 255, 278 driving ban and, 291 as matchmakers, 258 employment of women in, 161, 291 Salaﬁ, 257–63 girls’ education in, 86 al-Dakhil, Turki, 229 Shia in, 71, 124 al-Dalil, 252, 271 economy, women and. See also Dammam, 248, 255, 288 businesswomen; employment of Dar al-Hanan, 88 women; professional women dawa, 48, 246, 253 economic participation, 1, 27, 30, Death of a Princess (documentary), 87–8, 113, 135, 136, 143–4, 147, 99 160, 178, 216, 240–1, 280, 288 Delong-Bas, Natana, 44–5 education and, 102, 116, 148 Deriyya, 47, 48–9, 50 marginalisation of women, 1, 23, Dhahran, 96 37, 102–3, 244, 282, 292 Dhaydan ibn Hithlayn, 63 restrictions on economic divorce, 128–9 participation, 30, 143, 173, 176 initiated by women, 129; khal, 129 tribal, 53, 55, 57–8 in literature, 189, 199, 228, 229, women as traders, 87, 166, 167 231 educated women. See also pornography and, 262 businesswomen; novelists, female; rulings criticised, 157 professional women ulama and, 128 Islamist, 251–2, 253 Dickson, Violet, 64 liberal, 136, 141 Doumato, Eleanor post-9/11, 134, 135–47 academic work on Saudi women, religious reform and, 141 34, 35, 46 the state and, 134, 137, 139, 141–2, driving ban, 1, 100, 129–30, 168–70, 146, 152–3, 172 291–2 education of girls and women, 1, 2, arguments against, 168–9 38–9, 77–107, 121, 175–6, arguments for, 169 244–5, 248–51. See also Dar caricatured, 169 al-Hanan; al-Hazaziyya; Kuliyat conservative women and, 30 al-Banat; al-Sawlatiyya; counter-campaign supporting, 291 al-Tarbiyya al-Islamiyya as cultural rather than religious, abroad, 84, 86, 87, 97, 109, 124, 158–9 151 deﬁance of, 129–30, 145, 291–2 adult education classes, 84

Index 319

alimat al-haramayn, 80 universities, 149, 176, 245–6, Aramco schools, 86 249–50 colleges of education, 102, 248–9 al-Eid, Dr Sulayman, 245 conferring religious authority, 110, elections 114–15 to chambers of commerce, 152 communication technology and, 24 electronic campaigns for debates about, 78, 94 participation, 35, 208, 288 delaying marriage, 106 exclusion of women from, 144, distance learning, 24 287–8 economic participation and, 102, mobilisation of women, 287 116, 148, 244 municipal, 21, 144, 287–8 feminism and, 281 participation of women in, 21, 150, foreign supervisors and teachers, 288, 292 24, 85, 89, 93–4, 95, 250, 290 elite women girls’ school ﬁre, 147–8, 259n. educated but idle, 23, 39, 103–7 guardianship system and, 24, education of, 83, 84–6, 88, 89, 91, 114 97 at home, 83, 84–5 endogamous marriage of, 99–100 Islamist women and, 244–5, gender reform and, 140, 152 248–51 as high achievers, 138, 139, 141, in kuttabs, 80, 82–3, 93 173 in literature, 184, 236 oasis dwellers, 53–4, 56 marriage and, 106–7, 121 patronage of education and mixed, 88, 159, 160–1, 170 charities, 6, 91, 140 national curriculum, 89, 91–2, post-9/11, 135–47 147 princesses, 91, 98–101, 139–40, oil wealth and, 22, 24, 82, 95–8 149 opposition to, 25, 77, 78, 89–95 the state and, 134–74 as preparation for motherhood, 20, elopement, 99, 101 39, 90, 101, 102, 248 of Princess Mishail, 98 to prevent men marrying out, 39, while studying abroad, 87 96–7, 101–2, 106 email, 36, 219, 227 private schools, 83, 88–9, 170 emancipation of women protests by students, 290 democracy and, 3, 292 religious, 244–5, 249–52 different views of, 32, 294 religious nationalism and, 14, 17, Islamist opposition to the state and, 38, 77, 281 22, 293 role in state’s modernising project, Islamist women and, 136–7 20, 38, 77, 90, 94, 107, 147, kings and, 20–1, 28–9, 32, 149–50, 151 172 scholarships, 151 legitimacy of Saudi state and, 21, segregated, 24, 170, 249 22, 172, 209, 293 state schools, 89, 95 literature and, 41, 207 support for, 78–83, 94–5, 96, 101 to offset religious radicalism, 40, as symbol of modernity, 77 294 ulama and, 20, 38–9, 77–8, 85, 90, in other Arab countries, 6, 240, 107, 147, 259n. 280–1

320 Index

emancipation of women (cont.) al-Falah school, 10 post-9/11, 21, 40, 144 family life Saudi state and, 20–1, 26, 39, 40, in literature, 180–3, 185 144, 149–50, 152, 153, 172, urban, 254–5 240–1, 284, 292 family relationships employment of women, 1, 102–3, domestic violence, 139n., 140 165–7. See also businesswomen; Islamist women and, 256, 273–4 economy, women and; ikhtilat; in literature, 194–8, 220 khilwa; workplace mixing faqihas, 80, 81, 83, 250 abroad, 167–8 al-Fasi, Hatun, 208, 209 in degrading jobs, 165, 166, Fatat al-Qatif, 139, 139n., 261–2 168 fatwas. See also hukm fatwas on, 165–6, 166n., 167 against a comedian, 193 foreign workers and, 24 against excessive consumption, 262 in health care, 22, 113, 281 against fathers who appropriate Islamist women, 249, 253, 259, daughters’ salaries, 24, 120–1 267, 271 against non-Wahhabis, 72 in the media, 22 against women driving, 33, 129, in the oil industry, 102, 291 130, 168 restrictions on, 149, 176 collections of, 108, 111, 112, 131 in shops, 165–7, 192 on clothing, 116–17 state and, 152, 167 on contamination by foreigners, as teachers, 22, 102, 104, 113, 249, 117 250, 281 contradictory, 170 expatriates. See also Aramco; teachers, criticism of, 156, 158 foreign deﬁnition of, 113 in the beauty industry, 118 on divorce, 128–9 compounds, 86, 102 on the employment of women, contaminating Saudi culture, 117 165–6, 166n., 167 education and, 86 on ikhtilat, 165, 246 in literature, 183–5, 187 on the internet, 111, 165, 170 oil wealth and, 74, 97–8, 204 Islamist women and, 33, 258, 261, 278 Facebook, 35, 213, 214, 219, 288, on legal capacity of women, 114–15 290, 291 liberal women and, 33 Fadwa bint Khalid, Princess, 151 on marriage, 120–3, 126, 127, 129 Fahad, Prince, 89 part of school curriculum, 112 Fahda bint Saud, 84 on polygamy, 125, 126, 132 Faisal, King on pornography, 262 the education of girls and, 78, 84, as a response to social change, 131 90, 91–3 revisionist, 155 emancipation of women and, 28 sources for, 111 as a moderniser, 91 state and, 19–20, 108, 110–13, 131, Wahhabi ulama and, 90 132, 137 Faisal ibn Abdullah, Prince, 150, 161, supporting state gender policies, 259, 259n. 131, 165, 172 al-Faiz, Nura, 134n., 161, 172 takﬁr fatwas, 202, 203

Index 321

on television, 170, 252 contradictory, 6, 22, 26–7, 31, 170 by Wahhabi ulama on women, 15, fatwas supporting, 155, 170–1 20, 33, 46, 108–33, 155 image of Saudi state and, 147–9, al-Fawzan, Badriyyah, 246 151–2, 153, 156–7, 171, 172 al-Fayez, Anud, 150 international media and, 138, 152, feminism 154, 155–7 development of, 37–8, 207, 210, Islamist women and, 245, 256, 271, 211, 281, 284 278 Islamic, 137 liberalisation of, 21 Islamist, 45 local media and, 141 Islamist women and, 137, 271 modernisation and, 31–2 lack of a feminist movement, political reform and, 32 176 post-9/11, 20, 21, 147–51, 153 liberal women and, 136 publicity for, 171 in literature, 177, 194, 207, 210–11 religious nationalism and, 38 in other Arab countries, 6 state as provider and arbiter, 20, the Saudi state and, 20–1, 22, 27 26–33, 155, 282 ﬁqh, 80, 111 ulama and, 20, 22, 134–5, 149, ﬁtna, 116, 129, 166, 166n., 266 172, 242 foreign workers, 268–9, 292. See also women’s responses to, 38, 271 expatriates; teachers, foreign General Presidency for Girls’ drivers, 30, 132, 157, 168, 169 Education, 89, 147 ikhtilat and, 164 al-Ghamdi, Shaykh Ahmad, 164–5, in literature, 181, 183–4, 190, 210 246 maids, 164, 269 al-Ghathami, Abdullah, 80, 236 oil wealth and, 103–4 Gherass Elkhair Centre, 287 Fustuq family, 96 Global Gender Gap Report, 1 Futaihi, Maha, 142, 144 gender gap index, 1 al-Gosaybi, Ghazi, 165, 221, 229 al-Gaith, Issa, 164 guardianship system, 1, 15, 74, 100, Gellner, Ernest, 7 223 gender inequality criticised, 146, 276 collusion of women in, 194 employment and, 114 human rights organisations and, foreign travel and, 24, 100, 114, 154 124, 129, 142 in literature, 32, 196 Islamist women and, 256, 257, 258, patriarchy and, 19, 27 271 religious nationalism and, 19 liberal women and, 136, 257 Saudi state and, 5, 6, 29, 33 marriage and, 127, 260 terrorism and, 158 state and, 171 tribalism and, 18–19 within the family, 15, 120, 146 unemployment and, 24 Gulf Cooperation Council, 285 Wahhabism and, 17–18 Gulf One Investment Bank, 138n., 142 gender policies, 153–72 gender reform as smokescreen for hadar, 13, 70 lack of political reform, 141, hadith, 80, 111 171–2 Hafez, Sherine, 31

322 Index

haiya, 245, 246–7, 276 in tribal societies, 53, 54, 55 al-Hamad, Turki, 202, 203 al-Hora, 145, 154 Hanadi, Captain, 169 al-Howeider, Wajiha, 145–6, 209, Hanaﬁ school, suppression of, 72 236n., 291 Hanbali school Hsu, Tanya, 266n. forbidding wrong and, 58 hudud, 49, 53 promotion of, 72 hukm, 113 Wahhabism and, 70 Human Rights Commission (HRC), al-Hani, Fawziyya, 287 152 al-Hashemi, Sharifa Nur, 83–4 human rights organisations Hashemites, 10, 12, 13, 14 independent, 287 Hashim, Najwa, 175n. international, 154 HASM, 287 reports by, 35, 293 Hasso, Frances, 28, 137n. women’s, 152 al-Hazaziyya, 83 Human Rights Watch, 35, 257 al-Hazza, Salwa, 143, 144 Hussein, Sharif, 10, 11, 12 healing rituals, women and, 46, 51, 52 Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad, Higher Council of Ulama, 20, 110–11, 44–5, 47–9, 161, 263 131. See also Riasa al-Ama lil commanding right and forbidding Buhuth wa al-Ifta wrong and, 47–8, 50, 58 fatwas on marriage, 112, 121, 123, puriﬁcation of Islam, 47 124, 127–8 stoning of adulterous woman, 47–8, fatwas on polygamy, 126 50 fatwas on women, 111, 112, 114, women and, 45, 47–9 258 Ibn Baz, Grand Mufti Abd al-Aziz, the Hijaz, 56, 136 111, 112, 122, 127, 128, 129, Arab Muslim identity and, 9–10 130, 131, 258 cosmopolitanism, 10, 14 Ibn Luay, Khalid, 12, 13 early Arab Islamic nationalism and, Ibn Rashid, Abd al-Aziz, 61 9–11, 12, 13, 65 Ibn Saud, Abd al-Aziz, 9, 11, 12, 52, the education of women and, 14, 55, 59, 60–5, 68, 276 78, 79, 81, 83, 136 Ibn Saud, Muhammad, 48 as religious centre, 69 Idarat al-Maarif al-Ama, 83 Hijazi National Party (HNP), 10, Iffat (wife of King Faisal) 11–12, 13 and the education of girls, 78, 88, Hilal, Hissa, 217 90 al-Hirz, Saba, 225, 237 ikhtilat, 159–66, 192, 246–7 al-Akharun, 236–9 in educational institutions, 159, hisba, 245–7, 248, 276 160–1, 165 Hobsbawm, Eric, 7 homosexuality and, 239 honour, women’s Islamist women and, 162–3, punishment for violation of, 54, 259–60 100 sharia and, 164 state as guardian of, 6, 100, 106, state and, 159, 160, 164, 170 240, 279 ulama and, 159–62, 164–5

Index 323

in the workplace, 162–3, 165–6, as defenders of Islamic tradition, 260 244, 253, 254 Ikhwan, 59, 67, 72 driving ban and, 256, 271 ikhwan man ta’ allah, 72 education and, 248–51 Ikhwan Mutayr, 55 emancipation and, 32, 136, 293 illiteracy of women, 24, 79, 83 fatwas on women and, 137, 261 adult education, 289 gender issues and, 245, 273, 278 in literature, 196 guardianship and, 256, 257, 271 women preaching and, 109 ikhtilat and, 162–3, 256 Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Jihadis and, 269–70 University, 249 male supremacy and, 245, 248 diploma scandal, 277 marriage and, 260–1, 264 immo girls, 138n. the media and, 252–3, 258, 262, inﬁtah, 241 271 family relationships and, 30 modernity and, 253–4 internet. See also communication in National Dialogue Forums, 252, technology; email; Facebook; 274 Twitter; YouTube new religious women, 248–79 articles published on, 146 participation in debates, 253, 271 discussion boards, 140n., 171, 219, petitions by, 256, 257 237 as preachers, 41, 248, 250, 255–6, fatwas, 170 257–63 as forum for debate, 155 public surveillance and, 29, 246 Google, 237 Sahwa movement and, 271 Islamist women and, 41, 248, 256, social justice and, 277 258–9 the state and, 29, 30–1, 42, 137, Jihadi material, 217–18 258, 262, 267, 277–9, 284 literature posted on, 237 tribalism and, 33, 137 petitions, 171, 256 at universities, 245–6 photographs, 150 veiling and, 137 political reform Westernisation and, 29, 137, 252, Iran 253, 256, 257 mut’a and, 127–8 workplace mixing and, 256 regulation of citizens’ sex lives, Ismailis 222–3 jihad against, 72 Saudi Arabia and, 127, 131 Islamist women, 41–2, 109–10, jahiliyya, 52, 118, 123, 203, 204, 136–7, 244–79. See also daiyat; 205 muhtasibat; multazimat; nashitat al-Jahni, Layla, 178, 203–7 islamiyat Jahiliyya, 204–7 articles by, 248 al-Jalahima, Omayma, 259 as activists, 247–8, 252–5, 263–79 al-Jamjoum, Mounira, 222 as columnists, 41, 256 al-Jawhara bint Fahad, Princess, communication technology and, 41, 149 247 Jeddah, 9, 13, 34, 88, 104, 160, 224, contemporary issues and, 263–79 248, 250, 254, 255, 288, critical of Wahhabism, 257 291

324 Index

Jeddah Chamber of Commerce and khilwa, 159, 160. See also ikhtilat Industry (JCCI), 142, 160, al-Khuthaila, Hind, 144 162 King Abdullah University of Science Jeddah Economic Forums, 22–3, and Technology (KAUST), 159, 274–5 160–1, 171 al-Jibrin, Abdullah, 258 Kingdom Holding Company, 260 jihad King Saud University, 245, 247, expansionist, 59 276 restrictions on, 51, 59 Kuliyat al-Banat, 88 within Saudi Arabia, 270 Kuwait Wahhabis and, 71–2 elite women, 6 Jihadis, 217–18, 219–20 emancipation of women in, 18, 280 communication technology and, women’s associations, 6n. 217, 219 cross motif and, 117 Latifa al-Faisal, 91 image of Saudi Arabia and, 153–4, law, Islamic. See also ﬁqh; hudud; 218 punishment, Islamic; sharia Islamist women and, 269–70 basis of Saudi law, 111, 274 in literature, 196, 201 equality before, 100–1 novelists and, 220 family law, 5, 111 opposition to the state, 25 legal capacity of women, 115 violence, 217–18 personal law, 111 Joseph, Suad, 4, 19 representation of women in court, Juhaiman [al-Otaybi], 108. See also 146 Mecca Mosque uprising subordination of women, 1 al-Juhaiman, Abd al-Karim, 96, 97, Wahhabism and, 46 179 legitimacy of Saudi state al-Juraisy, Huda, 143 the emancipation of women and, al-Jurays family, 255 21, 22, 172 Justaniya, Shaima, 289 the exclusion of women and, 60 religious, 14–15, 19, 22, 24–5, 43, Kandiyoti, Deniz, 3, 27, 28, 278 59–60, 111, 127, 131–2, 223 Kayrawani, Rahmat Allah, 83 royal family and, 99, 101 Khadija bint Khuwaylid Business welfare provision and, 22, 281 Women’s Centre, 142–3, 143n., women and, 62, 75, 114, 119, 127, 163 133, 281 Khalid, King, 98 Le Renard, Amelie Khalid, Prince, 150, 263 academic work on Saudi women, Al-Khalifa family, 285 34 al-Khamis, Abdullah, 179 liberal women, 136. See also al-Khamis, Umayma, 178, 179–92, muthaqafat 200, 201, 207, 208, 210, 211, the authoritarian state and, 29, 213, 220 30–1, 279 al-Bahriyat, 180–6, 190, 191 critical of Islamist women, 30–1, Madhi, mufrad, muthakar, 192 247 al-Warifa, 180, 186–90, 181 driving ban and, 30 Khashoggi, Samira, 95 emancipation and, 32, 293

Index 325

employment and, 30 mahram, 114, 124, 132. See also expectations of state support, 29, guardianship system 137, 262, 278–9, 294 al-Majd, 160, 252, 271 fatwas on women and, 33, 137 Maliki school, suppression of, 72 freedom of movement and, 30 Mansur, Prince, 144 gender equality and, 136 marginalisation of women, 1, 2, 3, 28, guardianship and, 257 280 mixing and, 30 in the domestic sphere, 103 travel and, 136 in the economy, 23 veiling and, 136 exclusion from the public sphere, Wahhabis and, 33 19, 22, 27, 36, 44, 47, 51, 52, 60, literature, women’s. See also novelists 68, 73, 75, 109, 242 as alternative to activism, 2, 32, Islamist analysis of, 33, 158 176, 202, 282 liberal analysis of, 33 as articulation of aspirations, 35, 40 oil wealth and, 23, 103, 281, 292 awards for, 204, 211 radical ulama and, 15, 33, 34, 44, the body and, 220 51, 113, 131, 147, 280 challenging gender inequality, 1–2, reasons for, 15–16, 18, 141, 279, 32, 40 293 as critique of society, 176–7, 178, in the religious sphere, 46, 51–2 241, 282 reported in the media, 154 emancipation of women and, 41 as a result of religious nationalism, feminism in, 177, 194, 284 19, 44, 141 homosexuality in, 41, 217, 225, in the social sphere, 46, 51–2 236–8, 239 Western perceptions of, 26, 28 ‘hybrids’ in, 183, 189, 211, 213–14, writing and, 176 228, 231 marriage. See also divorce; elopement; Jihadis in, 196, 201, 220 misyar; mut’a; polygamy; urf; pen names, 2, 217, 225, 234, 236n., zawaj misfar 237 abroad, 128 published abroad, 2, 177, 180, 217, child marriage, 144–5, 145n., 146, 225 157, 271 racism in, 179, 204–5, 206–7 contact before, 121–2, 260–1 as self-orientalising, 215–16, 231, continuing education and, 121 236 costs of, 122 sexual themes in, 41, 217, 218, delayed by education, 106 220–2, 224–5, 231–9, 284 delayed for ﬁnancial reasons, 24, the state and, 240–3 120 the state in, 40 dowries, 97, 122 substitute for civil society endogamous, 58, 99–100 organisations, 2, 32, 35, 176 to foreigners, 39, 74, 96–7, 101–2, translations of, 215, 225, 230, 223 236n. Islamist women and, 258, 260–1, women in, 178–9, 180, 185 264, 271 Loulwa al-Faisal, 84, 91, 139–40, ‘modern’ perceptions of, 145 139n., 151 nikah, 120, 127 al-Luhaidan, Abd al-Majid, 289 to non-Muslims, 124

326 Index

marriage (cont.) women as columnists, 32, 177, 192, removal from education for, 106 209, 256, 263, 272, 277 as a religious obligation, 121 women as journalists, 259 royal family and, 96, 99–100 women as novelists, 32, 175–243 the Shia and, 124 women as poets, 177, 217 suitability of partners, 122–5, women as social commentators, 260–1 145–6, 155 temporary, 127–8 women on television, 139, 139n., tribal, 55–6, 58, 123–4 145, 146, 155, 252 ulama and, 39, 120–9, 260–1 women as victims and, 40, 138–9, workplace mixing and, 30 155–6 al-Masri, Firyal, 275 women on ‘women’s issues’, 144–5, Massad, Joseph, 7 209, 256 Mecca, 9–10, 13, 60, 71, 83, 161, Medina, 9, 13, 71, 203–4, 248, 249, 248, 249, 250, 254, 255 250, 254, 255 Mecca Mosque uprising (1979) jahiliyya and, 203, 204 aftermath of, 39, 108, 109–10, racism in, 203–5 177 Medina Islamic University, 249 moral corruption and, 25, 108–9, misfar marriage, 224 111–12 Mishail, Princess, 98–101 state response to, 131, 133 elopement, 98 media execution of, 98, 100–1 as campaign vehicle, 38 misyar, 127–8, 224 censorship of, 170, 286 matchmakers and, 224 criticism of the state in, 278 mobilisation of women, 293. See also homosexuality in, 138n., 239 Zaynabiyat processions image of women in, 23, 24, 32, 38, Arab Spring and, 35, 286–7, 40, 139–40, 154–5 291 international, 38, 147, 152, 154, at educational institutions, 227 290 Islamist women and, 248, 252, 256, for employment, 29, 289–90 258, 262, 271, 272–3 for the release of political prisoners, opponents of the state and, 163–4 35, 287 pen names, 177 for the right to vote, 35, 287 post-9/11, 139, 146, 155, 272–3 Shia women, 286–7 religious, 252 by the state, 135, 293 seen as a source of corruption, 30 modernisation, state and, 31, 77 sex and, 138n. the education of girls and, 77 as state propaganda tool, 138, 140, erosion of the ulama’s inﬂuence 141, 153 and, 134–5, 141, 153 state and, 146, 155–6, 157–8 post-9/11, 20, 135, 152 substituting for rights organisations, modernity 157, 202 capitalist economy and, 282 supporting reform, 157, 164 cosmopolitan, 134–74, 179 ulama and, 156, 163–4, 165, 262–3 education and, 14, 39, 101 women as achievers and, 40, 138, lifestyle changes and, 113 139, 156 oil and, 282

Index 327

Saudi state and, 22, 29, 31–2, 38, education of girls, 84 39, 40, 41, 43, 101, 134–5, 281, in literature, 181–4, 186, 187–9, 282–3, 284 200 ulama and, 283 marriage customs, 123 women in the public sphere, 134–5, as model for national Wahhabi 255 system, 57, 70–1, 75 women as symbol of, 4, 90, 142, Najdi women, 51 153, 281 opposition to educating girls, 78, modesty. See also body, female; veiling 92–3 driving ban and, 130 origins of Wahhabism and, 51, 69, Islamist women and, 265 70, 71 publication of photographs, 172–3 sedentary–nomadic divide, 13, 53 shopping and, 119 nashitat islamiyat, 247, 251, state and, 240 253 Wahhabiyya and, 73, 74 Nasif family, 69, 255 al-Moqrin, Samar, 202, 225, 231–4 Nasif, Muhammad, 10 Nisa al-munkar, 231–3 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 4 support for the religious Nasserism, 10 establishment, 241–2 National Dialogue Forums, 26, Mubarak, Hosni, 285 148–9, 159, 274 Mubarak, Suzan, 6 nationalism, religious, 5, 9, 14–19, Muhammad, Prince, 98 132, 240 Muhammad ibn Ibrahim, Shaykh, 89, clashes with the state, 90 92 contemporary state and, 65–72 al-Muharib, Ruqayya, 259 control of women and, 16, 17, 18, muhtasibat, 246, 247, 251, 255 58, 75 multazimat, 41, 244, 245, 247, 251, cosmopolitan modernity and, 41, 263, 270, 278–9. See also Islamist 214 women the education of girls and, 14, 17, Munif, Abdulrahman, 210 281 al-Musaid, Juhayr, 175n. gender and, 60–5, 75, 76 mut’a, 127–8 honour and, 240 al-Mutairi, Shaykh Bandar, 245 Islamic Arab, 10 mutawwa post-9/11, 240 female, as instructors in kuttabsfor the private sphere and, 223 girls, 93 Wahhabi, 14–15, 16, 38, 43–44, in literature, 213, 234 67, 69–76 opposition to girls’ education, 92 nationalism, Saudi, 8–22, 65–72 as religious scholars, 251–2 control of women and, 73–4, 133, as religious vigilantes, 87, 105–6 292 Muthafar, Halima, 145 the education of girls and, 17, muthaqafat, 40, 178, 194, 209, 244, 281 278–9 exceptionalism, 73 national identity, development of, al-Nahda, 91, 95 65–7 Naif, Prince, 148n., 259 as a puriﬁcation of society, 17 Najd, 56, 65 tribalism and, 17, 18

328 Index

nationalism, Saudi (cont.) way of life, 53–4 Wahhabism and, 14–15, 43, 44, 67, Wahhabi ulama and, 51–2 68 al-Obaikan, Shaykh Abdul Muhsin, women as symbols of the 159–60 nation/state, 15, 16–17, 20, 25, oil industry 38, 48–9, 73, 75, 109, 112–13, women in, 102, 161, 291 115–16, 116–17, 132–3, 281, oil wealth, 22–5, 95–8 282 conspicuous consumption and, 23, nationalism, secular. See also 104 anti-colonial movements the education of girls and, 82, 95–8 in India, 7, 9 foreign domestic workers and, 23, in Jordan, 7–8, 9 103–4 modernity and, 17 in literature, 210 in other Arab countries, 3, 6, 7, 73, male employment and, 23, 103 240 marginalisation of women and, 2, tribal culture and, 8 23, 39, 103, 281, 292 women and, 3, 17 marriage to foreigners and, 74, National Society for Human Rights 96–7 (NSHR), 152 nation building and, 76 Nattu, Aisha, 142 polygamy and, 126 al-Nisa, Sawlat, 83 religious police and, 24 novelists, female, 40–1, 175–243, segregation of the sexes and, 24 253–4. See also literature; sex and, 224 muthaqafat as a threat to national purity, 98 celebrity novelists, 41, 212–43, welfare services and, 22 283–4 women’s domestic role and, 23, communication technology and, 39 219, 237 Okaz, 94, 138n. cosmopolitan fantasy and, 41, al-Olayan, Lubna, 138, 138n. 212–43 Olayan Group, 138n. the immunity of the political and, Oman 207–11 Arab Spring, 285, 286 international fame of, 217 position of women in, 18 in international media, 227 al-Omar, Shaykh Nasir, 161–2, 165, Jihadis and, 218, 219–20 259 living abroad, 193, 203, 226 al-Omayer, Basma, 160 as ‘Muslim celebrities’, 215 Omm al-Qura University, 249 from other Arab countries, 216 opposition to the Saudi state pen names, 217, 225, 234, 237 to the education of girls, 25 the roots of radicalism and, 220 Islamist, 25 the state and, 207–8, 209–10, 241 Jihadi, 25 Nura bint Abd al-Rahman, 62–5, 98, Juhaiman’s revolt, 25 149 women and, 25, 286–8 al-Orayﬁ, Muhammad, 148, 149 oasis women al-Othman, Layla, 221–2, 225 elite, 53–4, 56 Ottoman empire Islamisation of, 52 Arab revolt (1915), 10, 13

Index 329

development of Arab Muslim public office, women in, 114–16, 150 identity in, 9–10, 13 public space. See also surveillance Wahhabi opposition to, 66 flirtation and, 105, 243 harassment of women in, 104–5 participation of women in Saudi punishment, Islamic. See also hudud society, 1, 20 for adultery, 47, 100 on the Consultative Council, 20, 21 for driving, 289 employment, 22 for elopement, 98 in National Dialogue Forums, 26 for rape victims, 139n restrictions on, 20, 156 state initiatives, 147–53 al-Qafari, Dr Abd al-Mohsin, 245 patriarchy, 4–5, 27–8 al-Qahtani, Siham, 221–2 capitalism and, 4–5 Qasim, 70, 71, 92, 136, 290 in crisis, 27–8 al-Qasimi, Abdullah, 81–2, 92, 273n. institutionalised, 57, 58, 73 al-Kawn yuhakim al-illah, 81 Islamist women and, 260 Quran in literature, 179, 194 and fatwas, 111 private, 5, 57 memorisation of, 83 state and, 4–5, 142, 171, 282 Sura al-Nisa, 111, 129 tribal, 18, 57 al-Qurmazi, Ayat, 285 women’s responses to, 27–8 al-Qusbi, Nasir, 193 political reform. See also elections gender policy and, 141, 153, 171–2, racism in Saudi Arabia, 203 291 Islamist women and, 268–9 internet calls for, 171 in literature, 179, 204–5, 206–7 petitions for, 171, 209 al-Rashid, Wafa, 148 state and, 172, 202 religious police. See also mutawwa polygamy, 125–6 in desert and oasis areas, 57 as empowering the pious nation, girls’ school fire and, 147, 148, 125, 126, 132 148n. after first oil boom, 126 Islamist women and, 29 in founding narrative of the Saudi oil wealth and, 24 state, 61 protest and, 289–90 Islamist women and, 258, 260, 271 public surveillance and, 24, 87, 100, in literature, 181, 185 105, 243 as protecting women from religious scholars. See ulama corruption, 125 Riasa al-Ama lil Buhuth wa al-Ifta, as religious obligation, 113–14, 125 165 ulama and, 125, 127, 129, 132 Rida, Rashid, 69 pornography, 262 Riyadh, 53, 104, 254 Princess Nura bint Abd al-Rahman Alysha, 187, 245, 255 University, 64, 149, 171 Batha, 104 professional women. See also conquest of (1902), 58, 60–2 businesswomen; educated women Dira, 104 in literature, 187 the education of women and, 88, post-9/11, 138 136, 248, 249, 250 state and, 137–8, 141–4 al-Malaz, 245, 245n.

330 Index

Riyadh (cont.) Saud al-Kabir (Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz Masmak palace, 61 ibn Saud ibn Faysal ibn Turki), 63 protests in, 288, 290, 291 al-Sawlatiyya, 83 as Saudi capital, 69, 276 schools of jurisprudence. See Hanafi al-Thumairi, 104 school; Hanbali school; Maliki al-Wazir Street, 104 school; Shafi’i school al-Riyadh, 138n. segregation of the sexes, 100, 242 Riyadh Chamber of Commerce, as a cause of homosexuality, 239 143 criticism of, 156 Riyadh College of Education, in education, 15, 113, 170 248 Islamist women and, 30, 259 Riza, Muhammad Ali, 10 for medical treatment, 116 Rotana, 262 in mosques, 118, 161 oil wealth and, 24 al-Saad, Nura, 162, 272–9 in the public sphere, 73, 74–5, 116, al-Saad family, 255 223 Saaid al-Fawaid, 258–9 social, 110 al-Sadat, Jihan, 6 ulama and, 159 sad al-tharai, 60 in the workplace, 15, 113, 259 Sahwa movement sex Islamist women and, 271 in literature, 41, 217, 218, 220–2, Said, Edward, 216 224–5, 231–9 Salafism marriage and, 229 origins of, 69 premarital, 145 Salafi daiyat, 257–63 Saudi society and, 222–4 Wahhabism and, 69–70 state and, 223 al-Sani, Raja, 202, 212–13, 215, al-Shabib, Ruqayya, 175n. 225–31 al-Shadi, Shaykh Faisal, 166n. Girls of Riyadh, 213, 215, 218, Shafi’i school, suppression of, 72 221, 225–6, 227–31, 233 Shakr, Fatina, 175n. al-Saqqaf, Khayriyya, 175n. al-Shamlan, Sharifa, 175n., 221–2 Sarah, Princess, 85 sharia, 51. See also law, Islamic Sarah al-Faisal, 88, 91 ikhtilat and, 159–60, 164 Saud, King: and the education of girls, Islamist women and, 266 78, 84, 91 polygamy and, 126 Wahhabi ulama and, 90 Saudi nationalism and, 14 Al-Saud family, 9, 13, 50, 71, 72, 84, thawabit shariyya, 20 88, 99, 161 tribal marriages and, 123 Saud al-Faisal, Prince, 169, 259 workplace mixing and, 159–60 Saudi Arabian Women’s Association al-Sharif, Manal, 291 (SAWA), 151 Shathiliyya, 83 Saudi ibn Juluwi, 85 al-Shaykh, Hanan, 216 Saudi Scientific Society for the al-Sheikh, Abd al-Aziz, 165, 263, 274, Tradition of the Prophet, 253 276 Saudi Society for Call Studies, 253 al-Sheikh, Juwahir, 259, 263–70, 277 Saudi Society for Education and al-Sheikh, Muhammad, 263 Psychology, 253 al-Sheikh family, 255

Index 331

Shia terrorism. See also Jihadis Arab Spring and, 286–7 9/11 attacks, 147 in Bahrain, 285 gender discrimination and, 158 in Eastern Province, 71, 124, 285 Islamist women and, 269–70 Fatat al-Qatif, 139n. roots of, 25 jihad against, 72 state response to, 147, 153, 209–10 in literature, 227, 236, 238, 239 Thomas, Anthony, 99 marriage to forbidden, 124 travel. See also guardianship system; mut’a marriage, 127, 128 mahram al-Shithri, Shaykh Saad, 160, 161, for education, 86, 124 163–4, 165, 167 as liberating, 201 Shryock, Andrew, 8 in literature, 191 Sibai, Ahmad, 79, 80, 82 for medical treatment, 86 Skype, 35 in official delegations, 150, 156–7 Smith, Anthony, 7 opportunities for, 35 Solh family, 96 restrictions on for women, 100, al-Sudayri, Turki, 272 114, 129 Sufism tribalism. See also Bedouin jihad against, 72 control of women and, 5, 18–19, Wahhabism and, 70 52–3, 54, 56, 57–8 Sulyaman, Lama, 142, 162 glorification of, 8 surveillance Islamisation of, 52 criticism of, 156 Islamist women and, 33, 137 Islamist women and, 29, 284 marriage and, 123–4 in literature, 232 in other Arab countries, 4, 18, of private life, 74 280 of the public sphere, 20, 24–5, 60, patriarchy and, 18, 57 74, 100, 105, 243 the Saudi state and, 5 of women, 20, 24, 74 traditional practices, 52–3, 56–7 tribal endogamy, 18, 58 Tabari family, 81 Wahhabism and, 44, 52 Tabariyat of Mecca, 81 Turki ibn Abdullah, 50–1 Tahir, Nahed, 138, 138n., 142 Twitter, 35, 213, 214, 219, 290 Talal ibn Abd al-Aziz, 96 al-Tariqi, Abdullah, 96 ulama al-Tarbiyya al-Islamiyya, 88–9 Bedouin women and, 52–3 Tash ma Tash, 169, 193 confusion of culture with religion Tawil, Muhammad, 10, 12 and, 158–9 teachers, foreign control of women and, 39, 52–3, as companions, 85–6 107, 133 cultural differences, 93, 95 divorce and, 128 in the home, 85 driving ban and, 129, 158–9 in literature, 179, 183–4 the education of girls and, 20, 38, religious studies, 250 85, 90, 107, 121, 147, 148, in schools, 89, 93 259n. seen as threat to national purity, erosion of women’s religious ritual 93–4 space and, 46, 51–2

332 Index

ulama (cont.) employment and, 166 fatwas on women, 15, 46, 108–33, as giving an advantage over men, 155 261 gender relations and, 20 Islamist women and, 137, 265 ikhtilat and, 159, 160–2, 164–5 liberal women and, 136 liberal women and, 33 as maintaining image of pious loss of influence after 9/11, 134–5, nation, 24–5, 105–6 141, 147–9, 153, 155 niqab, 137 marriage and, 120–9, 224, 260–1 on television, 252 the media and, 156, 158, 163–4, in the workplace, 260 165, 262–3 modernity and 134 Wahba, Hafiz, 59 nation building and, 72–3 Wahhabism, 44. See also commanding networks, 66, 75 right and forbidding wrong oasis women and, 51–2 communication technology and, origins of gender discrimination 214 and, 156 criticism of, 81, 156 polygamy and, 125, 129 as emancipating women from relationship with the Saudi state, tribalism, 44, 45 20–1, 31, 39, 108–9, 131, 134–5, the erosion of women’s religious 147, 149, 163–5, 172 ritual space and, 46 religious police and, 57 Hanbali school and, 70 role in anti-colonial movements, 9 jihad and, 71–2 sex and, 284 monopoly over religious authority, women in public office and, 114–15 70–1, 75 Unayza, 53, 87, 255 oasis dwellers and, 56 unemployment of women, 1, 165, opposition to reform, 164–5 167 origins of, 69, 70 despite education, 23, 38, 249 as religious nationalism, 14–15, 16, foreign workers and, 24 38, 43, 58, 67, 69–76 mobilisation against, 29, 289–90 religious radicalism and, 45, 141, oil wealth and, 23–4 156 poverty and, 167 as a revivalist movement, 44, 46, of teachers, 289 58 urf Salafism and, 69–70 urfi marriage, 52, 56, 224 the state and, 5–6, 43, 47, 90 al-Usra, 170 women and, 15, 44, 45, 58, 154 al-Utaibi, Dr Shafaqa, 246 Walby, Sylvia, 4–5, 27 al-Uthaymin, Muhammad, 112, 117, al-Walid bin Talal, 169, 260, 262 121, 123, 129, 130, 258 al-Washmi, Abdullah, 94 al-Uyayna, 47, 48 al-Wasil, Ahmad, 236 welfare benefits veiling, 116 women and, 6, 20, 24, 281 abaya, 88, 105–6, 116 Westernisation Bedouin women and, 54 employment of women as, 166 celebrity novelists and, 217 Islamist women and, 137, 252, 253, elite women and, 53–4 259, 273

Index 333

lifestyle changes and, 93, 113, 117, workplace mixing, 159–60, 259–60. 119 See also ikhtilat; khilwa seen as corrupting Saudi women, Islamists and, 30, 162, 259 93, 110, 117, 239 marriage and, 260 Western perceptions of Saudi women, petitions against, 256 1, 2, 16, 143 intheprivatesector,166 in the international media, 23, 147, in the state sector, 259 152 Islamist women and, 266 Yahoo groups, 213, 227 post-9/11, 21, 25–6, 147 Yamani, Ahmad Zaki, 96 Saudi state’s initiatives to inﬂuence, Yamani, Mai 151 academic work on Saudi women, ‘woman question’, 1–42, 280 34 academic work on, 33–5 Yemen in Arab state building, 8–22 Arab Spring, 285, 286 contradictory state approaches to, YouTube, 140n., 145, 145n., 214, 29–30 261, 286, 287, 288 literature and, 282 al-Yusif, Rawdah, 257 modernity and, 4, 14, 17, 29, 31–2, 33, 39–40 zawaj misfar, 128 roots of, 2n., 3, 33 Zayn al-Abdin, Suhayla, 144, 175n., in Saudi nationalism, 15–26 257 Saudi state and, 26–33, 154, Zaynabiyat processions, 286 289 Zaynab bint Jahsh, 167 in secular nationalism, 3, 7, 8 Zubaida, Sami, 283 state patriarchy and, 4–6, 19, 27–8, al-Zulfa, Muhammad, 168–9 29 Zulﬁ Women without Borders, 26n. opposition to girls’ education, 94