PROGRESS REPORT
ON
SOIL FERTILITY RESTORATION PROJECT (WEST AFRICA)
THE U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
BY
INTERNATIONAL FERTILIZER DEVELOPMENT CENTER
November, 1988 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS Pagie 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Start-up Phase and Staffing 7 2.1 Administration and Personnel Recruitment 7 2.2 Links with Organizations Promoting Fertilizer Use 8 2.3 National Collaborating Institutions and Zones of Operation 9 2.4 Preparation and Adoption of Supplementary Technical Paper 10 3.0 Development of Work Plan 11 4.0 Prel-minz.ry/Exploratory Survey 11 4.1 Ghana 12 4.2 Niger 13 4.3 Togo 15 5.0 Verification Survey and The Role of Women in the SFRP 15 6.0 On Farm Trials 16 6.1 Training of Collaborators in Ghana 16 6.2 Design and Establishment of OFT in Ghana 17 6.3 Design and Fstablishment of OFT in Niger 18 7.0 Environmental impact of Fertilizer Use 18 8.0 Operating Problems During Phase One 19 9.0 Project Monitoring/Management to Overcome Problems 19 10.0 Plans for 1988/89 20 11.0 Appendices 22
SFRP ;RC";ESS REPCRT 3
PROGRESS REPORT SOIL FERTILITY RESTORATIOV PROJECT (WEST AFRICA)
1.0 Introduction
Rapidly increasing populations coupled with declining per capita food production continue to place sub-Saharan Africa at the center of international concern in relauion to food availability and production. The regions of best and Central Africa present some of the most complex problems in agricultural development during the latter quarter of this century.
The soils of West Africa are generally low in fertility, very fragile, readily exhausted through Lropping, and prone to leaching of nutrients and erosion. Farmers have traditionally coped with these problems through shifting cultivation or "bush fallcw rotations" .here land is left fallow for long periods (5 10 years) to all.cw natural vegetation--including tree and forest cover--to restore soil fertility. These practices, combined with complex cropping systems have in the past permitted low but rela tively stable levels of food production.
In recent years, however, with ever-increasing needs for ad ditional food, more and more farmers are being pressurized to shorten the extended fallow periods which threatens the tradi tional stability and sustainability of the shifting cultivation systems. Marginal lands are also being brought into food crop production and there is increasing evidence that more frequent and even continuous cropping of already fragile, highly weathered
SFRP PROGRESS REPORT 4 soils is causing serious depletion of soil organic matter and overall fertility levels.
The ecological diversity of West Africa further compounds these problems and poses a complex scientific challenge for agriculturists, especially soil scientists, agricultural and socioeconomists.
International development agencies and donors are rightfully concerned to support and implement initiatives that take due cog nizance of the special problenms now facing West African farmers.
1. There is an overriding need to manage and protect the natural resource base for agricl'Iture in the region. Sys tems to improve production--whether they be improvements or amendments to existing systems or new alternative systems- must not threaten or irrevocably deplete the productive potential of the existing resource base for food production.
2. Basic and applied agricultural research is urgently needed in the ecologies of the rpgion to obtain increased under standing and scientific explanation of the physical, chemi cal, biological, and socioeconomic elements of the natural resource base. It is especially important to identify and analyze the determinants of stability and degradation of the resource base in West African ecologies.
3. It is necessary to identify and test methods and systems of resourci management especially in relation to soil fertility and cropping practices. In particular, it is necessary to design and pilot soil management systems that can stabilize
SFPP ;ROGRESS REPCRT 5 or increase output without permanent degradation of the resource base. A priority output area for such research is detailed information on the role and use of chemical fer tilizers and associated soil amendments in stabilizing, in creasing, and 3ustaining the productive potential of West African soils within prevailing circumstances as determined by agricultural policies, farming systems, and socioeconomic conditions.
Given a background of extremely low availability and use of chemical fertilizers in West Africa in comparison to other develcoing regions of the world, and the enormity of the chal lenge to f ,rmers to increase food output, IFDC proposed a project to conduct an in-depth study to determine the scientific and so cial benefits of fertilizer and associated soil amendments in counrtzies and villaqes of West Africa. The project would examine the fifference that fertilizer availability and use could make at One ".iilage level in different counories and assess the potential of fertilizer co increase and sustain food crop production and farm incomes In various ecologies under different socioeconomic conditiocns and government policies.
The Soil Fertility Restoration Project (SFRP) is an applied agronomic and socioeconomic research program to evaluate various fertilizer investment options and assess their impact on soil productivity restoration and sustainability of soil fertility, evoluticn of farming systems, and on the economics of local com munities.
implementation over a 5-year period will center on pilot projects in selected villages in various agroecologies in West 6
Africa. These projects will provide benchmark data on the agronomic and economic benefits of chemical fertilizers and as sociated amendments for the major soils and ecologies in the region.
The pilot research areas are as of now in the humid zone of Ghana, in the savanna zone of Toqo, and in the Sahel zone in Niger, where elimination of specific soil fertility constraints in potentially productiv lands and the availability of markets for additional produce would make fertilizer use profitable and in the long run eliminate the need for government subsidies.
The specific objectives of the first few years are as fol lows:
1. Selection of four pilot regions in contrasting environments where crop production and soil fertility may be sicj nificantly increased and maintained through soil amendments and fertilizer use strAtegies.
Collection of ecological and socioeconomic bL&Ge line data in the four selected p-ilot regions.
3. Establishment of pilot projects in the four selected pilot regions in collaboration with national programs to field test soil amendments and fertilizer use strategies. Em phasis wi]]1he given to the use of indigenously available resources in the soil amendments and fertilizer use strategies to be evaluated. Products obtained through low cost processing of indigenous raw materials as well as con-
SFRP PROGRESS REPORT 7 ventional fertilizer products will be considered in design ing the strategies.
4. Training of the necessary national program personnel to implement and monitor the pilot projects and collect the necessary agronomic and socioeconomic data to evaluate the projects and their impact.
5. Determination of economically and socially effective strategies to restore soil fertility which could be recom mended for adoption in selected regions through government sponsored programs.
6. Sharing and dissemination of information generated in the projects and strengthening the capability of various na
tional agricultural research organizations to conduct similar fertility restoration projects through scientific support and consultation, material support in the execution of the pilot projects and annual w;orkshop.
The long term development objective of the project is to in crease the availability of. food, inicrease rural income, and promote agricultural and rural development in Africa through the reclamation and conservation oi fertility depleted croplands.
2.0 Startup Phase and Staffing
2.1 Administration
The SFRP is being implemented by the IFDC's West Africa Division, which is located in Lome, Togo. Startup operating funds for this division w.ere provided by World Bank, United Na-
SFRP PROGRESS REPORT e~ pmen Pr 10D
ll WK. Ke og ondto, n heItratilona~l,;Aid Ag..enciesic...... of"
fices in March 198
- ," 11 ~FetilityDeveloetio Project 1;i: teaNmP, thde Rpofeller folonain: .
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January~ 1988,as FgranesNehands an d e e~r
Republic ~~FD thierdeyin August poFitoene1987 , asvisit itha~t ing sfcien ricauDiisinatist f rom t heo
Fe~til TyResoia ProectCutues made up of thefloig Ddatmn uCeted oprtion Dntr. at.nchepn Rehrchaea Socolgist, ho jone
e dnomst Th s position will be flled by a scentist : ~sec o n d e d :f r om : : t h e Isitt de Recherches Agronoi~mques
DC iuppement (CI7,aD/I iT)i.A short li f suit be S candida teRodmeisdwE Sierrab Ln wa hi8d.in
Jn adr 1988, asagr sta SFPleader team i~i t echniac ali s upport fro0m t he :fol[low ing 'fro0m. the foloinf'FDCI sta ff!::in:' Lome adIcle :Sh o a l s Dr.PL.G. Vlek ,(soil science)T UMokwueyth posoni scis that Boaricnt ecoom
,I TI., 1.mpson- (socil!ogy),and iA.K Pinto (re search and ecassociate-ronomist). Thca lyiir ecuied befed bsasint is
Se ndd f o t e n ti u d e h r h A r n mi e T 9 agronomy (K. Alognikou) and sociology (Sakite) were appointed in April and May, respectively. Vacancies for a research associate and assistant have been identified but not filled.
2.2 Links with Orqaniza tions Promoting The Use of Phosphate 1Fertili.ers
A protocol of agteement dated September 14, 1987, be tween the World Phosphate Institute (IMPHOS) , American Phosphate Foundation (APF) , ind iFDC has been signed. It provides for an nual meetings of a steering committee in which work plan..s, budgets, and prcgress; reports of the SFRP are reviewed. The ar rangement also makes fur the pro,,ision of fertili zers by IMPHOS and AP- for the field programs. The first meeting was held from November 1-3, 1987, at which the following participated:
*Dr. Donald 1. McCune - IFDC *Dr. P.L.G. Vlek - IFDC *Dr. Ken A. Pretty - APF *Dr. Jack A. Stewart - APF *Mr. K. Benchckroun - IMPHGS *Mr. A. BenjelIoun - IMPHOS *Mr. 1. Fogt (Jr.) - IMPHOS/APF Mr. M. Debbi - IMPHOS Mr. A. Moratis - Office Togolaise de Phosphate (OTP) Mr. K. Ag badjan - OTP Mr. N. Pere - OTP Dr. A. U. Mokwunye - IFDC Dr. E. P. Rhodes - IFDC Dr. K. Acheampong - IFDC Mr. T. M. Frederick - IFDC Mr. A. K. Pinto - IFDC Dr. T. Aithnard - DRA, Togo *Members of the steering committee
SFRP PROGRESS REPORT A tentative field program for 1988 consisting Yf(a) exporaory and deta 4led baseline surveys' on socioeconomi{c cir cumstances of farmers, soil: , and cropping systems, and,,,(b) on farm trials/demonstrations..,was presented by IFDC. The plan was a-a 1 ortingent upon the active cooperation of national collaborators. The committee acknowledged that it was imperative for IFDC .to work in,close collaboration wit~h national counterparts and'-agreed that IFDC should proceed with initial discussions with Togo, Niger, and Ghana.
2.3 National Collaboratingr Institutions and Zones of Operation
The Ministry of A~ricultural (MOA)/Soil Research In- stitute (SRI) in Ghana, the Ministare du Developpement Rural (DRA)/Institut National des Sols (INS) in Togo, the Ministere de l/Agriculture et de l'Environment/Institut National Recherches Agronomiques (INRAN) in Niger are the collaborating institutions. A Memoramdum of Understanding (MOU) was signed with the MOA in Ghana, and with INRAN in Niger in May and June, respectively. An MOU with Togo has been prepared and is being reviewed by the Min istry. It is hoped that the latter will be signed very soon.
All the in-country coordinators for the three countries have been appointed. Mr. S. Opoku of Ghana was appointed in March 1988, Mr. E. Melebou of Togo in late March 1988, and Mr. M. Goube of Niger in May. The coordinators are assisted in their various countries as follows by:
SFRP PROGRESS REPORT i1
E. Acquaye (soil science) Ghana D. Boateng (economics) Ghana M. Kadi (economics) Niger Dali Fijiko (agronomy) Togo
Figure 1 is organizational chart for the SFRP in Ghana, and the project is being implemented in the following ecological zones:
Humid zone - Ashanti region, Ghana Savanna zone- Savane region, Togo Sahel zone - Maradi department, Niger
The SFRP is also to be implemented in irrigated lands in a savanna ecology, but the pilot area is yet to be selected. The possibility of the pilot area being located in any of the above three countries or a :7ourth country is being investigateI.
2.4 P a o nd cdor0tion of Sunnlementarv Technical -7ner
A supplementary paper was prepared and adopted in January 1988. Among the essential features of the paper were:
a. The implication of the application of fertilizers and soil amendments to farm land in the light of the prevailing farming systems in the subregion.
b. The justification and methodology of the planned preliminary, exploratory, and verification surveys and on-farm trials (OFT).
SFRP PROGRESS REPCRT '«'3.0' Development of Work Plan '
SA draft'activity, and time chart for, 1988 was ~prepared in SJanuary and 'finalized~ in April1 (Appendix 2). Detailed work plans covering the OFT, and exploratory and verification surveys were, finalized individually with the. in-country coordinators as fol lows:
Ghana - March 1988 Togo -April 1988 7Nigc-r - May 1988 4.0 Preliminary/Exploratory Surveys
As a first step towards the selection of *sites for planned project activities, the Preliminary Survey form A (Appendix 3) was developed for national collaborators to collect basic infor mation in several villages within the specified agroecological zones. The purpose of this- exercise wa's to gauge the willnns of farmers to participate and to guide' the SFRP team to narrow down the number of potential sites for the siubsequent exploratory survey and OFT on the basis of a list of criteria. An Ex-' ploratory Survey Form A B (Appendix 4) was also prepared to collect more detailed information 'through farm visits and interviews of a carefully selected sample of farmers. The document made provi sion for recording both farmers perceptions and researchers ob- servations on the physical, biological, and socioeconomic en virnmetand on the farming sytm, soils,ancosrit o fertilizer use.
A,>'
PRGRS REPORT f 13
4.1 Ghana
The preliminary/exploratory surveys were conducted in March in the Ashanti region. Respondents included five men and five women farmers. The draft report was completed in June. The final version of the report will he published as Technical Report No. 1 of the SFRP. The survey involved interviews of male and female farmers in each of five villages in the Ashanti region (Adjamasu, Ayinasusuo, liwidiem, Boamang, and Baworo). Soil samples were analyzed at INS for a range of soil chemical and physical properties. The field data was supplemented with infor mation obtained from several secondary sources. Collection of published and unpubiished materials on crop production, soils, climate, vegetation, and poaulation began in November 1987. The exploratory surve,," report contains maps showing the location of pilot villages, road networks, and soil types. The draft report is Appendix 5. The major implications and conclusions of the findings of the SFRP ,;ere as follows:
a. Inadequate soil P levels is the major so:.l fertility constraint in the Ashanti region of Ghana. Emphasis should, therefore, be on the use of -,hosphatic materials.
b. Compounds versus single nutrient carriers of P should be compared as investment strategies in 1989.
c. The fact that continuous cropping is not practiced sug gests that moderate annual applications of P rather than a single large dose to last for 3 to 5 years may be appropriate at the start of the project.
SFPP PROGRESS REPCRT 14
d. Maize and cassava are very important food/cash crops in the pilot villages. However, present yields are low. Fertilization of entire villages should be based on maize/cassava farms.
e. There is need to maintain close contact with the exten sion service, so that improved practices such as im proved seed, correct plant populations, adequate weed ing, etc., would be followed.
f. The verification survey should explore the extent of involvement of women in (1) decision-making, and (2) labor input in various farming and non-farming ac tivities.
g. The villages of Adjamasu and Hwidiem belong to the same soil association, and they are within easy reach of .aarkets and fertilizer depots; farmers are compara tively more market oriented; land tenure arrangements a ce noL a problem in both villages; large responses to applied P fertili:ers are highly probable in Adjamasu village. These two villages are, therefore, chosen as the villages in which the detailed survey will be con ducteci. The "fertilizer village" will be Adjamasu and the "control village" will be H1widiem.
4.2 Niger
The preliminary/exploratory survey was conducted in June in Niger in Maradi department. It involved interviews with five men and five women in the villages of Nwallo, Tchizon,
SFRP PROGRESS REPCRT Zaboua and Maiguero. Following the receipt of supplementary in formation in July, the report will be prepared. Soil samples are being analyzed at INRAN.
4.2.1 Prior to the selection of Mairadi by INRAN/IFDC as the department in which the soil fertility restoration project is to be implemented, IFDC conducted a socioeconomic study of farm-level constraints to fer tilizer use in Western N'ger during the period June to Auyust 1987. The survey provided an oppetunity for IFDC to line-tune its socioeconomics research tcch niaues in departments of Niger with which its staff was familiar. The results of this survey (Appendix 6) showed that:
1. Dry-season migration to other Wcst African countries averages about US $650 for as much as 9 months of work. These earnings were often the principle sources of household finances.
2. Lack of transportation is a serious constraint to fertilizer use. Distances to fields and markets can be relatively long and most farmers are de pendent on foot transport.
3. Land may be owned or borrowed by household and in dividuals. Djerma farmers are reluctant to make capital investments in borrowed land and generally forego using fertilizer and manure. Therefore, the frequency of borrowed land is a constraint to fertilizer use.
SFRP PROGRESS REPCRT 16
4. Intercropping of millet and cowpea or millet and sorghum are common risk reduction strategies.
5. Virtually no household production is sold. Straw by-products are used in a variety of ways, and cowpea straw is a medium of exchange and is traded for goods and services.
6. Farm labor for weeding is frequently hired and wages are a significant cost. Few women and children libor on household plots; labor from non household relatives were compensated with har vested grain or straw.
7. A major ccnstraint is the lack of government sup ported credit. Farmers expressed virtually universal disappointment about the lack of credit to purchase fertilizers. The lack of credit in agricultural cooperatives is also a constraint to fertilizer use.
8. Farmers appeared to learn more about fertilizer use from each other than from cooperatives and/or extension services. illiteracy is a constraint that prevents full realization of the contribu-
SFRP PPCGRESS REPORT 17
4.3 Toao
Collection of secondary data on crop production, soils, climate, vegetation, and population began in November 1987. The preliminary/exploratory survey in the Savane region was conducted in July. It involved interviews with seven men and six women in the villages of Kampit Bong, Kpimboua, Dapri, Nakindalare-est Centre Ogaro, Bangu, and Boumbouka. The report is under prepara tion.
5.0 Verification Surveys and The Role of Women in The SFRP
The objective is to ascertain whether the information ob tained from the r,.oidc hut less vigorous exploratory survey is represenoative of the overall prpulation and to generate a body of agronomic and sci:eocnomic -ase line data for future monitor ing and evaluaticn of ... o-,-at perizormance. it will be conducted in two village.% in each or three countries in which the project is hApp ccu-ted. Asoencix 7 is the basic question naire oo .e " ion surveys. A suitable sample size will marke -Iossible the sccarati.,n of lata on a gender basis, so that the role of women in (--a) ecis-n-macing, and (b) ac tual partiojoation in the *:arious farming and non farming ac tivities will be orcoe-ly assessed. The sample size of the ex ploratory surve ; as too small to Cermit statistical analysis of data. A stats re o r on the role of women in the SFRP (Appendix 8) is attached.
SFRP PROGRESS REPORT 18
6.0 On-Farm Trials
The general objective of the farmer/extension/researcher managed trials is to pretest on small scale some of the treat ments which ;ill form the basis of the treatments to be applied on large tracts of land in 1989.
6.1 Training for Collaborators in Ghana
As a prelude to the OFT a training course was conducted in two stages in March/April in Kumasi to familiarize par ticipants with the objectives of IFDC and the SFRP and the con duct or :he CT. The f i rt stge consisted aof l ecour and dis cuss ion o the OFT with senior national research ind extension workers from the SPIT i MOA of Ghana, collaborating in the SFRP. The second stage emp*asined the training of field assistants.
Tonics covered in the second segment of the training were:
SFRP background and objective On-farm trials 1988 Plot layout and soil sampling On-farm trials and extension
The list of persons ..;ho participated in one or both of the training segments is shown in Appendix 9.
6.2 Design and 7_0blishmont of OFT in Ghana
The trials ,.ere planted in April/May. The specific ob jectives were to measure the of fects of N (urea) , P (single
SFRP PRCGRESS REPCRT 19
superphosphate/partially acidulated Togo phosphate rock), and K (muriate of potash) on cror performance and soil properties and assess farmers' resDonses in terms of their management of fertil ized plots and the way they dispose of any extra produce.
Location: Farmers fields in 5 districts in the Ashanti Cropping system.: Maize based with cassava intercrop Plot size: 1,000.I Treatments:
I P 20 5 K2 0 ( KdL[Ia I Ti 100 60 0 (SSP) T2 100 40 30 (SSP) T3 100 60 30 T4 (SSP) 100 80 30 (SSP) T5 100 60 0 (SSP) T6 0 0 0 (Togo PAPR 50)
SSP = Single Superphosphate
Data are being collected on soil chemical and physical composition, crop stain, crop duration, seed/tuber yields, data of major manacemenr oer-ations, and harvesting. A questionnaire has been comoleted after the basal fertilizer applicat ion to as sess :ar:-.ers' reections to the f-ertilization practices. Ques tionnaires "ill attain 1e completed at midseason and after the harvest. Records are being kept of participation of men, women, and children in the OFT.
:ZCOZESS REPCRT 20
6.3 Design and Establishment of OFT in Niger
The trials were planted in June in the villages of Nwallo, Zaboua, Tchizon, and Maiguero. The specific objectives are to measure the effects of N (urea), and P0 5 (SSP/Tahoua phosphate rock) on cro), .,oi1, and ha rmers' response.
Location Farmers feds in the ,Maradi department in Niger. Cropping system: (a) Millet based with a groundnut or cowpea intercrop. (b) Sole millet. Plot size: 1,000M
Treatments:
N P 2 0 5 (Kg/Ha)
Tl 0 0 T2 45 30 (SSP) T3 45 30 (TPR) T4 45 15 (SSP) 60 (TPR) T5 45 0 (SSP)
TPR = Tahoua phosphate rock SSP = Single Juperphosphate
7.0 Environmental Impact of Fertilizer Use
The SFR1 ro jct team will monitor the environmental impact of project activities. In preparation for this the literature on the effect of fertilizers on the environment is currently being reviewed and a plan of action will be prepared during the im plementation phase.
SFRP PROGRESS REPORT 44' 4i ,"' ' '4
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21
8.0 Operating Problems'During Phase One 4-
____ For successful implementat ion-,of..te prjc- -t-',--seti -4 44 -4 that thr hudb eycoecodnto with collaborators in Ghana, Togo, and Niger. There have been delays in the ap pointments national of coordinators and signing of an, especially .in Niger and Togo. However, all participating countries readily welcomed the SFRP in principle, but, on the basis of past ex perience, African governments tend to be very cautious in accept ing new projects these days, no matter how potentially useful the
4i" i projects may be. :
- The late nomination of the coordinator for Niger gave very '4' little time for finalizing the work plan and organizing training of field staff for the OFT. Farmers in two villages, which had been selected for these OFT, were dropped because they had gone ahead and planted. Even in Ghana, which was the first country to appoint corrdinators and sign the MOU the exploratory survey had 4 to be rushed through to ensure its completion before the start of the OFT.
In addition to the late appointment of the coordinator in Togo, the individual was requested by his Ministry to participate in a Farming Systems Research and Development course which ended on June 24. Although this course will prepare him well for the SFRP, it meant that there was insufficient time to select sites and organize farmers for the OFT. Hence, OFT are not being con ducted in Togo in 1988.
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AIS OFAPEDIE
Appni 1 OraiainCatoSolFtlty
Appendix 13raiainCato Soil FertilityRetr ioPojc
Appendix 3 Soil Fertilityr Restoration Project
A Exploratory Survey Form B.
Appendix 5 An Exploratory Survey of the Soil Fertility Restoration Project Pilot Area in the
Appendix 6 A Socioeconomic Study on Farm-Level Constraints toFertilizer UseAmnth
A. Djerma of Niger.4
Appendix 7 Draft Basic Questionnaire of Verification Survey.
Appendix 8 Status Report on the Participation of Women in the Soil Fertilizer Restoration Project. Appendix 9 List of Trainees for the On-Farm Trials Program in.Ghana.
Appendix 10 List of Trips Made to the Project Zones by IFDC Staff. Appendix 11 Letter from Howard Fogt reporting on
0 Fertilizer Investment for Soil Fertility .. Restoration Project in West Africa - Steering Committee Meeting, August 1988.'
ASFRP
A PROGRESS REPORT . 'A V A, A $.+L A : Ar iA S y.? ;:7" 7 ?]Y77, r '-} ," ,i..:> ., A .. .. : . + , i . ,;, :!D: ¢!: :: '41.:
APi'ENDIX 1
7;'' cSOI1L FERTILITY RESTORATION BiPROJE CT IN CO UNTRY (GHAINA) ORGA.NI ZATIO-NQHR .1:;':. -, "7; 7, "-.: I
"'A--il Under Secretary of Agriculture JF C Arqe ''A
Deputy Director Soils & Soil Fertility
SoilsRe ac intue
A'A RU.egonal Director of Agriculture ID
Regional Crop Service Officer ____-______
SSFRP Country Coordiniator: "SFRP - Unit
E*R5itanA (Agronomy) Reea-chFj Assi3Lant (Socioeconomics)
A tant Field FdAsisnt . '- : , : A ...... : . . , " " : " f
172!-"< :::<. "i::y'; '}Y;i;::3): -- :i:;-::/''(.Ti:: ;:::- /, :.?.;:: ,-:V.
AAVA- i A .... " " '' : + -" .... :,,-."...... "'> "."'%''".. :.. !. ,<.:-./.,:- :,s:" !i z ',: <-' ,(;.'-I!' '" AA'* ' " .>: ; '': ,-PAA..A-: : J ":,; ', i : A.."" : ' ') t ,. : ::Z i::.-L .:. :. : '> <" :-: ,[ : , ; < ' ; :; pAA . ~ >~;~> ~ ~ ------ 'Pro'Activity Personnel SApril l5-M'a 30 (1) Completion of E. Rhodes and K..... report onAcheampong exploratory will survey prepare drafts of (Ghana) report and questionnaire (2) Design' to of be reviewed by C. verification survey Baanante and questionnaire T.P. Thompson (Ghana) -(headquarters) (3) Selection of two 4 (2)~ villages forJ verification survey (Ghana) (4) "Selection of E. Rhodes and K. villages hamon an ' for exploratory C'poku, E. Helebou Survey (Togo) A. Bationo (5) O~btain approval and support for conducting field 7 work (Niger) (6) Planting- of 20 fertilizer field trials in 5. villages (Ghana) (7)' Conduct' the E. Rhodes, exploratory K. survey Achearnpong, French - (Niger) Economist, and R In-country - coordinator, U. iMokwuriye (8) Design~ of on Farm Trials for Niger JJ~une 1-30 ~ (1) Conduct exploratory E. Rhodes, K._ survey in Togo Acheampong and 'E."" Fl~elebou, and.S . 2 ~ ""~' "'''~ ~ Supervision of~"""''""' fertilizer field~ i a s '"' "tr l in G ha n ' " a ' '' " > M' ~TAjr.Peri.od Activity Personnel 4'June 1-30 (3) ~Establish E. R'hode-,,K.. > in Niger n-country Coordinator (iger) ~ July30 (1) verification survey Acheaponge and questionnaire and Staff K pre-test in Ghana (2) Selection and K. Ahapn training of f interviewers in Ghanai (3) Prepare draft of E. Rhodes and;K. * exploratory 1 survey Achearnpong, French report for Togo and Economist, Niger In-country. August 1 () Verification , September 30 surveys for Ghana, E. Rhodes-i, K. Niger and Togo Acheampong and (Ghana Aug. 1 -In-country Sept. 7) Coordiators.S. (Togo Aug 1 - Opoku, E. Melebou, Sept. 15) Niger Coordinator, (Niger Aug. 15 -French Economist, Sept.'15) and T.P. Thompson (2) Imphos Meeting, Committee members Niger ~October.1-30 (1) Coding and data processing of E. Rhodes, ~verification K. Acheampong, Resear su*esfor Ga ,. Tcgo, and ch Assistants, Niger to C.A., Baanante and b,.:conducted in T.P. Thompson Lome November 1 - 1 Continu dat ~December 30 Processing and E. Rhodes, a.nalysis., Initiate., -rjeport' ~AheamPong ,C ..A. w.riting * Baanante, : n TP ~ ,'~Thompson,' U.~ ~(2)~ Prepare work p1a~> orwne for. 1989 phase January ~~French'.Ecorjomist~ Janu r~, I )K Freparation andwi February 2S< {v Cpordinators an d ~ K Kw r iti rg of final ~ Research * ~ reports,. _j a H~ '' 4H~~~ 4'1 ~ t~24~4 E--,4' 44 ''H - ',-4 a)z Q) 04' ' 214 Ej4-)g 4 H '14' 04 rx) cQ)4~ - 4 F-: 4J4 E-i I Ci) ~u 0 r4 -P 4 C4 ) 0i (1 U '4 Cr0 -P4 (-4 C 0 H 4 (U 44. November 198 Ocoe 18 Ya Tim Peio Ctvt OV E._ AN E. MAC PI MAY JUNE, JUL AU. 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' " ",, : - . . . 2 : :-,,Aj APPE33'' ~ 43~ 3 33' TL-3~> I3 -f< -N<3= EXF~tF 3 'F P 3 A'rociinat3 :on D3 " ' AnyL'Fgr~ (Crcecry~' No ES ___l __ ~ ,33 c)' v la i n a o t a t y a ' a n a l ( i cl j ( )c : 0 I . ; c and '33e c /c i ld c e k 33et Crop Poo I Lyesock COMentood Ave. I MA'c ef ec r j 7- "3 Plantain______ 3 3 3 ' 3 - ' 3 > ' Ag rc oci am oe ______~ _ _ _ src ______~ _ _ _ Jlae ______ Farer ls ne ______i~ __ _ one _ _ Teryi sr)i ~ ______ Livestocy L ....? r aiw iBi )i!! : V-i ; -~ b- aC i - a,r aa-) -,a .aaaaa ; a; a a a "'~ i -a -'a??a-a' a a-a-t-i r : •-A' ...... -B i , aa P -} Y o o h n an e e a ica: . i laa'a1 a-aa ! '; ' " Er sion risEa. ! .. a.....urv . ...va st-a: : - {: " =+:i .. : ,flts ...... " . :" ' ' ' . . . . ' - . ! ::1: .1 , ¢, + 1: ! !] ' ,! ] ;l ' i ~i i = =l l O !'- ; al -ai a-ak i : ' , ]I ; ' . ", J ' <. .. . ; : ' ' 4 - s--a' ° Z !'," !I.. KII I i i Nutan Envronen 4"" 1 1b) Etnsionan (cu rersOna eri irstf lmaoje S~ot~evcs (9)ss Pestcide ()Man Credi () Farmuer' Ouroa 2. S ci lEni44e t (a4a d A c s n t n r a r4n e e t (b a o r o rc s o s n f r f o p n st4 ------ (c) ~ ~~~~~~~~ ~ye~ ~ ~ccsiiiyadcs Helhcr444cs!Sucs ------ ~~4:4~ ~ -~ 4 b2~ *1 4~ 4 ~ ~r'~' Id) ~el1g1on/ies~~v~J 5 I~acure ano ti~e of o~curance ~K7i. <1 (e) Iligration: Pattern, e~tIvity, and ~estznat:cn. K K' '~ . p 4 (3.. 4 i S 'Infrastructure: 3. Physical . I (a) Roads: Type,~ statusand tyvical distances to fang, 4'.. 3.4 a'> 3.4 '(o) Transportation: 34 TYFB an~ availability 43 4" 3 '4' (c) ~arkets: Location, distances from village/farms 433 34'I 34 -'33-. 44 .4"; '".3 '43' 34 3333~ U' '33w ....""'3. Ii 3. 43 ~3'43 33 "kI"3~ 4 43 3, ,, "4 34 4' ,~ ~ '3'' 4 "' a" 3 ~" 3'33'4 ~ "'3 '4"i" >"' 3 ' 34 "~~' 4', 4. ~ ~ ' '4 .4.23''3 4"'. 3.'" 4 ' ". $""4 . 4N','.3 ~ '.4' 4'; "3 '.'3'~3 ~ ;""34, *,.. 13 '~3'~2~ ~ . '4'~4 414 '494'44~ '' ~"'' " ' cF ) Fars siz N'~~i(Fe)rropvaiet ad carcteisic ff Plan n aqdese:,' (9) .Pcitnri ar arr anm e let______a-a,'F F(h ~ I)ieentit faland thoads ofcnroog 'a?'-~~~~~~~ Pes) fletod of ladentefacation ______control______ 2. Post harvest activities and harvest utilization (a)Activities during off-season ______ (b)Proportion of hret Consured Sold ~tored Corments Ma i , * Cassava Plantain . 4 Cocoyam Veoetables 10ther (s~ecify): 444 4 ~ P 4 4.~ I U 44 44 4 ~ 4~.. 4 4"' ~ <44 4 44 ii -~ - Stora.e: - storage - (c) - -. -~ 44~44'~4 .4, ''1 4 '4, .4, '444'4K Crop 4~44... 4 method Location Duration 4444. Coasents .,.....,...... ,. 4..-., ~aize~< 44 4444,. Cassava ,'N4. 44 ~44 44 >4< 44, Oti~er (specify): 44 .. 444 44'> I .. 44 4~44 44 .44444 (d)'Crop residues and by-products '1 utilization ~14 4,44~ 11 4'4 4544444, S ~444 7) 4444 4 <2,44; .44. . . 4 4, 4,4 4, A ~4>4 4-4' 444 N 4-414,4 44 444., 4,'44 - . . 4, 44 4 4<444, --- ~ ~' 44,4, 44.. 4444444 'A 6 444444 4, 4 - 44 44 4 4 .N4 44 Nj 4, 4 ... 444-4 ...... 4.,.. 4 444,4 ..4 4 4..44.~ 4,4 4, 4.'4'44 ~'<'44~"> .4 ,.,.,. .,~,.. 44~ 44 4 4.u.4~ A44..4 ~',4~., 44 '44''Th'N <4 > 4,4 4 ,44,<4,4 4 ~ .4 N.., 4, 444'.,44, <4 4 ..44,~ 4 4- >44'<'4'4 444, ~ 44"'4444V4"4<4>< 4444.44444~444444,4 ~ 4 44,4 44~ 444~444 44 4 ~ ..~4' K'' ~ K K K V~4KV'K4K K U K ' ~KKVV k K V K K S V -K~K-'<:.-.K-.'---~ 4 K K '4 K K K K V K V K K K V K'' V KKKK~V K K "'''K' K V K K K K arPENDIX 5 - K 4K"' '"K A K K KK K V ~K'K ~ EXPLORATORY SURVEY K 4 - K OF THE K 4G. SOIL FERTILITY RESTORATION PROJECT 4,., '4' 'K K-, PILOT AREA KKK,, -~ 'K 4G. IN THE ASHANTI REGION OF GHANA ~K 'K V K' K 'KKV'K~A KK'K E. R. RHODES "'4 K. ACHEAMPONG . . .. AND 'K' V S. OPOKU 4 K,' VK KK K 'F 'V ,KK V~K" K 'KK 4" 'V 'K'~ 4 K K K K' KK K"' 'K)' * K ' 'flfl~I WP1t1Ii7L~V Developmentcenter V4A K K K'4 V K 4 .. West Africa Division B P (P0 Box) 4483 V 4 '4 K4 K' 'K LOME ~E'OGO K "4~K ~K K ~V 't'4, 'K." 'K P K .KK I K SFRP TECHNICAL REPORT NO I 2K~ 14> ~. K'KV ?~~~T r'~. ~ 4 ' - ~ 44~,K' K~4~'K~4')'K'~" K' ~K ACKOWLDGMNT The~__ _ cotiuin.f2eea4epeaeti tdypsil.I Thhwe e cmossribuetos seealpopenaethssidopnibe I We wish to thank Dr. Paul L.G. Viek, Dr. A. U. Mokwunye, Dr. C..A. Baanante, and Dr. T. P. Thompson for reviewing the initial draft report. Drs. Baaiiante and Thompson also reviewed drafts of-ithe "checklist"'Of information to be collected in the exploratory survey and Mr. Mensah (Regional Economic Planning Officer, Kumasi) for information on population of some of the villages. Special gratitude is due to Mr. A. T. Halm and the staff of thej Soil Research Institute, Kumasi, for their suggestions and collection of soil samples. To the farmers and the leaders of the pilot villages who patiently 4 responded to our battery of questions, we owe a deep sense of gratitude. 7 Without their cooperation the study would not have been pos.qible. We are grateful to the District Agricultural Officers in charge of the pilot villages for their support during the field work. The effort put in by our Research Assistants--.Mr. E. Acquaye, Mr. D. Boateng, Mr. K. Alongnikou, and Mr. A. Sakite- -during the surveys and the preparation of this report is very appreciated. TABLE OF CONTENTS ~ Acknowledgments ?~~~Listis of i Tables,reso '2~~:Lis t of Figure KA-Li"'st-of7Appendibc--- Tib& e- -- $-, Introduction . I;...... The Republic of Ghana: ...... 1.... An Over-view~ ...... 1...... Th sat Region...... e ...... : .,...... , 2.2 Methodology...... 6 Selection of Pilot Villages ...... 6.. ~ Inter-views and Farm Visits...... General Aspects of the Pilot Area. 7 Physical and Biological Environment of the Pilot Area ...... Climate A ...... Farmers' Perceptions of Site and Soil Conditions. Topography and Soil 13 Properties ...... 13...... ~-- Topography and Soil Physical Propertie T .....13 Soil Reaction, Exchange Acidity, Base Saturation, and CEC ...... 14 PaNutrigents...... 15 Phitren...... 15 Photashius...... ~ ...... +++++++++ 13 , ...15 ...... 15 Magnesium-15 Pln N t ie t ..... 0 . 15 1.5 Sulfr...... Sulfur 16 r -- Micronutrients ...... Soi Classification 16 and Suitability...... I....16 ~ Humaa'Environment and Physical Infrastructure of the Pilot Area ...... 18< :'j'Sociocultural Environment...... 18 The Village Power Structure...... 18 7 , The Domestic Group...... Religion and Work Schedule ...... S Economic Environment ...... _f ...... 19 Land Tenure and Access ...... 19 19... Reads...... 49 Farsn FalowcrofpCisgSysems and Agic fto ...... is...... 251~,25oductin - Cr~p~ Djs~rd..s...... 2 ~ 2S-~ %& 7 ~ Diease. ~ ,...... 2-4 Cropping- Ped/alown apecies...... I....I...... 4 anpD4- ts and 264 J' l nt n anYiee ti gf...... ...... 257 72+ +i7, P, 7 7I+" .I ...... 2 Di ea e ...... I,-'' 477 7 -- ...... 7 ' Pests.7 ~ .. .. I . .. . I -~~I .25.'~7,,.,7'I,1 ., ...... qeedsF allow7 Specie ...... 2~ 5 " 7 7.....7~4 ...... Inp u' c~7~4 ...... 2 77'I 1 A~>AA±, 41 ~ A~LA4A1~A~A.A.,.' r Li" LA~ - AA~ ~A~AA ~ Th A1~AA ~ A. A~A~~ALA. ~ k ~ ~ LA.. I~ A AA* LA ALL ~,.AA.AAAL Aft A~AAA-,jLAALA*~AA1LAA.A>AL4LLAA ~A. ~ I A. AACA.AAIA. ~Li~LAAA ft AC 1 1 1 AA A AC A A~ A~ft A~ AA 1., AAq.~ A~14A.~. LA A ~ ~ AIA~L ~AA A A A 1,Ak A~;~ AA AC A AA A I A. A f A AALAAAL~L CA ~A.AAAA.A~AAA A~A.AAAAA~.AiIAAA.A.A~LA.A.~ ~ AC~L.1A~A. ,1AL1CALA.~A ~ A yLA~ jA>A.. .AA I) A LA A TABLE OF CONTENTS A A~A.AAA~A.,~-~A A.' A. ~AALA~V-~LAA A> A (Continued) 4 A 4'~AjAAC~>..A.y V~ A A A L~ 'A1 A A A AALLAAC1 A A 1 l Storage Facilities -27 A~A''AA<~A~ILAA' A~AAA~ACA~~A.AAft AA A A'~<>' Marketi Farm Produce...... 28 I~ A~"' Conclusions of Survey and Implications they Soil Fertility Restoration Project A References . 28 ...... 32 ~AC LAAAA.~1 AA *~AAft~ fAA A . A~ AA~'A~ ~AAA- . ~LAALA.A A . A*~ L ALA Li A I4FA4AAAA Ip4~CAA..A 5wl~rACA A A \ A.~ A " 'A AA."AA J4lftLA'AALAAC~ACL' 1, ~~LiAA/ AIA A AAA A~ A AA~A~ A A.' AAAAALA~4 A 'A" A~ A AAlA'"~iAAACA'- A A Aft AA AC'~A"ALA7L4 A AA. A A. ('A.AA'AALAAACA' ~~ALA.AL ~A'LAAA~A4' A A AA"" IA 'ALA A.LAAA.AA)""A ''""A A A. ' A A A A YA. 'ALA'A.A~"'AA AL A'. A' AA. CA Al AL A. - A. IL . A' A 'C LA AAALAf~*fAAC>4AAALAAA LA IL' 'A ~A ~A A' "AAL AL A. 'A'CA'jAl'AA 1 ACA A A A A A~~AL AA" ~ ~ "A.L'~AjALA.A~AAC'A A A~A~f~AA A A A A AA'~ A ""A A tA. AL AA A A LAAAAA~~AA~AA ACAAAA~ A. A AAAL/AA AAA A ALA A - A ALA I ALLA~~AAA LA AA~,A~AAL "A A' A AL ~lA'~L'~A ~ ~IA/4'.AiAAL'"''AI*A'AA.AAA'A'~A~AAAAAAA'' '"''ALl''A " ~ LA."A~A~,AA ''A '"'' A 'A'I" 'AAA AL' AC"A'A""''"C"' A~'~~A AALA L.~A"A~AA.'A.AA'AAAAAAAAA'A ALAAA'AA'L"A~4~A~ftA..A 'AIAL'"'.1 ~ AL' AAAAA' 'A' Zane Table 1. Population and Highway Distances Between Pilot Villages and the Locations of Essential S5ervices ...... ; - Tbe2 Farmers' --Evarldi~f__' f19-87 _Ra'in-f-all by Village,...... 10 Table 3. Classification of Well to Moderately Well-Drained Soils of the Pilot Area ...... Table 16 4 Mandatory Holidays in Pilot Villages...... 19 Table 5. Land Tenure Categories by Pilot Village ...... 20 Table 6. Labor Requirements and Cost for a Hectare of Maize (1987)...... 22 Table 7. Proportion of 1987 Produce Sold by Pilot Villages ...... 22 Table 8. Farmers' Sources of Cash for Farm Operations...... 23 Table 9. Fertilizer Allocation to Districts here the Exploratory Survey was Conducted (1987)...... 26 LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1. The Ashanti Region of Ghana.,...... 2 Figure 2. Ghana: Vegetation Types ..... : ...... 4 ,Figure3. Kumasi: Mean Monthly Rainfall and Temperature ...... :5 Figure 4. Location of the Pilot Villages -. ,...... :..:...8 Figure 5. ThL- Ashanti Region: Monthly Rainfall and Number of Rain Days 9 8 7 (l )--Selected Stations ...... 11 Map of the Pilot Area....17 Figure 7. Marketing Channels of Food Crops in the Pilot Area...... 29 ...... LIST.. .. OF APPENDIX TABLES ~-; Table 1. Ashanti Region: Rainfall and Number of Rain Days (197 ,Table, 2. Field Description of Sites VTable 4~ 3~ Soil Analytical 'Data of Sites in the. Pilot .a*rea (Over Dry Weight Basis) 4i4~ INTRODUCTION The aim of the Soil Fertility Restoration Project (SFRP) is to study means of facilitating the adoption of fertilizers in communities where the elimination of specific soil fetlty cnstraints n~pt lands and the availability of markets for additional produce make fertilizer II useI profitable and attractive to small-scale farmers. - / The project is being implemented in three agroecological zones- -the Sahel, Savanna, and humid zones--of West Africa. The target area representing the humid:zone was identified in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. As a prelude to eiI-1embarking on large-scale fertilization of entire village farms, it was deemed necessary to conduct an exploratory survey to gain insight into farmers' socioeconomic circumstances as well as the climate, soils, and cropping systems within the target area. This report concerfis the exploratory survey in the humid zone of the Ashanti region of Ghana. The report is organized into six sections. An over. view of Ghana, some general aspects of the region where the target area is NI .. located, and the methodology for the study are outlined in the firsttwo sec- tions. Sections three and four are descriptions of the physical, biological, I~I I and human environment. An analysis of the farming systems and the study's implications for the SFRP are provided in sections five and six. The Republic of Ghana: An Overview The Republic of Ghana, an Anglophone West African country, lies : " entirely within the tropics, i.e., between 4044' and 11011' north of the equator (see Figure 1). Bordered on the north, east, and west by the Republics of Burkina..Faso, Togo, and C6te d'Ivoire, respectively, and on the south by the Gulf f Guinea, Ghana covers an area of 238,538 km. The country is considered as lowland because approximately 50% of the land is less than 150 meters above sea leve . - The tropical climate of Ghana is characterized by high temperatures and a marked variations in amnount the tand distribution of, rainfall. Except in 44s,... he north, ehere tie rainy seasons tend to merge, two rainy seasons are sepaatedby afairy shrt dy pe iin July and August and a1 relatvl - ~II~N longer dry season from December to February. -~~~ Et Y- Re ion -Ojc Ditrc centre, /1111e sil Fis le sro S e co n clo41o o or 4 KEY II' _ ____ Vito egio al C - DstictCetr *1.E Eilg Site FirstOlasMroo SecondUclotro L* River TH S A TI R G O O H N tures. northward :ifromn th ost eeation gradallychanges 'fro ror6p ical . Aletogronaophy, driginaliaenvegetatfmaionhavremind oherei i:,: - sive;,guinea savanna-da nd "that :cov erssab o ut:two- thi r ds :"of i ithe: country ! (see' ! i i. 'to time produc~e a :wide range of soils with varying :levels of !fertility: . Soils: ithe rain forest and semi-deciduous zones have a greater :accumulation of or-...i gadic adi than those inthe other zones and are relatively more fertile (Dikson and Senneh, 1970). ,They are considered to be suitable for food crops uchas cocoyam, plantain, cassava, and maize, and for cash tree crops psuh as ur noPreliminary estimates based on the most recent (1984) population :census indicate that 68.7% of. Ghana's 12.3 million people live in rurali areasi;: !iii ff'...... and are engaged in agriculture and: other agro-based industries,. este ran between 17 persons per km in the sparsely populated north and he e so ,pern2 in the heavily urbanized south. Therew is a slight r yepndesance ~~~ffemales over males (i.e., 1.094 femaleS:males ratio). ":!"i Ghana isdivided inage, alinistrative regions eachof which is Sheaded by a Regional Secretary and uo oe hv a team of accufcatiou p or ing the . tvarnoustrieshos and other government agencies, Each region einl turn, is subdivdedinto districts headed by District Secretaries who oike o she regional sepretaries, aresgovernment appointees. f c t crops .sc as rangesbetweenf17rpersons-pertki2uindthe0sparselyapopulatednnorth man 438nper : : : . .' ' ', i The As ha n t i ; R e g i o n " ,- : .-regi Ghncosis diied itotenl adiitatneeiosecotagiulualof rdcihwh i SLocaeed inthe cent ra part Ghana, h e Ashanti Region exhibits mteliary biologica and othe most reent (1984) popuio aprojec such as the SFRP. About 2/3 of the regilon in-rl-aeapeople live i n ruraland areas are ariulreruengageddirectly in nd e agro-based indur.Denoitis . TheeshatiiRono sospera ure te (see Figure 3), and pot tally prduc te sol typesance GHN' VEGTAIO 4~ TYPES '' - 4F'~4. ~ '~ 44~F4 4~'~ :"-~ ~ '; B OW K4''' ------'F A~'4 I F 24" "' ale, Tam "FF ~' + oVo + 44 0. 40 so m S LEGER Sua Soon Wo dln 00S0 thike andGrssan G uin anna a SaWood and ron'~ li4 ,4 4 Z o n , , '+i 4 AniorscRmrrs 44 4efi Trpo ht4M ItS m 'F"'h r e id o 4-at to 4fores 1 1ro.n"'4- r an '~q -FI. - OUR E: Po t foi o OfGI no mc~s-FSu oe O Gh6n cr Aj 20 -0 15 15 10 0 - ~FIG0 30 S O RE7f t o o o i a e v c s D p r m n , K m s 6 Kumasi, the regional capital, is' the second larg,est city in Ghana with about a quarter of the estimated 2.1 million people in the, region. Al most all the important north-south trading routes, connecting the northern and the southern parts of the country converge on the city. Yumasi is also the meetng pintof the railway line from Accra in the spj teasc_(the_ nationaL' . capial) and that from the twin'harr cities, Sekondi-Takoradi.in-the/south west. '.ithin the Ashanti region settlements are urban and semi-urban' townships whose residents providL ready markets for a substantial proportion of the food crops grown in neighboring farming villages. Thus the ecological, socioeconomic, infrastructural, and institutional arrangements in the region provide an ideal environment for the SFRP whose ultimate goal is to improve the -ell-being of small-scale 'farmers through increased productivity, METHODOLOGY Information for the compilation of this report was derived from several sources including secondary data, village and farm visits, interviews with extension and research "workers, a carefully selected small group of vil lage leaders and farmers, and results of soil sample analysis. Selection of. Villages The Ashanti Region appears homogeneous in' several agro-climatic and socio-cultural'factors. However, there exist sl ght variations in micro climates and cultural practices. Conseq...ntly to ensure representativeness 7 and some degree of homogeneity, all villages located within 40 km radius of 7 Kumasi with less than 2 500 , 'people formed the population for ':he study. :n collaboration with regional extension service personnel, sixteen potenialal:: productive villages were selected After characterizing the six .een villages in terms of population size, accessibility, soi/landscape, 1. ccordin.:go :he Ceensus Office, all setitcments with5,000 o r more popul 7. SOfl are cassifid as urban. Based on this classfication.26.towns in the "eg'cn'are considered urbanized, 777 ' 7 farmin .stems, credit and market availability; five villages were finally selected on the basis of the' Availability fdaess by fgarmers to large markers and fertilizer distribution centers. Experienceo extrens-io9R.-orkers- ntevllg.-. Loctio ofvillages to enhance the demonstration effect of field iprograms. Inter-views and Farm Visits From each of the five selected villages 2 farmers (1 male and I female) who had earlier volunteered to participate in the on-farm trial 4 (OFT) were selected for intensive interviewing. This S:respondents yielded a total of 10 (5 males and 5 females). The interviews and farm visits which lasted about four days covered farmers' perceptions about the physical and biological environments, socio-cultural and institutional services and farming systems. Also, soil samples at depths of 0-20 cm and 20-50 cm were collected from farmers' fields in collaboration with personnel from the Soil Research Institute (SRI) for analysis at the Institut National du Sols (iNS) Lom, Togo The sites were also characterized with respect to slope and the presence or absence of gravel, and/or hardpan. GENERALASPECTS OF THE PILOT AREA The pilot villages, Anyinasuso, Adjamasu, Baworo, Boamang, and Hwidien are located within the Offinso, Amansie, Ejisu-JuabenBosomtwe, Kwabre Sekyere and Atwima Administrative Districts of the Ashanti Region, respec tivel-1 (see Figure 4). Residents of the five villages are predominantly small-scale farmers .;ho are mainly engaged in food crop production. Some'cash tree-crops (cocoa, coffee and oil palm) are also grown by farmers at Boamang, Anyinasuso and Adja-asu. ith -e exception of,'Any t inasuso, where maj6rity oC'residents o'oe 'osle:=s, appear 2 residents or -he other villagesarmotyrhdo anpe eacos 31i C!,,istians -.- 5 SOUTH IR GH N *5' El5 Distric Ce tr V ll g s l o .5.5..G 8 Fi s o 5-LS 5sf 5'..Y A'J SI RN GHArn A Reisu a i A~ AooK Secndclas oa FIG.~ ~~~ ~ VLAES ROAINiFTEvIO OnlyAnyiasuo ha a arge regulrmre.Hwvr h eea where ncsresid b y and sell ood crops.and asso-. it ms pe f rm f ne a s ...... metnsadohr comuityV rituialCs.::;/!:?:i>: :iI .. ~~~~~~n t ppear.-to b a-.-problem --i -t e;se,;-i-l-a4ges-...... :,a e-ieswihaeno banbein. _ __ _ _ : a A 'ias2 1,11 the 7abl;' e 1:.;,Pplti:on"and Highway Distances Between Pilot Villages and the Locations of Essential Services. .:" ' / . , Agricult'ral : . ' -' i ::i , "::i ' Tot~al Commercial Secondary Large ' Fert.ilizer: , +. .. 2.6 ,2,,6 7. 2>.2 8.6>9> ':,;! b - "2. AdJamasu 2,2586 16.0 16.0 16016.0 16.0 : : 4-;:. oa "1, 16.0 1 . 3 01 , ..,:aConeq :'_984 Population Th entlyCensus of Ghana:havilier PreliminaryReport. nsbShrnArc (unpublished);,courtesyeed of then Statisticlc a . ... .rice.,-' ... , ean resnca iidens reltiely't + + ,:. .. easacesstozesil .. •+ and ob)theresn . . ,:'987 projection based on 1970 :-,s ch Largzeasyseeds - Population Census dat a (2.51 growth market impliesnfertilizer, centersandtools,where Thelargefarmers makemarket rate). r " bulk asusedsale of herefarm' reers-toproduce +and Keasi,-prociltre farmh inputs" : S ayou:" Incom s in all five villages appear 2 fnie 1. Ppulti andcighwayDeistes fo beageneralhy low, and malr Tee fioilrstan treqLoaionsoeEment ial eriensoi ii .i:::::nutr ition,; partcicularly among cilidren,' is": ve ry + : estimated :apparent.:: Consider ing the: six o seven children per fam and tthempoulation growth" fral S.5% e(Ghana1984),ag 1i n the need o increase tod production thearea becomes "?"::; iii'e r-. impe rat£ive and the :r olie •of fthe sFRP.is:ce ntral in ove rco0ming these .: i . i 101 crop response to fertilizer n socioeconmcfcos dete'tmines tedmn offarmers for fertilizers and the second is determie ytespl ffr tilizers (Baanante and Thompson, 1988). A set of factors associated with the climate, so'il, and socio-economic environment determine crop production and thus the demand for fertilizer-s. ______In the context of socio-economic research on farm level constraints to fertilizer use, climate and soil characteristics are used to identify rela tively homogeneous domains which' serve as a basis for selecting research areas and for the sampling of farmers. ClIimate The pilot research area in Ghana is part of the Ashanti uplands that & lie across the rain -bearing winds. Average annual -rainfall in the Ashanti region ranges from 1400-1600 mm (Asiamah, 1986). No rainfall and: temperature data are available specifically for the pilot villages. However, rainfall data for nearby district centers (1987) provide some-insight into the volume and monthly distribution pten(e Figure 5 and Appendix Table 1). Due to their close proximity the climate around the pilot villages may not be significantly different from that of ~W Kumasi. However, the comparatively higher elevation of the Offinso area, for example, may have a moderate-effect on the rainfall, and temperature. -4 Total rainfall in 1987 was slightly below the annual average for the region (Appendix Table 1) and farmers correctly perceived, it as very insuffi- K cient. .A summary of farmers' assessment of 1987 rainfall is provided n, Table 2., ~44 Table 2. Farmer Ep1uation of 1987 RainFall byi Village Q1 - 10) Pilot, Evaluation Catep-orv4 Village Good -Average~ Poor 4 4.4444 Anyinasuso -x Adjamasu -x Baworo - -- xx 4 4-4. Damalg- ~ Hwidiem X X ..- !,, ,', 222-2, 22'22 ,' ,!, F , , : 2>? 2! , 222SZ?! :2,2 : , 22222 <.> :! : i !2 "2 > * 2,'2 '2~~1ii~i!~i 122 -'i 21 22i~ii2i) 2.iiii!i:,:>2 i 2! 2 ..NL,. 22,22<2 2<";2.&22..> 22 :Li l{I2 .22i :]~iii'i ;]~ ' i'i' i!; 2i i! 2 22 22'2 222222-! 222 1 <;i 1" ,,22 .2:2 1i !,!¢iiiii'2]i ';!ii K :~i: 2 -'~i: 22 2 2'-' i2'2-!iii ;? 2 ~i~i;?; 11. i .22 .2' '.:.2-2.22 1!ii. :i: ;i11!il i! ]i ; 'lK ;!"2!, 2!ii'ii 2 2 2 2'; 2 : " ' " . . ;' 22,ii, ]Iiii]S!!11[i! .! ii i!i~iii]i~i!!ii~i]]iiliiii~2.2 ' " ,,-' 2222 2 '< ",2.2.,----- 2 I iiiii 2 t.-..--, 4 2 4 2 < 2 22222 A22NI2 ... ' 1"I! :!i'i ':- i ;.! I ,; ;.. ... , .. 2i'. <"2 .' ~ ~ > 2 22 2'N22 2 22> ,22' iiii2- i' ? -i' i;Y k=;:: i~ ~i;,;( i ' ] '' I= :Sr ';N, ~2*.222b2 i i % i!!i111 ]f~i~2$>: 2 '' 22.22:222.222.2 2 i :]; I'i £;{ i~i=!ii 'i ;]:1;: ii2~! ii! ih l 22-22~iii ...... ~i;i , , fi, ? ' '2 >2 2 2 RAJALL AN N U M BE O F RA N,,D y --2>P-- , ' ''-2'2.2. ...... 2i~ ~~[ ...... 2 2 i ii i i!1 i~i~ 1! 400 22~ii1!iii ' , ~ ii!= l~ ii:i:>i )ii ;!!! i]!,I) 'ii 2 22i iiii 2.22- 222iii ...... 0II! i!i !S1i] )'i ! ii~~!:t 2~ " '2.2)22!ii~~ ![ [i i 1 iil{ Li ii 1i]i ii; 2 22 ., , ...... ,...... i : ii =ii~ ~i !~i ! i i i i~)i] 2.222 'i i i :i i ;1 '<: 1 ' ';il :, i 2i ;*"i~ : i, : :; i ;! IA N FEB 2,1 ; ,"i : ;" !i! ! ii!! i =i:!ii 1i!!i1 ~i11i;!ii!!iil ! ii iiiiii~i11 !ii~ii~]!i:!!iiii ! :i~ii~h22 2>2 2Ramfal (mm) Sm.~W I AJb!,KIL iii iiiiiii~ii~ii'iiil~i~ii~iii i2 2 2ilii 22i :' !!!ii 2 .222ij AINFALL ANDii NUMBER ii~i~ 2ii~ ,] ;;] OFFIN ... 22"iii i i' >22 22 , i ! i!] I IQ , 2:,=,,:=,: i!D!2I'}i iii 2 :i!i b !!i:i:d ( i1!i, ! 1>il ' :ii i'2 l 2! 3QQ .,; 2 2 2/2,Y~ A RAINFALL ANlD NUMBER OF RAIN DA~Y AGO"" ' 4,05 Sa ~~ook D" ' 200' 10, 'AN~ FEB kW 'AP R .MAY' J4 jU AUG, SEP OCT Nv DEC 5,' - Rnfal (mmr) Rai Dw Sow*%~XWfl7 .0 Awimab., KUWAO 5~'5' 5.1-15'5 5RAINFALL AND NUMBER OF RAIN DAYS -. 5 -s'J 300 ~55' ~200 s 1 0 -LA FEB MAR APR WM j.*4 jUL AUa SEP OCT. 4W/ EC A7A 300 2 0 0 10 m 55 ~ ~ ' ~ 5 s s t s S ,s 55 5 5N -I FEBW AP 6A E 15ife 6,-r '55, '<'555 cc,5. ,~ 55i' ' ' ' ' 5 -- -' 13 The farmers' survival strategies Aagainst poor ranfl dstiuto ijUl include to plant very early an~c in~nmany instances to plant in lowlands near ~streams wherever possible.4 ------_ --- __FarITners'-Perceptcions, oCf 7 Perceptions of farmers about site and soil c.onditions were as follows: -Erosion risk was ' rated as low by 40% of respondents and moderate by 50%. -Drought risk was-rated by 30% of respondents as low, by 50% as moderate, and by 20% as high. -Soil water holding capacity was rated as moderate by 40% of respondents . and as high by 60%. 44 -~ - Soil nutrient status was rated as moderate by 90% of respondents. A - farmer in Baw$oro rated it as low. Topographyand'SoilProperties aSoil* fetlt iasfilt ytm e~g., Bu:lland Gouto (1981) grwt.Soeof these characteristics adpoets(A endix Tables 2an. 3) are evaluated below,~but no attempt is maetgiecsifaio not at ions. -- . d o g y l s i i a i n ~ Topo;raohv and Soa PhsicalProperties- The pilot area has an undulatin topography made lands, slopes, up of fairly level 4 and valleys. Slopes on' the 10 suvyd-am ranged from 2 to, U,4 10% with an' average of 5.'8%(App-endix -Table 2)- it percent of the farms 4 were on--slopes of 5% or less.: Several small and medium -sized streams drain the area.~The ao streams ar.teOff ad daan their trbtre £ ~'- ~ in West 4frica, there is a risk of erosion when slopes exceed 5% on sites -;ere' light textured topsoils overly heavy textured "or compacted sub---- soilsMu ts ae rs e ~~al., 1986), 'Textures were7eoal '4-soi ny omi teop 44 c~anz..g44Uto sandy loam, or sandy cla lom or5nycaj tesb~'l e444e ex c*'.'~u res ar niaiv fm u ,Iater hodvcalpaicy. ' :- The sitesiaK 4 4- '~ 4A ~ ca~4~~ ndor ~ g '',4 2 S :' 'i ? ;}, ]f i ii F ' 14' Adj axasu were of heavier texture (mnediun to high water holding capacity); 2. e., clay or clay loam in the topsoil changing to he subsoi l Gravels were presesntoexin the topsoil of site 1 at Ajamasu and site 11 at Anyinasuso, i.e., in only 20% of the topsoils examined, but there werno hard pan or rocks to impede root growth. Gravels reduce the avial mostr holding capacity. Site5 ...... t...Boamang-were.-fBoaan in both the topsoil and subsoil. The soils at all sites examined were well to moderately well drained. :!~ 00!!i:: :g m eq e 011 te ~ subTsoil.-i?(0 Soil E.C. The pH (water) in topsoils ranged from 5.0at site 7 (Baworo) to 6.8 at site 19 (Hwiciem) with an average of 5.8. In the subsoil, pH ranged 4.40 in site 8 (Baworo) from to 6.5 (Hwidiem) with an avrg of 5.2. Exchange acidity (Al + H) in the to s i wa ge r l y l w, t ranged from 0.05 meq/l00 g;in sites 5 and 6 at Baworo and Boamang to 0.82 meq/l00 g in site 15 at Anyinasuso. It averaged 0.14 meq/l00 g. The 3 hihestlevl ofexchngeacidtad telowest pH was- recorded in site 15. pIn the subsoil exhne cdt ranged* from 0.05 meq/l00 g .insites 12, 18, A,! arnd 20 at Hwidiem to 1.98 meq/l00 g in site 8 at Baworo with an average of 0.65 rneq/l00 *g. Topsoil base saturation was generally above 60% when calculated on the basis of cation exchange capacity (C.E.O.) determined by NH stuato and displacement. In site 19 (Hwidiem) it was >100%. This suggests that soluble salts. together with exchangeable bases were being removed by the ammo nium acetate extractant. The lowest base saturations of 32% and 40% were recorded at sites 15 and 7, respectively. C.E.O. in the topsoil as determined by N4saturation at pH- 7 and displacement, ranged from 7.99 meq/l00 g in site 11 at (Boamang) to 18.12 meq/l00 g in site 3 at Ajamasu with an averagef of 11.12 meq/l00 g. The Isum of NH4 QAc, exchangeable Ca + Mg +K + Na + KCl, and exchangeable Al + H is often referred to as effective C.E.C. In the highly weathered soils of the tropics (oxisols and ultisols) this parameter is of practical use in soil fer zility management. However for the soil samples from the Kumasi area of Ghana, the use of an effective C.E.G. would suggest exctremely high levels of ,-- . ase saturation in the topsoils. V 5--4- ; : .' : "< ,-< , 5,-',' u ' Pvu' 15 ~4 .'PlantNutrients 'The plant available nutrients in the soils are assessed with respect ~to the ~ level below which fertilization of a particular nutrient will be re-r W.quired. Interpretation of critical levels of plant nutrients is dependent on soil' type, and crop species. Critical levels obtained from theiliterature on -,,Lindsa ]-.. IFDC --. 97-9 -Roche'--et- "ai -1980....--;-'Munsontzl7 -1982;r--and "indsa . and Cox,>1985) are used when data for Ghanaian soils are unavailable). Nitrogen- -Soil organic carbon is used in the Soil Research Institute at Kumasi as an estimate of the N supplying power of soils. In the topsoils, organic carbon ranged from 0.76 in site 15 at Anyinasuso to 2.74% in site 3 at Adjamasu and it averaged 1.62%. Based on these levels the scil N supply is rated as high a .the sites in Anyinasuso and Hwidiem and as low in site 15 at Anyinasuso. For 50% of the sites, the rating is considered as moderate. .V ,Phosphorus--Bray P1 in topsoils ringed from 2.02 ppm in site 15 (Anyinasuso) to 7.95 ppm in site 9 at Boamang, averaging 5.05 ppm. Olsen- Dabin P ranged from 6.09 ppm in site 7 (Baworo) to 22.49 ppm in site 19 (widiem), with an average of 12.13 -i~pm. Both extractants indicated low to extremely low levels of soil P supply in all sites. Acquaye (1986) reported that P deficiency is widespread in forest zone soils of Ghana and that crops grown in these soils are very responsive to phosphate fertilizers. P defi cient maize plants were observed in a control plot not receiving P fertilizers in the on-farm trial of the SFRP at Adjamasu village. Potassium--Exchangeable K in the topsoils ranged from 1.55 meq/i00 g in site 15 to 0.42 meq/l00 g in site 1 (Adjamasu). It averaged 55 0.24 meq/l00 g. The K soil supply is rated as low in site 15 and as moderate to high in all the other sites. Calcium--Exchangeable Ca in topsoils ranged from 1.55 meq/l00 g in i site 15 (at Anyinasuso) to 11.86 meq/00 g in site 19 (Hwidiem), It averaged ,. :- 6.18 meq/l00 g. With v the exception of site 7 (Baworo), site 11 (Boamang), and site 15 (Anyinasuso), the levels are well above the critical level for ex ~5,.chneble Ca. Acquaye (1986) reported that both Ca and Mg are usually present in adequate amounts in soils of Ghana except where the soils have been depleted during long periods of leaching and the continuous use of acid forming fertilizers. .,fagnesum--Exchangeable Mg in topsoils ranged 93 from 0. meq/l00 g in ' site 15) (Anyinasuso) to. 2.74 -meq/l00 g in site 3 (Adjamasu) with an average of 1.58, meo/100 g. Allisites were adequate in Xg supply, a, 16 aSulhuX-~Available S in the topsoils ranged from 8.26 ppm in site 15 a'to 41.71 ppm in site 1 (Adjamasu). It averaged 20.66 ppm. Thus, all sites a were adequate in S supply. Acquaye (1986) reported that S deficiency is usually observed in the sandy savanna soils of Ghana. Micronutrients-.-Levels of available Zn in topsoils are above the s'ite 15 at Anyinasuso. Copper appears to be' on the low side in all sites ex- a * cept Adjaniasu. Iron appears to be low in sites 5 (Baworo), 9 (Boamang), and 17 (Hwidiem). Boron appears to be low in sites 15 and 9. Soil Classification and Suitability The soils of the Kumnasi Region shown in Figure 6 have been surveyed a (Asiamah, 1986). Three associations (a) Kumasi-Ofin compound, (b) Boso-Ofin compound, and (c) Boamang simple have been mapped. Their approximate equiv a alents in the FAO/UNESCQ, USDA, and INRA/ORSTOM systems of soil classification are shown in Table 3. These associations are all 'developed over granitic rocks. The villages of Adjamasu and Hwidiem belong to the Kumiasi- Ofin' comn pound association, and the village of Baworo to a similar association. The villages of Boamanrg and Anyinasuso belong to the. Boamang simple association. Sites that occur on thesunuits to middle slopes are suitable for the cultivat-ion of maize, 'cassava, and other crops. in' all five villages (Asiainah, 1986). aTable 3. ClassificationofWell______a to ModerateivWellDralnedSils f hePilotA rea a Local Soil Village Association FAC/U!ESCO 12 WNRA/ORSTOM4 Adjamasu Kumasi-Ofin Orthhic Luvisol . Alfisol & Sots ferrugineux a.Compound Ferric Acrisol Ulti~ol .rapicaux et Sots Fe-ra~ltiuesa Aoyennement 06satur~s Hwidiem Kumasi-Ofin Ditto Ditto Ditto Compound a Eaworo Boaso-Ofin ' Ferric Luvisol :itto--,L - ' Compound ''Ferric AcrisoL My InasUso Boamang Simple ' Orthic Luvisol Alfisol Sots Ferrugineuxa . ' -.. picaux r'a' Uoamaflg Eoamang Simple to a~ a. Adapted from Asiamnan (4'386): !-utaaers at. al, (1966) . 4 ,.,m,=@x,,+=;> iil! <{{i 449{ :17i. }!!i;)i4444444.4.44i ~ .44.4 4.4444.4-44-.44 4444 :{ l P~f! ...... 7 - ....:i...... LIJL1jJE /K E E :!i::I} .... JW i 4444gJ: fl ...... = : : :::) .}. <: :::!:£..li,}@ I-!l~%;:I!lii:;;1:'i!Il~!£<]!:<]?ii'i~ili £ ::I~;i:!i i :4iii'l*0- i , ,,%, <:iii:!ti~lgga~i Ii:.. "t1a HTlIMAN ENVIRONMENT AND PHYSICAL FRASTRUCTURE OF TERE.... ILOT VilulJJUtUr--S u ur LO~cicultu-il.nvirom.owe~ n PI With the exception of Anyinasuso where a substantial portion of the residents are settler farmers from theitnorthern region of Ghana, residents of the remaining villages are of the Twi-speaking (Akan) ethnic group. Conse quently, the basic ethnic unit of governmental authority is the village chief which in all cases is an adult male descendant of the first person that colonized the area (Rattary, 1962). Aside from their juc.icial and religious functions, the chiefs, with the assistance of "a council of elders" (advisors) serve as custodians of their respective village lands and other natural resources. The performance of these roles confer on them a great deal of prestige and some aura of sacredness. Therefore involving the chiefs or at least notifying them about any program or activity in the villages, such as the SFRP, enhances legitimacy and also ensures residents' participation.... " The Domestic Group The matrilineal system of inheritance is practiced in all five vil , lages. This makes the definition of a family or household difficult.. Com plications also arise in defining the family because of the progressive break ing up of the traditional family system especially among persons who have had some formal education. A typical domestic group consists of a woman and her daughters their children. However some couples and live either alone, with maternal uncle, or with members of the wife's lineage. Also couples do not necessarily live K - togetherxiunder the same roof, It was observed during the survey -that the head of the domestic group is usually a male, ..except ...... in one location (Baworo).. where the head hap...... pened to be a female, hoever is the head of the group has members authority over its in domestic matters.and responsible is for their upkeep -. K . Aside from their regular church services, Moslem worship residents have to adhere to a few traditional beliefs and practices. As shown in Table 4, each of the villages has a special day of the week when, as custom demands residents are oblige.nt to work on.their farms. "holidays" reore -- o-eosrvd'i'hoiCf--E-ii ' " :eearth deity and, in two S cases, the major streams that drain the area. Thus atypical work week of a 5; Christian or Moslem resident in any of the five villages may not exceed five days (i.e., a day each for the Christian/Moslem day of worship and the tradi tional holiday). Table 4. Mandatory Holidays in Pilot Villagesa Pil1otVillagPe Holiday 1. Anyinasugo Tuesday 2. Adjamasu Tuesday and Friday 3. Baworo Tuesday 4. Boamang Tuesday 5. hwidiem Thursday a. In addition, every sixth Sunday (Akwasidae) and the Wednesday. preceding it (Awukudae) are observed in all five villages. b. Residents who farm around a specific location (southwestern side of the villa ge) observe the Friday holiday. Economic Environment Recent policy measures including liberalization of "the mechanisms, for determining agricultural prices and imports" (Dapaa and Otinkorang, 1987) as well as increased fiscal stringency have led to some increases in factor prices, particularly labor and capital and, to *asmall extent, rent paid by tenant farmers in the pilot villages. . - LandTenureandAccess Land tenure embodies the rules and procedures governing the rights and responsibilities of a group or an indiidual in the use and control of land (La-Anyane, 1985) and therefore exerts a great deal of influence on the economic organization ind development of arclue -a ri ul ue,AsfLue a,: land in the ; l=ii . £i! 1 - -,.%.< , -. ' .=,' " "l:u , -~ . . ' < p 20 pilot villages,Ilike elsewhere in the Ashanti Region in particular and Ghana in general, is considered as the property of the ancestors and is held in t--ust for atrac f virginh Every member of the lineage who is first to cultivate alnd establishes for their direct descendants the right to use that landfor cultivation. Ilov:ever, the field may be claimed by -ormer use are obliterated (Benneh, 1972). Outright sale of far-mland is not permissible but leasing under vary ing tenurial arrangements, usually for short periods, is allowed. The systems of land tenure reported by farmers are provided in Table 5. Table 5. Land Tenure Categories by Pilot Villape (N --li Land *Ten~ure Cate~ovies Villaze Freehold SharecroDDinz Short-Term Leasing Anvinasuso Xx Aamasu Xx Baworo " xx " Boamang ' X "'idiem x x Aside from the dominant traditionai free-hold system, two other arrangements for land tenure prevail: namely, sharecropping and short-term -easing (Table 5).. '" *" . Sharecropping seems to be very prevalent at Anyinasuso where, as stated earlier, the majority ofthe residents are settler farmers (migrants). der the present ..arrangement, the landlord receives 50% ofthe cassava production and 33-1/3% the of. maize harvested in return for use of the leased and. These costs represent a larger share of the prevailing costs of produc :on in the case of maize than ' ' Uder,n the present in cassava. short-term leasing arrangements, land is usally leased to tenant farmers for one growing season (i.e., two years for *. a.ze/cassava intercrop) for varying sums o: monev. At ,widi-m, where this s.stem was reported by a farmer, the rent for a hectare of farm landI s about o00'IuS .. $32). The prevailing sharecroppiS; and leasing practices have im- 4 :....an implications for the profitabili., o: fertilizers and, thereby, for 44 -a emetation scrategies of the SFPP '.i s oe because one of the 4'. . i ' -. <55C4 >Ii4 *~~N.4 ~44 : I". -,: I''<1 4"'> * 21 ultimate objectives of the SFRP is to encourage the adoption and use of fer tilizer as a long-term investment strategy. An analysis of these implications will be conducted using the verification farm survey data. On the whole residents do not consider land to be scarce and settler farmers (migrants) have no difficulty in obtaining farm lands. The con-..--, ------,. . nuatin o thi situation, particularly for farmers at Anyinasuso, is open to question, however. Total farm size as estimated by farmers ranged from 0.4 to 1.2 ha with a mean of 0.9 ha. Typical acreages estimated by extension workers was 0.8 ha. Farmers had to I 4 plots of land, usually located at less than 1.6 km from dwelling houses. Laboir Three main types of labor were observed in the pilot villages, namely: family labor, hired labor, and a form of cooperative or pooled labor. The last seems very prevalent among the Xoslem settler farmers at Anyinasuso. Elsewhere, most farms are operated largely with family labor with occasional help from in-laws, nephews, and nieces, Some degree of division of labor by gender and age of children is practiced. Land preparation (brushing, f~i tree felling, and burning) is considered to be the task for husbands and older male children, while the wives and daughters perform the relatively less arduous tasks of planting (seeding) and weed-clearing, This is the ideal but there appears to be frequent switch of' roles d the volume of work at hand, :-ime limitation, i:ii!i' : and other circumstances. ,For example, visit"; at,Anyinasuso it w'as observed that both during a farm husband and wife were .plantingi:': (!il ! cassava. Also, if children are enrolled in.school, their labor may be avail- '. able. only on weekends and during school vacation5 s. Several farmers rely on hired labr- which is not always available and, from the farmers' view, fairly expensive.' A day's labor. (usually 4 -5 hours) is paid i wage of between C300 (about US $2.00) and C350 depending on whether or not free lunch is provided on the farm, A sutmary of the es timated labor requirements and costs by type of activity for one hectare of maize in :he Ashanti Region is provided in Table 6. ~44 22 Table 6. Labor Reirements and Csts for a Hectare of Maize Farm (19 Activit 'Amount of Labor Cost (C) 1. Underbrushing 0 Mandays at C350/day 3,500 2. Tree Felling and Chopping 15 Mandays at C350/day 5,250.4 4. Preparation for Planting 10 Mandays 5.' Planting 3,500 3 Mandays 1,0504 6. 1st Weeding 10 Mandays 3,500. 2nd Weeding 10 Mandays r7 3 500 8. Harvesting 4 Mandays at C300/day 1,200 9. Transport to Shed 4 Mandays 10. Dehusking 1,200 6 Mandays 1,800 11. Shelling 4 Mandays 1 , TOTAL 26,050 Contingencies 10% 2,605 GRAND TOTAL 28,655 Source: Policy, Planning, Management, and Evaluation Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, Kumtasi, Ghana. Sources of Cash for Farm Activities Farmers obtain cash from a variety' of sources. The principal source V is the sale of farm produce (food and cash crops) and occasionally livestock. As shown in Table 7, 60% of the farmers inter-viewed sold'more than 50% of their previous year's harvest. Also it is important to note that farmers in Adjamasu appear to be more market-oriented than their counterparts in the ' other pilot villages. . 4 Table 7. Prooortion of 1987 Producea Sold by Pilot Village Proportion Sold -Village <75% 50%-75% 25%-49% <25% %Total Anyinasuso x '20 Adjamasu X X Baworo " 20 X 20 Boamang X 20 Hwidiem XX2 %Farmers 10 30 10 30 ~, 100 a. Ref~ers only, to maize plots since most farmers repre thtte hv o finished harvesting their cassava plots,' otdta hyhv o 23 Farmers als.o supplement their farm incomes with occasional remit- ~ ,~99< 7 tances from adult sons, daughters, and other relatives<, who usually live in the cities. Table 8 shows the farmers' main sources of cash for their farm . Q '7"-~' operations. Table 8. Farmers' Sources of Cash for Farm Operations 9'- ISource Number of Farmers O'n source/crop sales 5 Other family 50 members 1 Friends/money 10 lenders 3 Credit bank 30 1 10 TOTAL 10 100 Although a few institutionalized credit agencies (Commercial/Rural Banks) have branches in nearby tows, farmers areyettotake full advantage of the credit programs offered by the banks.. As shown in Table 8 farmers seem. to prefer credit from friends and relatives. According tofarmers, such loans are generally small and sometimes carry high interest rates, depending upon thet-I. relationship between the two contracting parties. Two main reasons farmers gave for not taking bank loans were: (a) the volume of paper work involved and (b) the uncertainty, even after completing the paper work,. A farmer who recently received bank credit reported that the farm-site plan requested by the bank cost him over CiO,000 (US$ 54.00) to prepare. - Consequently very limited capital and axes and inputs such as equipment such as hoes, cutlasses fertilizers and pesticides are used by farmers, Some farmers reported that although recent government policies of " economic liberalization appear to have made some of the capital items more readily available onnthe market, but prices are higher than those that existed prior to thepolicy initiative. "A good cutlass," one farmer said, " sells between97n 05009--~ipii~and C'600 compared to the previous controlled price of C60,11 ..: I i,l,.:! ])].; #-' . ,;.:Y. < , t..: .?;' t i'?i::;L] ¢ L f -< (1i7; > "{' ' ' ";I I'I' 9'- '97> i"1iii's1" :':"t77 " E~ ::1: 999 -'7t ~24 Ph"s c a I infrastructure" The area has' a relatI ively7 well-maintained w'weather network of first class all roads as well as' second cls dirt roads. As shown on Figur,: and'Ariyinusus6 areocated onfrstcl.ass rod-. Road maintenance is the responsibility of the Central Government. However, resi" dents do some road maintenance in cases of emergency, such as removal of fal len trees after a rainstorm. Private trucks, minibuses, and a few cars provide fairly regular transportation services. The Omnibus Services Authority, a para-statal com muter bus service, offers service between Boamang and Kumasi even though the serVice seems to be very irregular. Farmers reported that transportation but costs are g r . not.... vary according to one's vehicle preference and whether or not one has accompanying luggage, Truck operators charge less but they usually patrons prefer who have pieces of luggage such as sacks of foodstuffs to be transported. While standard fares for passengers seem to exist 'in all vil lages, fares for luggage are decided by bargaining. FARMING SYSTEMS AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION CropningPatternsandLandUse Farmers reported that the major food crops' are cassava and plantain, while cassava and maize are the major cash crops. The following patterns of' "intercropping were reported: (1) maize/cassava, (2) maize/cassava/....' (3) plantain/cocoyam, (4) maize/okra, (5) vegetables (tomatoes, The maize/cassavain pepper, etc,).., .tercrop was m-ost cmimon, Plant oipulations were low; less than 25,000 ad700pl.ants,,a for mieadcassava, respectively. lnig ,;a gnrly not in rows Land is also used Xi<;:l77:!L7:,;7k.is;7!{for tree crop production, hunting, fueliwood, F 4;i' and ' 4< 4 4* ,. r44eligious purposes (sacred groves). 4 However it was not possible t~o estimate ! 4 Fl"' S. :': . " " ':>!F' .hF proportion r o" eF ofland udrthese '' uses in4the survey,' 3 Q 3 3~ :3~11l3~3~ 3~325 Mac,3adMyadhavse h olwn ye, from Jauryc Mac- or1a Pa'WDaeseo tng and wavs crope o oe hnayain5%o am gr zw /n ama s v3nt e f r ty a , t i r p w s f l o e y c s a a o maize/assav in aze e asnpantbee ac yetwenAus and berio raost farmrs pated in midararcExeson eorkyerin and eafe inplte Aust ord suery Septer Casxtsaa worplaoe r been 3 disase.No aondro h aste the followngbyefarmfromaganstry thesM ant ltr Crops R4otatiower reotdb1xes okr' ob omnpolm n fieds Whie theladmasz croedl fodramoreth s aad i 50aiz grains, <3- rowI~i aisectav d insthewa firtyear ythsaropwsorse.y asaao 26 . - ~ 4V ~ ~0 Tetloigbo eaved species, grasses, shrubs and creesWr nioted by extenson workers -ILept-aspics cochleata, Olyra latifolia, Cress. -.ferrugeneai Onchna kibbiensis, Chromelaena odorata, Alafia barteri, Strephan- -- '§~ ~ Inputs and Yields Fertilizers are mostly used in areas where maize and vegetables such as tomatoes are grown on a large scale in the Ashanti Region. The levels of supply are shown in Table 9. Table 9. Fertilizer Allocation to Districts Vherethe Exploratorv Survey '.;asConducted (1987): Bags of 50 kP 9 Districts Type of Fertilizera 20' ~ 1.5J / 1. Kwabre-Sekyere 1,000 532 2,327 3. Atwins 5,599 756 2,500 4. 3 tia1,300 Amansie 3,983 1,372 700 5. Ejisu-Juaben Bosuxntwj 1,338 6,859 300 400 1 0 TOTAL 12,182 4,398 14,086 a. 20' 20-20-0.; 15' 15-15-15; S/A -Sulphate of Ammonia. . jSource: Crops Services Division, Miityof Agriculture, KmsGaa Compound fertilizers 20:20:0/15:15:15 were used by only 10%~ of the Larmers interv.iewed at rates less than 15 kg of N or P2,0 5 or 1(20/ha. The of- .1ilprice for 20:260:0 and sul.phate of ammonia are C1,380/50------kg4and C80/0kg, respe'ctively, IFDC~(1986),esti-mated subsidies of 37% and 44% ,for- -- -. w- D2O20:0 and sulphate of ammonia, respectively. Farmers were aware that crop- - - 7id -were,delnnga heflowpro declined, The r - far'-----for - rluac tmdzofertili er uise, and (3),fertilizers' encou'rage'dw1eeda- ~-' row h. te,eY ar 7,ert-s .ere .,ery keen r oparricipat ain vthe SFRII and-ty.~. - a'erz&ilizers ased on /v1Ce/cost tatio t..he -,nea fertii.e aomn~~o ------j-- a,-. -'-a- 'K, '4-j- " ' -aaaa--'Kala ~ 5. ~~275 1986 fo55zIeadcsaagoni 5,Acuae te rsao ntefrs used- , ffu variiead tie obtay196cassava row the -ion sevi Both male andfeaaofseos in the f eesing 4 5 5,A-(5 , ,5,555,5.*5,,5,5:15 :l s- -s -e d 5 e -ii -6 -75,:hd " 6f' a5i H .s Twe ty per en'o estimatensice isarvesterecomeds a puch lowe rmesng of 45i:9ploere 54 .:4 - '5.. .. 5, 5 , : f i,1 1 ,is¢- Sznercop Ghaaise was672 kg/hmatdb rs~t a 67:45:90d 00kgh The - 5 , noapaahnscidus nor, 19i8). te' ressing cnts oh aisa apiioncrp e~ quanity ofe ...... prdue bythe e animals'oi i too smallB;for1ii mauini maizeiB£ M i, a s 5455,5,t-H i-!,t A tiv tie an s Hav s Ut lz twont pecn "o.5,,(', . 'stmaesnc /3 it. s. arves ,t 'oe! anrid 'ofvs ti a somiots' were st!i ;:!, s--.-Yitorae far nterviewed2reportd- Me t fsoaeicueAagn:te I~ii='2;=: !, 1vC58, 000/tonne'3 ri i up: to' C5, OOO/tonne=! !near plant':' ing ime.11'1 The-pr :lil " ' assava is: .+ ie of --!!ii~ -:11 ' 1!; 0/on.i1 Cassava: y id pe -uni ofi a e-were- :'ifficult=d ; to! .! i!i14 unhsk-d cbsaveafirplce nd he ialtretent'r ered.th inaa '98s tey used in aize d of ,lthares nl ------fo s forn tus o and fealhe eeld,u:,_frsit n dred Vootaiom neda ftrmef nA etsonywer sevieusing local~oth~ mazmale ti hrvestedayngprpss 4,Iii ?3,!£ Livestock!) Ii ! iiiil4;i :ii1 ! i,: ,::[ 5.5 ~i~i{'[i~f 3!i'3, i£ii:! : 6iii i i~i~~i iii i'i,)' '4£!1i e~r:dho e ;:; :!:.:s:,5 A fw arerskepmal nmbrsofshep ndgotsbu ter wasL: nocoscou efottoinegat tee nial it the...raising.....of..crops.. ' -- I i~ ~ ~'8. ~~"2 proces tuer int ga but " iti o- andito eol nth ra farocess suerasinioigaibnt rprionoamide of phipouesopl infte hareatt thro frestodrs weeogeerallysnotrued tatkoug an fewpfarmers mentioe bhats ~o varyihesol g wiehuss forninthe preparaion of ball ofrkenkey AsrenshowF Produeir 7 famr'pouerahs-osmr hog w Thnr thaenoctge of in~-t termgefiacieitiesa) the majort ofd farmersadseail sigifcanurnt proportian nerd.c soon afdetarvestnto medisryu uall ba ed nz e i r a e haete eithern us tl ro "'meF'th gas ne tes uraai ktwt tere prreuen aod srold oreltietant te-frm torr bfrel to iosucarre. 'n mlarkesinaheaps, hedlads,on mad orbgsn somearins "weigcahs paepentdisg oneaf the s e of the arkt.e-st. -1.~ A shownucin Feesigure '7marmorsoipruce rechestconuer throughanto ortheedcanels ll am eldirecndrosconsues orcthrogh othcanreutfoP fetheretio are tWos cAfegrieansofl iteraedares (a)ciethe itin.Erantands sho--udthedentar ineredlary.onthe forer may behat reaiet'ls a wior only famsand retils of cansumerin the urbpoah applicatio Tesdrngtary ine- I media Is uasuall bae di oe theubncnen us eihr dretyfo 'v~ ~ ~ i ~4-~ '~ i4~~ ~ ~ ~ -~-~ - 29 k~ ~ ~ 4-.-~. ~ ______~II~I 'A"-"- - - - -, - II 4 ,~-.d -h p MA~KEflNG CHANNELS OF FOOD CROPS IN ThE PILOT AFEA *7< _ j ~ -iI IIE l II II omm L~i ff~TU@aDLA~y '~1 N A" A ' - - -- I, -~ A -~5' Sr. -~ r 'I ------' A''- -~r-~'-- If i--'- - II -'A 5,' S I'S fr.i~ - r "Jr ' I - S I-~I~-I' 4-A--f 5 11 ! ------rr~r'-.. 5- - Sr.r.,~~~rrI -~ - -'----Ar.- --- ' "- 5"','' 5 --'-- Ij S - '... - A V-r'--1'-r.-"I'1' A~A~I ~r.r'- - ~,--,'f---~-A -- 'A- r f' I - -' ' , '~1 ~5- S -f-S II~ I '~, -f' 5- * A -~ - 'VS- sS~5 1 IA"~'~j 'r' ~" 4 '~ ~S ; 2.The soil tests were made on samples taken from newly cleared fields Fertilization of entire villages may involve newly cleared landsland Ittb 2 ~~ lands of'Vlower nutrient status that have been cropped for miore than j1lyear after clearing.______3.Te n~tso opud and single nutrient carriers of Psol e compared as investment strategies in 1989.- Fertilization of maize on 2 fames'fels nGhana ispeetybased on the use of compounds supplemented with N. 4. In the Ashanti Region, sulphur deficiency does not appear to be a problem. There is therefore need for 'economic and agronomic evaluations of high-analysis P fertilizers like DAP and TSP in on farm trials in this region. There has been anincrease in the use of TSP and DAP by West 2 African Countries because of savings in transportation costs (IFDC, 1987). However these materials have undergone G.nly limite'd'testing by IFDC in West Africa (IFC 1987) 5. The fact that continuous cropping is not practiced suggests, that moderate anulapictoso rteta asnl ageds ~5 years may be appropriate olatfr3o 'at the start of the project. However, as fertilizer use increases the length of the increase. cropping period may also 6.After initial application of "free"l P fertilizers, resulting high maize yields' will reduce soil reserves of other essential nutrients and the ability of farmers to cope with multinutrient deficiencies should be kept -in mind. I4IIIJ 7. The results of the onon nfr rassol aid in determining effi cient rates of P application. ' ' 8. There is a Timited potential for the use of anima~l wastes in the manuring of maize/cassava in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. 9 aize, and cassava are very important fodth 9I o nd as crops in teio villages, present but .yields are low, 'Friiainofenievillages should be based on maize/cassava farms. S 10. There is need to maintain close contacts with the extension service,,so<'2 ~that improved pr~"ssuch as improved secorrect plant populations,1 andV adequate weeding, can be followed, Farmers. evaluated soil, fertility) status as moderate in i situation in which -hey use low'plant poua Vo densities,"'~ 31 I 11. 'The verification. survey sol, among other thns exlregnder roles in detail especially the extent ofwmnsinvolvernL~t in (a) decision main,(b abrinput invarious frigand nofamng act'ivities,an (c) far-mers'.income levels and consumption patterns.____ SAA 7'A 2 The villages of AdjaMasu and Hwidiem belonig to the same soil associations and have easy access to markets and fertilizer depots. Arrangemen~ts for land tenure are not a problem in these villages. Farmers in both vil lages appear to be more market-oriented than' their counterparts "in the other villages: 1'rge responses to. applied P fertilizers are highly prob able in Adjamasu village. The two villages are therefore chosen as the villages in which the detailed survey will be. conducted. The fertilized village will be Adjamasu and the~control village will be Hwidiem. 13. After the first' phase of the project there may be a need to expand the SFRP into the very high rainfall (>2000 mm) and leaching environments of AWest Afzrica, e~g, C.ameroon,. where seealky nutrients aelikely tobe 'A'' deficient.. 14. Village. chiefs 'have a'great deal of influence on their people. 'Therefore their involvement in the project will enhance its success. Imports'-444 Suppr'in Study.'' UnvesiyofGhn,4 : r A:-siamah: R,:D. 1y:986' The 7:Soil oS:0f A shanti Region.' :Tecah.! Rep'or't "No.7144.72 7 :So'il!ti!.::! b l 7:.i)i;:°'to Fe rtii zer .Use in .;Su -Saharan Afr ica for :Po1licy Develo~pment:..Paper[ prsetd t FC/FPIWokso on Fe rzilizer Polifcy in Trop ical :Afric~a,;: '::.: '-;Lom6,'::, ::Togo,f 5-7 Aprfi . ' ' '•:) o44'4e-...... :l:. Benneh George .19:728 : 2 4 4 "Systems of Agriculture 4Geograhy- -2 5 7 . 4 in-Tropical.Africa." Economic .*:: ;:Buol S.1,,1.and W. Couto 1981 Soil Fertility Capability Assessment for Use in " ' t DickortK.B SuppGortge Study, Univ Aersit apyof Ghana o . Longman _ umdTropics,:h pp 254-261. In D.J. Greenland. (Ed.). Characterization; : (:. of Soils : ' 4.4~iL: : . in Relation to-their Classification and M1anagement: for 'Cro'p . -i;" . Production: Examples from -some Areas of ,e 'iumid Tropics, Clarendon "'- Press, Oxford. %ir, DaapahBaaant s.K. C.A8.and'hand'ete E.S. OtinkorangThoupsoPriatzaio 1988..198Rireonot The Place o'f-FertilizersRsearchte ino Constrit Ghana's AQuaes D r Increased Agricultural Producivitai Papereditsertili iiiJ;'-*: iF-DC/IFPRl.1'orkshop presnte at'FD987IWrshpoNewronFertilizer FertilizerID/ et)Policy Policy- in Tropical Africa,In Teprtoia omToo Arc, 4'Benne Gerg 1972 "Sysemsof Agricultureveon in Tropical Africa.omi hana r 1984 opulaton Census of Ghana Prelimnary Report Accr .14 Soi BLda *;..and F. Co 181 Soi Frntiity Capailit Aessesmnfor To Usein -he,1-200. Tro Pcs.,pp 254261k -icnu.zrientsanTropicaaocrzon arc1979Sulphur in the uiTro p ics Sulphr :Tns44 nd IFD; Muscle Production: E.ampleus ,ihfrm so . Areas, o rrechudtroisCrno ',44? . .. 44€ Press, Oxford d~ s~ ~'Aih""~'~"~ t ~~ .AI t &tfrt4, 1 ~ t ~ ~ , ~j p , I ~ 4 ~ ' 1 4 unson R.D. 1982 Potassium Calciun Pr $ and Magnesium in the Tropics and Sub- I' , tropics. Tech. Bulletin 23 IFDC, Muscle Shoals. ., ',~ 7 '4utsaersHJ . .,..M.--Fisher, Ito. Vogel and M.C. Palada 1986 A.Fietd Guide ~ ~ for On-Farm Research with Special Reference to Improvement of Cropping 'Systems~ and Techniqtie&id We~5 and Central Africa, IITA, Ibadan. Roche D. Babre, H. Calba, and P. Fallavier 1980 Phosphorous K '. Un Tropical Soils: Assessing Deficiency Levels and P Requirements. World ~W~J , Phosphate Institute (IMPHOS), Paris. Rattary, R.S. 1962 Ashanti Law and Constitution, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 4 '1 4 4 ~ . I 1 ' ,1, , 4~ . . 1,J '4 . { .. . 4 . 4 4 t At 4, ii v.1,1' i,, 4 ;', j 'At" I-I ~t , K ;'I F"' I? ' 11,1 P 4~ I p, 1 ± " 4 "14 ' '1 41 11 'rip> [1)lj 1 t~ 1' 4 t ? > ,,! ~t'1~11~ ~ 1" 4 '. 4 I~ ;4;;~'14;it , ; A ~ ; 1 ~S4~i>~ A. ; f ,t 4 1 * ' , P ' 1 ~ 4 ' 1 ~ 1/ !>; --- ;4-4 " 2 $ {%' ~\ p~" 4I ' ~'(, I" 1.1 ~' xs4'~~ ~ ~ ~, 1$ ' ~, ~ >4~ ~ ' '~- ' ~ ' ' 1 p ' 4 J~ , ~ ;,g~ ' p(~ > P ! 4. 7 j ; 11 t 1 '1/ ; ~ 1 J ~ '1 ~ ;'P Jv/I .~, t,' 1 1 4 4 4 ~ 41, 44'jj{, t 21 1 ' "1 ~1 ; ' PPDII . . !~!LA1: Lshanti Fegion: Fiigjfj!L.Ljd Yuiter of Fain Dr - Selected StatiLs 97 District j F m A m J j A S 0 8 D Capital AtcINA 8ai:.a, 2 67 15 50 101 110 185 237 319 189 5 0 1230 102.5 (Boalang) Iiai:iDays 1 4 9 7 10 10 14 23 19 10 1 0 18 EWAIii 5 3 1 50 14 167 174 122 223 153 28 7 1231 102.5 (Adjaiasu) Iia:. i:ays 1 5 3 9 6 7 11 1v 17 6 3 1 84 [Ja i. 25 78 95 104 31 176 129 1c7 167 175 22 31 1233 102.7 (Bayoro) I ?Tih.[ays 2 6 9 9 6 1 11 12 4 2 121 RACE :. 5 25 E9 91 61 221 11 4 27 64 113 23 14 1127 93.9 (E~idieF) $Eatlays 1 5 9 8 6 14 14 14 15 12 5 1 103 OFF)aSO Em. j 0 21 I2' 56 78 231 i21 146 354 97 2 9 1458 121.5 (vn~iasusjI . 2 6 7 5 3 5 8 11 5 1 1 61 Source: ! :is:r7y :* lr:citure (F:ainn,flaning, lonitoring and ivaliatic- it)!CMASl N ,-'i*'4APPNI I T 2 F': D ii of Sfe i DEPTH'i i FA - r IY E D PAX ' vi 0-20NDI Tableas2:iAYe es cito so Sidletepes. 2 20-50 idjaiasu Nadam Alia Yes so Middle Slope . Twumaab 3 0-20 Idjalasu Mr. Nicholas No No. Middle Slope 10,0 [wabena Nyaie 4 20-50 Ad'jaaasu Mr. Nicholas Yes No Middle Slope 10.0 5 0-20 Bannr Mr. Mohaiied so so Middle Slope 4.0 - i-N '';i!f: )~ - - - - I£--. i ] I!#):i]!il} iiiiiiisowIvaku1aahi iii Duabfliii'iiiii;i:i: ! ] ;ii ]i IiQI! ! ) ;i:!i !i~~:;1 ;i:[, iii:i!!L!i:ii{L i ;iii; i:i=> 'ii . i! > i; , ' ) i1. ?'~ II ! 'ii,444¢)!:i i;i.!I, Ii-! !:~iiii ii IV ?iii!= - -k:i!!il:A~l? i~i:!i=!i4 !i! ! iS:=ILI!Li= ii4-iR'!! ' ii~4- 44<,?[ 4,4?i i!: i=(.!:1iii {ii!M i !];ii ,l i;! i!'i{ LIl!ii:¢ii. :iii' ! i!i I / 4 ; ;:il;ii:ii4 i - ' Q ;i;i..1!> i ii i~ ~ ~!i:i i !!i;:;l i i i I S : 4 - 4 - - ' 446. 4'4 -444<.4.-<- 20-!0 Eavoyo < 4-- 4"44 4 4 . 4'4 ; Mr. lohatted ...... ;'4'4- 44 ii' ': No : 4 No4i - PI ! ~ l ; 4:, ' Middle -Slope- - - 4.0 I f44f ...... 4 - 4 4 4 ...... ~.~4 '.V.-- 4 4'-4 44444'-'4.;< Iwaku Duab 4 4 ...... n444)f<4)l44)44444444 44'4~.444. 44 '44 - 4 .i 4.444.i_- 4~4.)pf4--4 4 444- -<4=444~ 4~...... f...... - i>4iii -.,,., .= 70-20 F!Woro Wlasaaidoa No No upper slope 7.0 Pepra 2W21 H dAdoa -. Yes No Upper Slope 7.0 Pepra - 9 0-20 Foauang Mr. Tabon No No Mi~ddle Slope 6.0 4 Daga rt i -'' < 10 - -20-10-,---aa F~aanog Mr. Taboot Yes No Midl Slp 80 '1~ 0-20 Ma~ada; Am No No iddle Slope 5.00 j '4?-44 ,. adatIn No 4NO Middle Slope' ~''.-444-~44 V''--4 - AIFFND1I Table 2 (Cont,): Fid sript Sftes DEPTH SITE TFMR'S GIRAVEL EARD PAN (cm) VILLAEi PNESENCE EC PEKSINCE TOFOGRAPHY % SLOPE 13 0-20 Anyinasuso !r.!Aadu so No Lower Slope 8.0 Gr%:s:ie 14 20-50 1 Atyinasuso !r. 1iu Yes go Lower Slope 8.0 i5 0-20 lfi:suso Maia hti Yes go. Upper Slope 10.0 16 20-50 fnyinasusu !aaa iti Yes No UPper elope 10.0 17 0-20 H;idiei !r. ,:e1 NNo No Lower Slope 2.5 18 20-50 Ewi~iet . S:ei Yes No Lower Slope 2.r 19 0-20 Ewidiea !a.A "r~s No No Middle Slope 2.0 20 20-50 Sw(jeE Maa Loris Yes No Middle Slope 2.0 Aati;h2. Depth J.'Ittiji~u - Sample No. !uanslc Sample Iwabre 1 jamau) 1o. Eosuatil Sample No. Sekyere Sample (O w~ro) (Bcaana) Mo. OffMino Sample 8a. 8 (Aoylnaeuzo} 1Atwila 41lea1i Clay 1 0 20 I 23 82 5 16,51 9 16.20 2050 2 4714 13 10 97 11 9.12 6 4085 10 36.43 11 3455 18 13.13 0 20 3 420 7 1 A 11 19.55 2050 4 4707 15 i5.3i9 11.71 8 43Oc 12 7.57 16 24 42 20 11.66 Slit 1 020 1 2343 5 9 6.7462 2050 2 1673 13 1249 17 15.61 6 9(7 10 7.50 14 1263 18 1231 0 20 3 3325 1 1150 I 7.49 2050 4 19.13 15 9.25 19 12.13 8 11 94 12 19,27 16 19.62 20 10.24 Sij: 1 0 20 1 4122 5 72.33 9 75 67 13 20 50 2 34.71 67 71 17 72.41 6 49.54 10 55.13 i 52.12 18 60.61 0-20 3 21.75 7 68.15 11 2050 4 33.38 71.90 15 45.61 19 8 46.45 12 73.40 7431 16 56.19 20 71.20 Orga2ic Carbcn I 0-20 1 2.06 5 1.47 9 1.45 13 23-50 2 0 1.41 17 1.00 03 6 0.63 10 0.59 14 0.41 18 036 0-20 3 2.74 7 0.93 11 1.70 20-50 4 0.82 15 0.76 13 1.7i 8 0.63 12 0.31 16 0.35 20 0.31 T~tal 81 0-20 1 0.17 5 0.12 9 0.12 2 53. 2 0.07 13 0.13 11 0.11 6 0.06 10 0.05 14 0.04 13 0.12 0-20 3 0.23 7 0.10 11 0.13 20-50 4 0.07 15 0.06 13 0.15 8 0.06 12 0.03 16 0.04 20 0.03 14c)Sape9 0ample .Juatto 6. ,,6:j..,, 7 . N. Bc5.jtwi [wabre Sample No. SeiYere Sample Biw____....(1a)ora) (Ecaanj) go. oftitgo Siple go. Ateia (Ayiaeuso) (EIdHeL) ci 0 20 1 1221 5 12.21 3 2650 2 12.17 13 1142 1225 6 11.28 17 16.36 10 12.26 14 11.12 18 3.09 0-20 3 11.39 7 9.13 20-50 4 11 13.32 15 11.24 0 11.32 12.13 19 11.25 12 11.07 16 8.11 20 9.10 1 1 20 53 5.41 564 9 7.95 13 4.22 11 6 1i I 1) 0-20 2.71 62 01 10 2.00 3 2.75 7 5.11 i4 1.39 13 L 51 206 11 4 16 15 4 2.00 8 3.03 2.02 19 7.73 12 1.57 16 355 20 2.97 i ....t P 0 23 1 (LL) I~)20 10 2 12.21 5 20L 2 6 12 1170 9 16.13 612 65 16 3138.8 13 .13 17 10 10 5.11 14 23 r.07 19 16.1! 626 3 1242 7 6 03 2600 4 11 6.71 15 31G6 8 5 li 11.17 19 12 5.03 16 22.49 606 20 506 iI 3:20.- .5 I 02 1 0.42 5 0.25 9 20 2 0.26 13 0.24 0.23 6 0.09 17 0.24 10 0.09 14 0.11 1 0.32 0 20 3 0.31 7 0.15 2- 11 0.17 15 4 0.26 8 006 0.05 19 12 0.13 16 0.24 20 0.10 CA l/lI22] 0.2 1 5 50 7 53 203 3 33 13 2 1 43 6 2 5.61 17 603 06 II 2 06 14 1.31 17 5303 -23 3 i.s 7 2 51 !1 20-50 4 4.00 15 1.33 8 1.03 1.55 19 11.16 12 1.61 16 1.02 20 2.33 o 0•2 (ai1;/2" a-26 1 522.311- 10 1.76 5 2.10 20 2 3 1.77 13 0.78 6 1.23 1.12 IT 1.07 10 1.19 14 0 50 is 1.35 0-20 3 2.74 7 1.01 200 4 11 1.33 15 0.71 8 0.48 0.93 19 1.50 12 0.50 16 0.64 20 0.49 Dcpth IjISU Aalyhls (ca) Sasple No. Aliatle thJtLe Sample go. csustwi Simple gu. Sciyere (fd~aaau)(Biworo)- Sample Mo. Offinso Sample Mo. htvla (20aland) {Oayluaauo) {adz a ('/Di) 0 20 I 0.10 5 0.09 9 0 06 13 20 50 2 006 0 06 I 005 6 0 05 0 [i~jre005 11 005 13 001 0 20 3 0.08 7 005 11 20-50 4 0.07 0.05 15 0.05 19 8 0.05 12 0.04 16 0.05 20 0.04 bbaof : 0-20 1 8.04 5 997 9 11.43 13 20-50 2 .2.56 7.04 17 7.89 6 3.49 10 420 14 1.99 1 7.40 0-20 3 10.69 7 3.75 11 5,55 20-50 4 2.37 15 2.59 19 13.71 8 1.62 12 2.43 16 2.45 20 2.96 i: E1O=:£e 0-20 1 11.70 5 11.19 9 11.66 13 20-50 2 638 9.35 17 11.25 6 7.71 10 7.97 i4 5.7E 10 9.00 0-20 3 18.12 7 9.38 II7. 99 20-50 4 11.23 15 8.00 19 12.53 8 9 71 12 3 22 16 6.33 20 5.05 e 0-20 1 70.19 5 9,54 9 20-1O 2 33 39 13 77.80 17 40.2 6 4625 10 54.14 71.58 14 34.31 1 77.1 0-20 3 610 7 40 57 ll 20-50 4 21.5 70.10 5 32.35 19 8 16.46 12 77.47 02.25 16 33.51 20 1.65 0-20 1 5.5 20-50 2 4.9 5 6.2 9 6.5 6 5.1 10 5.7 13 5.6 17 6.1 14 4.7 1 60 0-20 3 5.3 7 5.0 II 5.6 20 50 4 4.9 15 5.5 13 0.8 8 4.4 12 4.0 16 5.0 20 6.5 SlJisu fJiUA -- :(cA) SlapIe 8. A'ontle Iabre Salple NO. Bdumti Simple No. Seijere Sample No. Offlnco sample NO. 1twila 13 . Eztrfto 0-20 I 41.71 S t.;1} 20 5 1526 5! 2 9 131 13 6 13.36 19 5 6 97 1329 1.1131 14 2.9 023 19 17.12 1553 7 20 50 4 36 51 II 22 47 8 23.57 15 825 23.66 12 9.56 13 1329 16 B.11 21 6 12.13 ! 1 ratab~e 0-208 (;a)r' 33.97 5 51.83 23-51 2 L27 987.93 13 6 5.31 10 58.58 IT 93.76 19.00 14 11.33 1 83.37 322 :0-50 7".57 7 26.47 4 3.52 11 52.31 8 4.89 15 67 19. 12 21.23 16 16.99 20 14.76 lo i,.) 0-23 1 29.16 5 50.57 2 50 2 9 11.77 24.6 6 13 12.27 j7 13.00 I0 18.31 51.53 14 951 17 0-20 3 16.12 7 15.13 16.33 15 2353 4 8.57912.9 19 15.75 11.54 8 10.30 12 13.19 16 16.63 23 8.5{ Ca (;:a) 0-20 1 1.02 5 0.36 9 0.66 220 13 036 17 .41 1.28 6 0. 10 32 1214 0836 13 0-20 3 1.29 0.56 2059 7 8.51 11 1.49 9 0.36 15 0.57 0.36 12 0.65 19 0.20 16 1 01 20 h 0.35 {~;m1 0-20 1 14.7 5 6.21 21-50 5.49 13 733 2 21.74 6 17 3,58 12.54 10 7.25 14 13.67 13 0-20 3 12.94 11.74 21-50 7 23.53 11 4 29.70 9,43 i5 19.77 12 13.43 19 1.03 i0.12 16 14.66 20 10.72 ate:) 0-"3-2 0 57 5 0.67 9 0.25 20- 13 0.31 17 2 0.794 031 0.21 10 327 14 0.26 0-20 3 19 043 0.79 7 8.33 21-50 4 8. l10.41 11 0.43 15 0.25 19 12 0.26 is 0.43 0.30 20 0.59 T P Thompson. FETLIE US NWSENNGR i~,.]I! ! . :,-VI..! SOIEOOIC -:A!> STUDY : OF#FARM-LEVEL [ , 1 C iNST, T TO'i i)I, :!~ 'i:.ii.,; -!I! FERT]'IIZER1 .IN: USE c:- WiE !T R! ;.IGER, ! ,,! : -* l!, .1,i!11! ' 1 as ai b.a c~L, -', ;c-, SLNLJ±AFR '4-,i ",- ).; i I :i'] ii' "'i ; : : i' i i -- -:i~i:iii~-- ii- !i- i! - . - - -C ,"A Baanante ...... - I E ''I:,I Ii: ! =i il;I i i-IiI i NIii,' !.i =i . .. . . , ;~ I )ii:[i:,i]; i!i~iiii ii :1]:= : ; ! ii );-'..i£ i'!:i~ii!: :::'! ! )1 !, :'!iI II O .ii II i i Vi i::!I?:, i '! ,i; .;=, : i! ":: ':] ' 'i !,'i ! I !-ili i~~-i 54 ''4!i~ii 55-~ S 'histudy!'i wa co d cc d a an-, '1 D inII :' i,+, u a ' i-veI56 6 nI~:"i' collaborat 11 ! '!I!]'11;i on a nd " - support of 'USA D/Nig : e . Th : ud was nor. d !il'.I;.,ii iii) ]Ii+iI : iiI:LII~i::.I,', :! i~i~iii"!iii',I ii;i~,]:!i i:i£Q [iiiI..IiilII!AiI!I)i ';ii£!) Ii7ii ! !esi. ]: S nedi Ch e conie ch S oil£.44,, , V"-t:iI) 4i~!iii~i:~iiiiiR 4 4 ..:, : ...... :,,,.....,. ,,,.,...... ,: 71"'=,{'Intern.....a..Fertilizer -eveliopment Center (IFDC) * -tI ii iii ! iI i i 'ii - 7N'-4IA 'i N c-i-i~i i~! ! !"ii IS,' -iii~l ! # ''iiiii i :!N ::~i :i : ;,,,i~ ii,li l ii: ' 45IR iii ,[ ii"iI i i. ' ii : i i i ~i !i ~~ i!~ii % i{I .. 4 Ni'ii] 4 I,---4's'Vs-,'5,5V-44 's''I' A t SS, i i "4i~ i.I 4-i - 4- ~5' ,i 1 :4'SVI N ' , ;4 - 7.~7 ''4 :+ % D : ' % 4+: ? ,% :i~i:: :+ !! +' : - +; 9,<+:> ' i!+-: , , .. +.i ,',>i,? t : + W< i '""-I'49 444,7A'9"9-9' I' b'"' 4",) "'' 9-'"" <*'"99"'' ...... 4 '"" '-'i" ' '9s: 9(9 4" ,7 29i,' "7 ' "'9 , ,!:]7'- "7:9 - '-' 7f'9, '7: :7 { f:: ' 4 ...... :' ...... " " . .. ' < + . .. . a...mI'_. + o9 .. . 8 , + ' " 9 .' +,+++++: , , :++, >: .. -- - -+ _ :s c o ..'9:...... m . i+ l i : + + ;+++++ ++9..m+4'9++ ,++<++ :+ j+i ++.,++:,+, . ; +-- <+ +?+...+ ++ + ¢":( - + < ++ + +:7++, ,-+p :-+3+ + , : + >: ,+,+ , ,++: +r+:+ : ..... : 9;7,7=:,. : :5 , 99 ...... ';9:...... ~g "9mo '9;" ' 9 ...... 999"': iyili,ili!iPreface . : P S + "'" : ' + '' +: + + .+ ...... ' 4 ' The+.,+,<+. l++ingering..effects of the+: drough during,+the+ ear l 198 s nd he9"" Acknowledgments The support, guidance, and advice of Dr. Paul L.G. Vlek, Director of the IFDC West Af:ica Division in Lome, Togo, and Dr. Andre Bationo, IFDC/Niger, are gratefully aqknowled ged. The authors also acknowled ge the support and assi.tance of Quincy Benbow and Ernes,: t Gibson of the United States Aency for International Development (USAID) Mission i n Ni my. Ousseini Sidibe and ihriham Magagi of the National Cereals Program of Niger are also acknowled for their useful guidance and advice that were necessary for the successful 'ompletion of the project. Charles Renard of the ICRSAT Mi.ss;ion in NiameY also provided timely support and advice and arrange.d for fiel(d transportation. akari Garba provided field assistance and shared his knowledge of Djerma agriculture and customs. John Lamers is singularly acknowledged for sharing his 5 years of field experience in Niger with the authors and providing extraordinary insights into questionnaire construction and the cultural aspects of conducting interviews in w'es:ern Niger. Finally, the Village Chiefs; of ;oberi and Simari, Anabo Amadu, and Hassan Haruna are of'e red appreciation and gratitude for enthusiastically welcoming the research team into their villages and encouraging the farmers to discuss local agriculture and fertilizer use. Memories of them will not quic.cly fade. Table of Contents Pape Preface Acknowledgments Introduction and Background ...... The fmorahic Character of Niger...... T!he Econorjc Situation.2 The Agricul, ,'-al] Sector.2 t ier...... 3 The Researc '.pproach...... 4 Overview of Farm-Level Research in Niger...... 5 Farm SU ...... ev ...... ,..... 5 Data Analysis...... 6 Household Comuo,;ition ...... 6 Patterns of Dry-Season Mirra io ...... 7 Overview of the National Transportation System...... 7 Distances From Hiouseholds to Commercial Locations and Fields ...... 8 Land LadTenureenread and ~s...... Ue9 ...... 9 Cropping Systems on Household Plots ...... 1 10 Farm-Level Product.ion...... 10 Byproduct Use...... 11 Farm-Leve La bor ...... 11 Agricultural Cooperatives in Niger...... 12 Benefits of A.;ricultural Cooperatives...... 12 Characteri;:tic, of Users and Nonusers of Fertilizer...... 14 Significant Differences Amonr,Users and Nonusers of Fertilizer ...... 16 Summ a ry ...... 16 Suggestions for F'uture Socioeconomic Research in Niger ...... 19 Bib lio graph y...... 23 List of Tables 1. Selected Demographic Characteristics of Niger in 1987 2. Population Density per Square Kilometer of Agricultural Land for Selected Years, 1960-85 3. Estimated Per Capita Gross Domestic Product for Niger, 1978-35 at Constant 1976 Prices 4. Annual Growth Rates in Real and Per Capita Gross Domestic Product, 1978-85 5. Key indicators for the Nigerien Agricultural Sector, 1981-85 6. Total Fertilizer Deliveries for Niqer by T'pes, 1980-84 7. Average and Standard Deviation of Selected Sociodomo;raphic Characteristics of the iousehold; Studied 8. Selected Variable: Decribip;, Dr- - Lei-o;n M;iration of Household Heads Intervfewea: 9. Mean Distances From Pousholds to Fields and Markets in Kilometers 10. Number and Percentag'e of Household Plots Owned and Borrowed Per Household in Nian e. PH: ajso M1. Percentqec Di:;trinbut( oi Crops on Household Plots Over , ears; in Niamev and Dosso 12. Mean Household Production of Millet, Cowpea, and Sorghum in 1986 Among Users and Nonusers o t Fertilizer 13. Uses of Millet, Cowpen, "orgoun Byproducts 14. Character-;:i,.i of Farm-level Va',e labor 15. The Expansion of Agricultural Cooperative Organizations in Niger, 1965-73 16. Perceived Senefits of Participation in Agricultural Cooperative Organizations 17. Sources o ::o wledge and Information About Fertilizer as Reported by Far:ners 13. Percentage of .mpledHoirseho d Plots Receiving Ferr: ::in Niam',v ai Dosso, 1984-87 1). Perce:,taqe AL Saipld Fertilized Houstehold Plots Receiving "aricus "''.s o! Fertiii:er in Niame y ad Dosso , 1984-87 .0. Tye,; of scraints to Fertilizer Use as Cited by Farmers <~KK~-K K~KjK ~K K K~K~ K KKK KK ~, ~<~>KK~KKKK ~KKKKK~ K~KK~KKK 'K List of Tables .(Conclnued) KK~KKKK~KK 21 A Comparison of Selected Socioeconomic Characteristics~ ofKUsers and Nonusers of Fertilizer K> 22. Principal Sources of Information About Fertilizer KK Cited by Users and Nonusers of Fertilizer KK' KK 23. Uses of Byproducts Among Users and Nonusers of Fertil K 4 KKK 24. Variables Showing Significant Differences Between K Users and Nonusers of Fertilizer . KKK C I. '''K KKKK K K K~;K KK KK >'KK ~K'K 4K' KtK 'K K'KK K/K KKK KK -K K K ~KKKK ~ K K ~K K? KK K C' K 'K' 4K ~ /fKKK K' - ~ K K' K KKK KK K K K K~K .~~ KjK K KK'~KK K K KK K'K ~KK'K:~KK.,'K'K K K K>- K K . . K . . K KK'< 'K KK4 K KjK.K.V KKK '''K '.K'..K.. K ~K K KK K K K KK.KK'.KKKK.KKKK4' 'K. KK~ .Kr~'KKKKI~A~iK..KKKKKK.K.K...... KK. KK K 'K K K ''KKK K4~K4KKK. 'K.K'K4 K K K 4K K K K K 4K KK"KKKK'~~' 'KKK~K'' K K K. .. KKAK...KK~'.K'k K K' K K 'K KK K K yKKKK K,.... ~X. K.KKK K' 1,4K KK~j K4KK' 'KK' ' 0 K" ~ KKKK ?KK >K4 KKK~KK4'K-K~. ~K ~KK.K'f'.KKK'KK.KKKK'..~KK'~KKKKKKKKKKK>-KKK ; KK.S~PK4 K 'K"'K KKK.K4K'KK':K'K'KKK'K' ~ =~KKtKKkKK~ '>~ K/K: K 'KK 4~ ~K"k' hK'KK K~4~ ~ .KK' KK >KK ~K ~KKKKK'KK'K.K'K>KK'.K'KpK~ : !L ii( I :iii': i% i',ii !~ , ':i!i!'Il i'' i ; :O i:!, ' { l( i~~~i ] !i ! ! ii ,i !i !l~ i: i~;;i l i}!II}iii ,Q{Ii - 1 !1i1 il ; !;; +; !i::il;+:'i!!; ,) l i li ii~ii:iii!i !, :''}1iiii~i ' : ;:Ii ~: i~ii?:]1) ! ii! :: :,14 )] ':;i) i ']1;i ;ii~i':,i,!!l . i!;IH r ,:i~i; i' i:i! !i 1 iii~iii -=!. 4!i ililiii~ili:ti;> %']IIi[[~!, '! !; )) ki': i~i:IIIR !i~ ~iii]!ii~lii~i]~ A )l~ I . !iiI'!:,T. i!ii :kii, ~~!'ii:: i ; !li1! i i!!i)i(!l.~ ;II ii : -li I k l i = i i i , : ,, ...... ii~.., .:iliii}II L i ' . .i s o f ...F ...... + Ii!i ii':::1 : ::;i .1i!i U i i i' i : - 1: ii,;,i ! i1 i i '1 hi~i I:>i i;i1i':;i;: ;., i :;:ll: ,':2 i I-Ill > il :=! ii!i:'l ii,iii1:!i11 i, ') i:=1 i "i!i ; ~ !:!:ii :':ii;i ! } i : "I; i !1! ] ) i' :! ; i [ . i : 4i >2.1 ;; ! } :]. ,i ( ] .:+i :-/7 i!0 i' ii1i i l. ! i : ! :: i~~<:i i:;iil!:f !~iiiii i i -. i ! ! . i L I [ ;i.{~;!i.1 1 ,IIQ =!:: =:ii i ,i i:]1! ; '! i ! i7i i !( , ; !i; i ; i~~!:i~)! ii: ! ) , U !!:!iii~Q i il!;i ili,4l~ !i!!iO iiiiii~iii ! ! i:~:i '! :~iiii!ii i '2iiii!!i: !Qi~~iii!; ~ !i !)]i,i I : ii~ :i !!i ! ii1ii:i!i::i1 il ):~iii!:iii! ii iii!i ',IIIIi~ ;1!ii)' !:! :I !:I:;IIIII;i]: ;YIi ;i~i iii;~ -!:) *.ii iii:ii!li]!!!)!,.i ,~ : i li,il ,~ii;!Ii=i ii;i~!i!!:i!i]!ii'"~ i ii, !> ,ii;;';ii:,71!!i::i~i Bi H, U'} - >1-:} J ,D ,: : ii !iili i:i:i]i ))!;-s'if -UUII:={iiilIAli)d .- - Ill. i~iiU--il:ii~i -- d-- ~iii;- : I U ii -iIA!. ... A!i[€'i-- - i ii!i:i!-ii-iAil !.. . . .U ii- 1HKUUUUUiI I 'I-i!---HWH. List of'Abbreviations and Acronyms Economic and Monetary GDP Gross. Domestic Product . CFA Currency of the West African Monetary Union--295 CFA -'U.S. $1.00 Measures ha, hectare (2.47 acres) kg kilogra-m (0.454 kg - 1 pound) km kilometer (1.61 kin - 1 mile) nit metric ton (2.204 pounds - 1,000 kg) Governmental and International Organizations ALO Associations Locales. des Cooperatives FAQ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semiarid Tropics IFDC International Fertilizer Developmen': Center GL'MV Groupement Mutualistic Villageois . GON Government of Niger USAID United States Agency for International Development -Fertilizer CAN Calcium ammnonitum nitrate SSP Single superphosphate TSP -Triple superphosphate A SOCIOECONOMIC STUDY OF FARM-LEVEL cONSTRAiNTs To._..-, FERTILIZER USEIN WESTEM. NIGER Introduction and Background The Sahelian countries of West Africa maiy be described as a region of limited rainfall and frequent drought. Although diverse in many ways, the countries of Niger, Chad, Senegal, Mauritania;, Burkina Faso, Sudan, and Mali * have in common the problem of fragile agricultural sectors and demographic pressures. The Sahelian popul~ation counts its blessings by milwlimtesof rain and survives on a thin mnargin.~' Dust, wind, desertification, and a delicate ecological environment render life tentious, harsh, and demanding. The character of existence in the Sahel is well exemplified in Niger, a country sometimes described as "a land where the hiarvest is won with the soul's scythe." Niger is the largest country in W~est Africa and is the geographical center of the Sahelian region. Niger provides an excellent * example of the demographic, economic, and agricultural problems confrontinjg .the region. The Republic of Niger has a landlocked area of 1,186,408 km2 or 458,075 mi2 with a population that exceeds 7 million; it is the tenth largest coutryin Africa and sparsely populated. Although estimates vary, between 3% and 8% of the land is considered suitable for agricultural production. The DemographicCharacter of ier Niger is in a period of explosive population growth caused by high birth rates, increasing life expectancies,declining infant mortality, and a S generally declining death rate. The critical variables that describe that demographic transition are shown in Table I. With an estimated midyear population Aof.7.1 million people in 1987 and one of the highest races of4 -~-natural. in~crease in the world, Niger is confronting a rath~er dism~al. Sdemographic hizon -one particular prblmi hrapid 6%, estimated anfluil -g ~growth of urban-pcoiulations whose demands.Eor !,ustenance will become S increasingly difficultto satisf,. - d B '- 2 , "Ironically, programs, and intervientions iun health care wl erae t o'dulsadmk tmr difficul.t to. achieve progress in economic development. The social custom of poygm contributes to high aggregate fertility. The total fertility rate shows that on the average each woman will have sei'/n children'during the childbearing period. The demographic structure and character of Niger are greatly increasing the population density per square kilometer of agricultural land. The data shown in Table 2 indicate that such density has more '.han doubled during the last quarter century. The Nigerien people are increasingly dependent on a fragile and deteriorating economy in the midst of tremendous -population pressure. The Economic Situation One particularly useful indicator to describe the situation of the -Nigerien economy is the per~capita gross domestic product (GDP). Those data -shown in Table 3 indicate a constant downward trend since 1980. The accelerated economic growth during the decade 1970-80 was attributable to soaring world prices for uranium and several years of adequate rainfall that temporarily bolstered agricultural production. The factors that explain the deterioration of the economy in the 1980s are the decline in the world demand for uranium, which is mined in Niger, and the lack of growth 'in the agricultural. sector, The annual growth rates in real GDP per capita shown in Table 4 dramatically illustrate the deterioration of the economic situation of Niger. The rapid population growth and decline' in other sectors of the economy have had profound consequences for the Nigerien agricultural sectQr. The Agricultural Sector A reliable and valid database is a necessity in planning an agricultural development strategy. Although essential data on key factors of a~gricuiltura~l production inNiger are lacking or-ften contradictory,~ the World -Development Reports of the World Bank provide useful insight into the general ~ Acondit-ionof the 3igerien agricultural sector (Table 5), -The people of are-experiencing Nliger a decline in domes tic I production -and a growiigdependence on cereal imports and food aid - Because of the raptdly growing population and deteriorating; agricultural productioni'A Cidconomnic Srowth-;-n high priority of thie GVernmenc ENie (CON) is to I " A-4 - ' "C A Inceae-ran-rouccio t metdoestc ""es. Fuur expansio o f af grc4 1trlpodcini to be relie from inrese lndprdu f f 4 " ra~hertaexpasio of the araofcltvte an. Ta srteyO r eariuispeictdondvlpig '4c~si ad xadngteefiin use etlzrtcnloyadohrmdr ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~of aprpit~ ~ ~ 4 nus Fetlieinffge Us Ceta the foo to an ie rdcinpolm fNgr i-s the' by hfpro-18-4typ fo inderesgainec pouon aetaneedueof f~etilizer and on agricltura . agriduc'ih dtiin isar'toer relieds fo frilresed hscotnudt .. rthepresehn. eTpansionof crhedi area ofcutivated landy Thae sotrabtedy tof h' intensive ogricultre isde prdctdon advlpn n theeuseicf'mnt. xadnaounts o 4 ustie prop t friie ehooyadohrmdr~nus Fie helwertilizer eeso se in Nigeranth ~~7 wlwlevealihdcnbto of fertilizersuewhcwaesine bycrFaQsin 1982 toieragein otles thant10ikg/a.d Tablen 6fpreentsrldat on fertiliert deltieriefr Nier by~typeafothentperio exan9oo80outinan rooe cnoi deeopettuhe ONsusededcreit forertilizer incus1981 Tha desoha apdpresing feto ofae ns feriliern agriculturalwrwihiand onae rdmnnl ructi eonmiThelrendntowad lower levelize ofhfrough use hapi cotnudo theresn Thderlctf 'eeiit fpporiafertilizesmayd ehae aonriuedtorhl reephandofeopet t araudrpouovnndhe thNgrneoe uselmllraont of dcie unesadn offr-ee cosrit ofertilizer use A stud Givgen ealowE level o staiu fertiliz'er . in use bieradeh weestct ishemadcoributin of fertilizeraso'i e withea:agr ildsr in pohercountresndgy r hgiosourhe enoldnt os aparent tat' :oi ier there fsatgreaffptntia 'atouad food produionoadmpromot Seconomirechs developmnt thrughricreased susel of fertilizernBause 9Osofia~dtthe 4 imports, production ,i an4ar~ ing.o Lfiferti Iizor5s -h- CS- -hsr ac project is on the, identification of farm-level costaits use that are associated wt agricultural productio., wh Agricultural production theory is the basic framework used in this study of farm-level constraints to fertilizer use and demand. Agricultural production depends on decisions to use resources of land, labor, and capital for that purpose. Agricultural production~is therefore a function of farmerst decisions about the use of the follow~ing: I. A set of fixed factors of production such as factors that in the short run cannot be changed by farmers' decisions; these factors usually include land, faiily~labor, and capital assets. ~2. A set of variable inputs such as inputs whose use in the short run is determined by farmers' decisions-ithese inputs includefetlzr pesticides, labor, and irrigation. Farmers' decisions about the use of fertilizer are therefore affected by several factors,, including'.the following:i 1. The availability of fixed factors of production and ~a set of socioeconomic -variables influencing the us~e of these resources for agricultural poutn.Tsinformation is needed. about land, land tenure, family labor,' and capital assets as well as about socioeconomic -variables such as use of agricultural output, crop prices and access to Smarket, availability of financial resources, and access to credit. 2. Access to'timely and adequate supplies of fertilizers and other variable, inputs and their prices. In this respectinominiseddabu farer" aces o and prces paid for variable inputs such as Vfertilizers, petcie, seeds of improved vaiteorganic manures, ~and labor...1. I -~ 3,Koldeo n access to- information abdti't the use of 'fertilizers'an agriulira podtion chnology in general, In th-s'0re-'--- - infomacon i nededon te'foduation, experience, contact wit~h 1 '4 desribd aovewas designed and field testedin~ NigeIr~during the firs't ' 2 weeks of March 1987. Following that test, the quiestionnaire was redesigned~' 'z~o make it more suitable jto the situation of farmers in the survey areas. Overview of Farm-Level Research in Niger Socioeconomic research on farm-level constraints to fertilizer adoption ~ and use in Niger is conducted rather infrequently. The few studies that- have been conducted have concentrated on :the departments of Maradian Zinder in southeastern-Niger, which are ihbtdby the Hausa ethnic group. This geographical limitation has resulted in a bias in the research on Nigerien agricul~ture that has been widely disseminated among international research scientists and organizations. .W The departments of Maradi and Zinder represent a distinct agroclimatic region; more extensive use of modern agricultural inputs and, ~animal traction, and higher levels of agricultural productivity are found in Maradi and Zinder than in other departments in Niger. In the departments of Niamey and Dosso, the use of animal traction is virtually nil, and the agroclimatic and soil Aconditions are quite different frmths in Maradi and Zinder. Because of these factors, research distinctions between western and eatenNie ms b continufing consideration n feature of future farm-level research.- - This study offers an initial contribution to the literature by ~focusing on farm-level constraints to fertilizer adoption andtuse among the Djerma ethnic. group; of western Niger, Farm Survey -- Th amsrvey was conducted duringtepro Jue 1-August6, **-1987, and.48 interviews were completed.A The interviews were primarily ~$Aconducted in'western NigerAin~the departments of NaeDsoadT'oa ThLe speciic;.ilgesA visited were Bambeyuaimi, and of ths ilAAanv4 sociated wthA AsocioeconomicAAA In vilae AAA~elcnuce locte near Aa iAAAAAA 4 _x ~ 6 Dr Anlyi onnaide igne d to 6olle-c' 'ard 'a alyz dat 'o 11~~~~~~~~1 mai~atreae ofr-ee1adpinadue etlzr hs The faueosi related tosadesignedrto collecto n fetlie use include fcorsingsyteds to farm-eveld adoptsonuo fertilizer ushese househol farcultura 9 coopuerthees drand the charaterisics of farers and honusehsold poTon pattoensof rysehso mhrceirtionoditaneso householdsn toe .9" comercial lubroat.ions and p~erhosehandlad te8nr andiaeuse. lve o polyamyThe~ fctorsl reated toariutural populationn ferwth. iher useca inclued crppinge sens o household-plot, fndrtdiionalus owihuseh'od t-he poshl ra men age andayprdut rsu, an set.Tyia ofntoa caraterastcs cooeapes andicteschratistics ofeusers and -onusherso Houeheod porsitonpehoshlspasFecuulyadenntnrld in'chol.The oiodetaphi ofdcharanteistcgo the ouesols-duraingth cropngisetasoits, to Tabe 7xen,ha-ese ofmportant integrationswithe moennto n d commercial cutue.j Iliayis ser~igushidac t~vlof:" economic-oca evlpenTh averge numraa tfhie household isf2,odern palgricultisra itsiapartorclarbThg t popuityton growth Thdunestypcad4 fertilyounge pentohaeanegwfe and frueetitiotal adducin wfis may onth husehol aritten frag adaccumlateoion dissremiandaing . Typicdgealbof aioat .4 chracterst ictorea sample-incs minpromerfrmctiize on6 thu e ~49 onside'red usually 4 Gh na ap ea coe 4<4A44....h ~ a or d. d s i a iIos m I g t e j r f ws e nN i r sesnl irns ssal-cl .'rade4. In44 that typ 4 of work the migan whols or thse mensarw old byatheigrathe dry seaonit arte shavre.an ;annsappear to5 ar~e faorsbed 4 dsIntione camong then mjenm 4 o wetermnnley~ vey seulinunerta~dnglaoran inane invstmnt most vial wr orkcpia naywgenraagricultudre, Abadferilier peaet.mn seasonal migrantsicsall relionsipetwen dhryeasof worathen maratnd Lfarmwhlealr;teser ooseis old whyrtemigat mandbeuesoprhared frciviescloth soes the arclikes, ander litems o cmrv oshl prodTempor Tihationseofvationhsul are notheuncomaon Asthonhd enmpTbleical ovew tof hanoratoadTvornspraiodial rNsetunt rsntmnyt h hoseole tanpdeatonye tofrepertha pocssrieihtitsre the',lr Mig atlonisd cn'rlin West-Afroci. oointrsarch butdixtris vrysertulo indaesadin alaor andiaes thatmi arevl le frcpia investmethinglandsgenial improvementse an ferize. doesi transpotheio thaeeen relaionshduipg btwen dry-seson migrastion anid foateve frtilizer usebis oxannehere requiremaybeued o purchasment. fderuterpad otghwar lien magrclturalinut tosecndry houseoldry ofproduction Tatd cobservation. shoold ed furhrsovaliatedtrog aepica Ovriw'fThe Nxtinal transportation system Nie alorqie' cosierthenThnporanetina ytingere i1)cosroaind ionecthat itosre Abidjanlarges lnkedtoralun ine Wet Afrir (oorintrald netenalo 4 trnsortathion linkages ave alay hiinded economd i eloment 4n Por 44' :iarcour:: ,44cAtouh>s*cantrai i prv t in Ngrioe domnstics 03,33 adearnare~ dependent~ on3 thtinrstutu Dinanms'Fcdevesho ommencisLcantinntubeabrionsFields~ ofd ling g'icur lh&eel ets e woenrlal anotthe~ ftansnortat'ioen ofeafertilizer and field ar hw systemsofnTbe9 2 ie5amlvtransportation eevsedu eerh andolcy ttnin frmteh0k bg n complete seofralrtrips from gh corerativefo tohuba A done, ca trnpr tw n ha ,gbg,egh iitto 1%oh amr neveeth ifatiusture.wnent cat. . 3333.3 Cooperativey3~ credit33 is avaiabl to famr oprhs3at, but333 souce f Thoedistnce frnrio houeholsofedsiand marketseandahemery 'A fequenbot CFAnersh dapo anial'aw US ars ae sheriustonsrantsu Ito ie arcultutranspdevelomnti enera ahnd thyentfrf-eetransportation' ffriie n 3 cropsBoutusenhparicua. ditematancomhueod frrh'usfelds to arkts n fied r hw arm-levelnTbe9 transportation vdn uigtof eoplrespatcl~l. and s in wnues nd iger c I tyicallycaccopsed oifoot, byednky i mor ca'el, san Y prceed a: n evn s 'zers a . 7* ,Land TenlureK ind Use Aj~Because" a______landUsLasneI uaon-of e humanexstence- motessential object of possessijon among'Nigerien farmers, in the absenceofJ~ 4~elli-developed -ec onomy,' -most >Sustenace is dr'iwi from th ol '", Land" tenure systems in Niger reflect both African and Islamic 9;i-7traditions. Although th~e intricacies of Ngre'~n eueece h cp an inteIc of this study, some basic characteristics are discussed, The basis of~the system of lan~d tnrisheecogniti.on that, atoghvilage residents have the right to us'e as much' community land as needed for their .support, the land is the ultimate property of the village and is controlled by vilage chiefs. Village chiefs may aloaeln onw ilg'eiet and, to residents requiring. additional land. In the event of migration, allocated ,but uncultivated land or land of heirless farmers reverts to the control of 'the'village chief. Although land is owned by "use rights,," it may also be inheited an agreement about inheritance is made at the time of allocationi. <'The general pattern of land tenure in western Niger indicates that land mayinheriheedsbe borrowed or owned by individuals or hou.seholds'.i The frequency~of$ thes e types of ar .angements for plots of farmers in,the sample is showni in Table 10.: ';hen ladis borrowed from another vilg resident, paymient' of 10% of'production appears customary and is a means for the owner to realize :benefit without, investment,'j, It should be noted that the farmers interviewed 'for this study are members of the Djerma'ethnic group. Therefore, the observations about land tenure ~ shared in this.study may not be characteristic of those among the Hausa or other ethnic groups.'... More etailed studies would perhaps show useful contrasts'and comparisons, Lbut that, task is.beyond the intent of this study. ;<97 The relative proportions,of owned and borrowed land are difficult" to: 9 -'i;;;> accurately 7; Y deter-mine'for whole 7 ;7 ; departments and villages.7,; ,; It is, however,~ -7$-; clearly~~~~ intepltclinterests of village chiefs to maintain ~>>-, land 7 control oe thar- is available for-borrowigjad~~to avinemt ladto dominate the s iht to -laepattern. niiul wh r ,useaLs loanlanda~so hav . 'ilt l d niiidual sts ae. nAlstiong rh -coofland may be e ,uatnes f -ansaconswere "7, observed ' in 'thssis; study. y Landuthat is.obtai.'iedby inheritanc gift,. or.purchase is- more securefor.longterm investment.. 'Those farmers in western 0I.are dependent on borrowed land, and therefore -on~th god graces lof, village~chiefs iaid'.n almo. ,l.andowners,nev . taFe....cnsf o the of borrowed fieldsovenfmanuringis rareor nonexistent. Thus, to the ectent, that borrowed land dominates the land use pattern, investment and ~&';' therefore fertilizer use and agricultural production are stifled and severely constrained. ~ CroppinpzSvstems on Household Plots The principal food crops of western Niger are millet, cowpea, and sorghum. Y.ess common are~rice and sorrel. The questionnaire was structured :obtain daaon a 4year history of crpigsrtge.The longitudinal vary between the villages sampled in the departments of Niamey and Dosso. It appears that Djerma farmers in western Niger establish a crop pattern that minimizes risks and promotes productivity, and-they do not alter that pattern over time. The data show that the nillet-cowpea intercrop is -or evae in Dosso andthe millet-cowpea-sorrel iqtercrop is more Lfrequent in the Niamey department, ~&> Although millet is a staple in~both departments, risk is reduced in Dosso with sorghum and in Niamey with sorrel., That difference is probably attributable to the expectations of the greater rainfall and heavier soilsfin Dosso that are,,required for sorghum. These strategies of risk reduction: zhrough intercropping afre methods that have been established through years of experience....'and trial and error. The intercrops should be taken into account.. o ~in establishing recommendations for fertilizer use. Table 12 shows that the p...roduction of millet, the principal food staple, is greatly improvedi by e.rtilizer use. -arm-Level Prod1uction Agricultural44 ++ production statistics.4.+ for Niger, especially average per ;Iectare '-4...--+++".,+vields,V)4I ,aryI~VVV by source and should be viewed with skepticism,.. :mpessonsarethat subsistence.1/-A) farme~rs in Niger generally.:. V~.1 cultivate 4 or a~h,bt:VI1 uchsubjectiven------F estimates mak& no contribution to rigorous s ~actist.cal analysis. The..measurement oE.land areas willr 'Vge undoubtedly,-Ve a ,I ; rernain a44>~ V++VVJ+ Onsan 7-Ce 'n fuur farm-leve 'in N ige&r.4 u sUser ou ~ co e ' >"~Following thejadvice of agricultural aulthorities, farmers frequentlyA~g .Farm-Level Labor .Itlis icustmr for heads of householsin western Niger to labor exifLlusively on household plots, but other smaller plots ~may be cultivated by than 12 years of age, work with household heads in the tasks of planting, w.eeding, and harvesting. It: appears that weeding is the taisk for which labor is most freqguently hired, and wages are a major expense. Table 14 shows data '+ -+ ++4 4'+:,- ' that ++.describe; : +,+ - - . y 4 labor, wages,4.' + and.,+ , Ytasks. + + 44 <+++ --No shortages of labor were reported by the farmers who were '4- 44 <44 44s 44r interviewed for this study. .o4 4-+ Labor "bottlenc-cks" reported by various sources 4s4''US 444 i4 +i~~ho ~44 are most likely to occur ds4"4'4r44s o ng:4 in eastern Niger in~tche 'departments of Zinder and. 'i Aaradi where intensive cash crops prevail. The average daily wage paid for hired labor Lamong the Djerma of western Niger is CFA 64 0 or US $2.20. It should, however, be noted that : ,...... ,+: the sticksican elerly ' 4, ' ane l are. provided ' 44u. with village labor asfia 'charitable and humane " - 'A'444'.f'4....-<4444.44' ...... >.++ .4++' 4++'.++'.444++ 'A. . 4...... <+ +4, 44 ' 44 l+ 44 +.a + r 444<1++:d *. <4- ++++R44o +i++, '. 4+'+ 4 44+< 444 4 4444444 +,+++++ +? ++'+:+:+ :,++++. ;++++++44444444444...... 44:+i + 4,4444-41. ++++++ ""',-4.4444-''4'44"+i +i + +++ 44,"- ++++4-'<14++ 44 ' <"-" ,'' -1f' 4 .444 4 4 4.444 .44'4> -...... 4-; . . ' ++ o ++ :+,++++ + 4.4+ + 4+.~«'-o4 .44 1~. :. ii4!44 4 4- '«'1, 4''.> 4A4 ' 4<4 4'4 444- - 4 '-',- ..' 4A 44.44. i4444 A 444- 4+, "444444 4-44++44-444- 4 441 44 '?A' '." 4+44 A.s4+2. - 4>44-,AQ4 444 <' '4:4' '4'< 44' 4' .44' 4'+j 44-444;,4'A A AA'Q A gr i COertvsicuIcr ie toaceeat an 'eooi aoia deeopet ditrbue Moengiulua cooprautive systemie in Niger sflos 1.GrouneFrench coloali l gorned thesarve ofanze atithetvillg leve an arethebassofthestrutur of c operatives. 2.~~rgnzd cooperative the sysogniettncue isobase on tehep suppor an oflaeta armtaher thanpirdiveinls the strductre ofdmat o 3. Asrouiaeiens Luoualsst Vilieoaie (Al) are onzd at the veilag lhevel mandet arte sbstasilo henstrhcteof poperations.ooprtvs 2. ~The cooperativae organed toga incld group ofbl p5.ehasfie orlmte villaurig thae aereo mutually suportveinthe operodutionandrmarkeoin ofs gragriaculurale gods.n h eid1947 . Atog heehv ensm cha.eAsocarons L98ocahesdreset thoetructur has aremfound inthscaregions whm.erap tares aret substfant enoug imotoaupnt neinsofe cooperative Fivctue ors te coolperties usuallyi form aetlzr union.lprdctoni The campetiesyotem bftegn 1965an Tab0sheno.Beue of limid,' financia refscoure andt0%o the saigruhtra roopertie dieelopmetac sowcedi dring thepeiodio196-74 hoeverpen the cooperativesrationstwasna greatly acceetdn during thep erid of4-Aloughatere haeeen sorme chanese fproa 7tof the presentpaso theucurhaseremainedsbaicaythe bu sial uPerhapsa thimstppinificntandt importan h canitin the opeIrcaie st frturier sThe collposes of fmred aorfetherbnforscerealprdutionei the early insTale16 Theambtios goea of dte 0sandn 9o0 har itves notbeenraiz, of credi detn es the exanio an dooevelopre ntof ooeraie adcnsrs a enfisofMrcutralN Copelte "al a ''Then queu ione abot th benfits of cope avs, farer a Fertilrizer Is anarclua nu~ tncsaiypasses through~~r c'.ooperatives sand extens i servicas to reach the "farm~level. The success o'f Suhefforts depands,,on the literacy of the pripangfarmers.Th it~e7Uiier tar~andus eariImLt'i& adbokeig, and unesadmnagement and agricuiltural practices is a basic and critical prerequisite to agricultural dev o. j* ;;j K Few Nigerien farmers have any formal education, and few speak French. An effort to enhance agricultural skills was realized inK 1978./79when' 2 0,permanent agricultural training cehnters were created in the department of Dosso. Although such efforts are commendable and important, progress remains Sloij4. Ngerien farmers may obtain information about fertilizer use from several sources other than cooperatives. The farmers. interviewed in this study were asked to identify the pr,-cipal source~ of informfation about the use .of fertili:';ers, and those data are shown in Table 17. Ntsurprisigy Djrm famr appear to beaaeof friie -and to learn about fertilizer use by observation and by exchanging advice and experience with others on an informal basis. The educational role of .. cooperatives and extension is substantial; however, informal learning unfdoubtedly",ocrurs in those contexts' and the categories therefore are not mutually exclusive. Although farmers do receive formal advice and, guidance from -authorities, that advice is undoubtedly modified and altered by perceptions of -risks and unique conditions. Fop'\example, authorities advise farmers to incorporate fertilizer before and at planting time, Although that is . excellent technical advice, farmers are very reluctant to 'risk fertilizer use until rain and small' plants are clearly visible. That practice hinders root development but makes infinite sense to farmers who find it difficult to' till *very dry topsoil and are reluctant, to risk fertilizer loss through heavy windstormis before planting. , ~' ~4 St ~S' ~S 4 4. S' 1 4 ss ' ~ S~ "si Cara teis is' of-Users, an Non ser of Fer~'Stilizer t t ,,,~"S$4 S Additiona insght int farin sytm-n ferilze 4 use are obtine byS't copaisn betweenS' the deprtmnt of N'ime'n D s in, term r enCaaceitcof Usrlzes an ouseradttps of ertilizer staar attactve toameirs. gr no'f '~. . obaie shw in Tal 18, armingo fetlzr appeairs mo e reln iscetri osprsota nsbe iaeen,nthe die re+nce patillds _xpaie byahihrprbbliyo byqut rainll myn ane Dosso' niearm Therm poiyof Dshe ffrieriat Nrqe borde and tpess toadfioa fertilizerstaar supplie ta oarmer ut toteicesdus ffriies Zertlzs' shoprset in Table 1 Theus offetiers waps 'prevalentbt idosrtes,thwNamherefore urhe xpetedonlvom aled lvel of fertlize ue bye afhighertilityr ofpadeqate rinfalln in the Dosso department bth .. rxm. ~~~h faros totervigein bordtyeranaacse e todiionl fertze eaulestooayas contrit to thertier use ofd fetilzers.aaehwni retlzr r coseaitsofrsne nTablecotanSrdir 19 Th waselreae n both udertmtsd heauawas uinfcnosedanly inasoemled phelcs of Disa.cThe ueseofre byfrmr turhs fertilizer pers.beicasn inc the Dowledeamntbu 1ami1iar15 fri lze ia notewely usted.cntrit Thoe faesuporinehieedobnrvthinstud wer askredato idntiefyeqwhat each undbeerst asonsrist fertilize per uosibe,.n hsaaaesoni Table 20. The arso ucntnseors and ousrdi arhely rnuneatdandiare und-estoostns sicat contlrnsetAs reflec the lack of, fiania reouesd. by farmize toprhae fetliers Labohckofmeknowledgret and housholdThols dthansurtthe observatios. thteanincres inrte frequeny oflte demosrtionstriasneom of iam-eformaspration dris.Seminaioniwilly enhance tho dpto.ndueo fertilizer.aesmwhtls GosRaestoratistnoefrmlee credinpot inNier is a fiels pnrolem btprovemein t osehkoldgeiand wihth senes of fertilizer usve lappr posidbe. hus rltve t a~~~:rcac omprtims ofa user ndsr, I isootattnonusers hepulifer~rtndn farm-levelr: copnstions to fiertilizer, uses AssompntinT'hbe2, h t ela reprobaedbly 15 ~relatives with somel~share of production- Because of the patternof labor-,use by fertiliz6er users, increased production is a~social asset as w~ell~as an economic 1 one.' The data also show that users of fertilizer hire an/Average of1 , xws t :.. ereas -nonusers iie anaverage of less than thre&P6wkers (2.7), but fertilizer users deand more labor at the point in the eaon weeding is necessary,' but nonusers hir ' labor for the varied tasks of planting, weeding, and harvesting. ,. As expected, users of fertilizer frequently cite it as the single 6 most important input, whereas nonusers have yet to realize he benefits of commercial fertilizer and instead hire herds of animals to deposit manure on fields for an average of 25 days per year. Users and nonusers of 'fertilizer are also contrasted by the sources of their information about fertilizer. As shown in Table 22, fertilizer users .. ..cite agricultural cooperatives :as the principal source of information about fertilizers five times more frequently than do nonusers. The data also show V i that nonusers cite extension services as-the principal source of information about fertilizer five times more frequently than do users. The greater frequency of, farmer meetings among fertilizer users is probably a result of more frequent participation and activity by users within agricultural cooperatives. Nonusers reported no participation in meetings of farmers. Such meetings should be, given attention in the future development of , rertilizer use in western Niger. Finally the data show that nonusers :are more likely to have learned about fertilizer from informal sources than are users and that nonusers remain mostly outside the realm of formal information. These observations suggest that information dissemination and accelerated contact with nonusers are needed and 'required for the expanded use of. fertilizer. As shown in Table 23, users and nonusers of fertilizer exhibit differences in the use of crop byproducts (basically 'straw), Millet straw is.... '-. virtually always used as ground cover;' by nonusers of fertilizer, however, i, j isorghum and cowpea byproducts are more likely to be used as ground cover than by users. An inventory of animals is not included in this study, but the data suggest that the extent of animal ownership is greater among users than------ nnsrbease byproducts of both sogu an copaaemre frequently' 1, 'sd-as sround'-cover- amiong those who d,o s eriie. ' Thespclto on that point 4would bethat fertilizer,use supporcs the develdpment and< maintenance of farm' a'nimals ;'nonusers own AfewerA animals 'and therefore are generally porer,than those who use fertilizer. "'-~ ~z ~ T e-:value---f:~w straw among" fertilizer-us'es-,i apparent inis use for ianimal feed, market sale, and trade. Perhaps proxiiyt markets. explains ,the ability of fer~ilizer users to sell and trade cowpea srw ,.n7ereas, because of transportation constraints, nonusers have, limited choices and are compelled to use cowpea straw' as ground cover.-) Fertilizer users have a source of income from cowpea straw that bolsters their ability to continue to purchase fertilizer and enhance their cash flow. " Si~nificant Differences Amiong Users and Nonusers of Fertilizer Additional insights concerning the differences between users and nonusers of fertilizer were explored through statistical analyses. In the search for contrasts, the variables of owned and borrowed land, age, household A A size, number of wives, number of children, number of family members speaki~ng French, dry-season migration, and cart ownership showed no meaningful differences between' users and nonusers of fertilizer. ' Somne meaningful contrasts and distinctions are shown in Table 24. *Those data suggest: that the availabilit of household labor and the distance from household to market are significant variables explaining the use or7 nonuse of fertilizer. Those vairiables should be evaluated in future research. The obser-vation of no significant differences in the use of organic manure among users and nonusers of fertilizer is instructive. Previous research has sometimes suggested that the use of fertilizer is associated with a decline in or 'akofthe use of organic manure and that the organic richness of the soil is thereby lost. 'The data suggest that this is not the case, and Dj'erma farmers comp lement the use of ' fertilizer with the traditional' use of organic manure. This observation should also be evaluated in future research, 4 A Summa r; Nilger is a country that exemplifies :he demographic, economic, and ~riuitalproblems-of. the Sahelian region of rmesA&:eAfrica,4 Hig rteOfpoultin gowh reoccurring azidstAec in n~~ agricultural economic and Substantiali-creases in ,odproducon ~ are~needed to meet th reurmno teNgre ouain hc s The use of appropriate fertilizers and other modernflagricultural 'inputs is necessary to build a susta inable and prosperous agricultural sector.-~ At present, the use of fertilizer inNiger is~among' the lowest in the world.' Nigeridn agricultural authorities are keenly aware of the contribution th~t fertilizer can make -n increasing food production and are developing policies to enhance and strengthen the 'diffusionI of modern agricultural inputs. Farm-level socioeconomic research, data, and information are critical factors'.n properly assessing the agricultural sector and developing appropriate and beneficial policies. This study is an initial and exploratory erfort to gather data and provide a report on farm-level constraints to fertilizerNuse in western Niger. On the.basis of aricultural production theory, a questionnaire was prepared and field~ tested in the departments of Niamey and Dosso during the periodMarch 1-15, 1987. Following that pretest, the questionnaire was ~y'~ refined, and field interviews were conducted among 48 Djerma farmers in 7 western Niger during the period June 15 to August 6, 1987. The villages of Bambey, Galmi, Dan Gona, Sorkorbey, FleTorodi, Karma, Gteye, Goberi, and Simari were visited in the departments of Niamney, Dosso, and Tahoua. The data indicate that Djerma farmers in western Niger are expected to support an average of eight persons often including more than one wife. Dry-season migration earnings in ounries average about US $650 for as much as 9 months of work. Those earnings are important sources of household finances. - The lack of transportation ' is a serious constraint to fertilizer use and agricultural development, and distances to fields and mnarkets pr'esent a frequent 4< problem. A'.cart is a prized but expensive purchase, anid most farmers are dependent on'foot transport. 'Although the system of lanid tenure is S compl ex, land may be owned or borrowed by households:'and individuals. Djerra ' 4 farmers are reluctant to make capital investments in borrowed land and Senerally forego using fertilizer and manure. Therefore, the frequency of &j ; orrow.ed land is a 'constraint to Certilli'er use.'> 7. '.L patterns~33433ov r ti e In e cr p in s o mi-e and co pe3 l il et anls rg u signiican exopene Fe enhisoiorhuhdplotsn lahor lotl varistihold croppingu strw.he eedng f inelds pis ohemilt aund c' a for hirled labd orghand theaveragedrik reduction abratege Vitull no20houseavraehol productiboner ise hired ~ ab u lbo3dyforre A---.-eixoemcange aondtrit cop n esn. tao- forilr o se n sevies. Nie sth ako govrnmi/Far p e e eding iames rqintrvewehied s tdyeprse ferilierFamr in wetr ie iwarcluand coopearve sioganifzatenpesofein 7 Fewwmn andliiedrbenelbrf nhoihodstu labor fonnuseofh fretives disfcompensaed wit thats~ gherno7 3 hosolstr Theweeding o fieldsishemothi hoeueol ptaklorshire labors andf fetelavergefiy wag e abot US $2.20.Onhe aeagie, sevntalabor are hiruerfo abouth 13odaysbperocroppnfeeasoe~n~ cratn famlvlepomn InAuray h constraintsnia to fertilizerinowetenNieeirhelcko use faovernmenwspprt cigredit.udFamrslitw lako inacl rhssuyexpurese vigrtaacy unisveralydiapinete aboiultteacl credit trasoprcaseo and aces fertilizFrerto s u-iwesternsufigeciewr agruhldrabcopeadvlako kogadgizaind rin asot ofernhee and limte enlieis. Asgvrmn poras -Illteacyis a on-ferstlzrait that prleent fullrealizactivn ofnth iidesprea' .Sugesrinsor Future Socioeconomic' Research inNie 4 Farm-le ,el. 'xesearc!h in Niger shouldLbe conducted. among, the Djerma.I,, the western zegi~ The'country-"'"Athough' the Ha1tih atenad -'a *ta i e ' Nger Ssouthern Niger should not be ignored, the'fact is thtwsenNgrhas V.I'--~'~received only~ scant and inadequate research atte'i etenad southeastern Niger represent distinct agoct ic and Wetrnl ands, n that distinction should be permanently recognized in the literature on...... farm-level constraints *to fertilizer use., The distinction between the departments of Niamey and Dosso provides an excellent 'dichotomy that, should be maintained and elaborated through empirical research. Continued research on patterns of dry-season migration is important in understanding the nature and dynamics of farm-level financial resources and income and should be pursued. A more elaborate understanding of the origins 1 and destinations of migrants, types of work pursued, duration of residence, " and wages would be particularly useful' and informative, Thi s st~udy 'has outlined and described the sal~itent aspects of lands tenure and use 'inwestern Ni'ger; however, more sophisticated techniques of sampling will allow useful coprsn between those who "borrow"'ln n -,those who own Iiind through "use rights." Differing levels o'-fertilizer ',use, i. iiI" production, and capital inlvestmenit in land are some potentially interesting points of comparison... ' .- ' Land use and agricultural productivity among Djerma women were not ~"9' ' extensively explored in this'study, but it does appear that "w~omen's crops"4 ;are' an important source ofhousehold income' and 'should not be neglected in future 'research., The role of oe in Nigerien agriculture should be considerd as an important topic in future research,. Ascertaining the sizes of household plots in Niger is'difficult, and'".' theefreper-hectare~yields are notoriously 'inaccurate.and misleading. One ---- alternativ.e ~s ntoexplore the adequacy"of production~to"meet houehldneds This, study did not seek data on~house hold grain storage 'or explore the 2'.'i frequency and costs of grain purchases, but those variables should be epo'e, i~n future research. The use, %value,an aeo crop byproducts, espectally cowpeaand~~ K:''rashould be 1inv.estigated with more empirical rigor and detail.' -i'-', - L-eve I ferL41izer trials sh'ul"(1 provide information'boti the volume 'or ,,Hzn ofsrwbyrdc- per lieccare.1 " ~V'I Vi and ::ero fefored no ns.; ht n~ t e'o cire ,conm:i va oc u y,u rA .4 . 44e. . e%)oe in fO niasowq sresearch. weed ing 4 .wsz- Nnigee're offe redutno'i'gt dicussteiro liesoc variabls relateds n~iraestins Thercse6fmoe eito prcased frtiiesad fcrIsa ca.re ]:< dcutedo-abor<-organic ore in tueee ir hh& i&h.i hanures.a 7 .7 ' ': ' ' ' ) ! 44 < 4. '4 .7;44::) 7 } !~ tii in particular' Ths sevies howver 4 are not4 std n wold repi~rent anrfarneabo resct on-he socialr disictio, 4 7}k; ; {Co,,operativles< 7 :-' and: ex tens ion servicees ?are ,7establifshed to- of f er f ,,!':7-77,:7 '7;;is e ri en farmersT informatifon an ta ining L',-7ut -:mo dern! agricultural practices :~-niformly.socoeonmi beneficialreerheand useful,a to,encnutd...farmers " Som <'h m area i...... :,..ot ...... of "successful", pfJlbrvid s , o onehoueld Pot a". "l e s s u c s wano wrell wesrbe thisi study 'but { e s f l : Jc o c e r r- v e a n e'x t e ns io n : s e r v i c e s , s h o u l d b shula e i beful - '14 1' 4 4 cre.llycmente incfuur"esearch was . 444 iso 44gsebyteUAD organizazioAlthough -a tals aohouesethel presenilty catal famereril The fgzfiusss di cuse ma, fcorsbeinlde ..eser anieare relctniat tocdiscus i 7hu}7' -44.j44.4 thdeirnoieck hodit ofetii ft. '4' 4 This adult 4 *,and4',*~4 4 .. 4 - j 44 chiud," shnould be replicated in'northwest Nier w tero A 3.'Thedeve t of phosphate resources in the Parc W region of western Nigee literate labor. A socioeconomc -assessment of labor availability, should be conducted if those resources are to be ihni o t t group western Niger' have :been virtually ignored. Provided t wIith7'that group, a comparison of agricultural,practices and fertilizer use-II~ i goup culdb amnong 4 .the Dje'rma, Hausa, and Fulanigop col bepursuied, Such comparative research would be a valuable 'basis~for understanding regional i and ethnic distinctions and Nigerien agriculture as awhole.' i5. Future research on farm-level constraints to fertilizer use in Niger iiill should i be pursued within small geographical units such as cantons and 9 villages as opposed to departmental and national studies. The research discussed here may be replicated within such smaller geographical areas. 6.. The observations of this study suggest that many farmers are uninformed about andaneilizr have not participated in a formal. introduction. The 'F socioeconomic means to expand initial: and general information may represent' an, independenc project in its own right. 7.Agricultural, training centersarrahrnmouaddiesinNg, Research on 'the curriculum' should evluateuhow andmodiver i nirire presented to farmers, and technical, and socioeconomic factors should be given particular attention. ' 8. The role of the media in presenting fertilizer messages at the farm level should be explored. Variables such as clarity, appropriateness, andy. - 1"I 7> receptivity by ffl1rmers should be evaluated . . 9, The role of woman in Nigerien agriculture should be considered as an important topic in futurerrsearch. ' ' 10-. Fin~al'ly, rescarck attention should be given to integrating [the youth' organizations and mo'vement 'in' Niger ,:ith, the introduction of fertilizer Quite' naturailly,' other' ideas and-research projects will emerge as :ese ideas are discussed, elaborated, and considered. Through'such exchanges a 'course of socioeconomic research can be charted by IFDC that will1 provide'44' ' i iec tionforalleviing t.he far tv constraints to fertilizer use in4. r " 22, Bi I'.~-yty-r a 4.- 1.' Afic Sot fteSh'a 97,Erp u icrin iie,1t Vole.Rpubic u Nger Minbltordaphy giclue.Pogam Ceee Naioal Niaey Noemer196 1 AfIcaputhn eve Sahar. Wa1987n Eopa PuD.C.n~L td,1 4.Niger Cereals Project. 1980. Cooperative 'Development and Training in'--~ Niger. Niamey. . Developpment des Cultures Pluviales ai Niger. Sahel (82)180. '1982. 6. Etude Retrospective de l'Offre et de l~a Demande d'Engrais au Niger. Ministere de l'Agriculture, Direction des Etudes, de la Progammiation et des Statistiques Agricoles, Niamey;' Septembre 1986. '4'7. Decalo, S. 1979. Historical Dictionary of Niger, Metuchen, N. J., The Scarecrow Press. 8, Mokwunye, U. A., and P.L.G. Vlek. 7i986. Management of Nitrogen and -. ---. Phosphorus_ Fertilizers_ _ _ in Sub-Saharan_ _ _ Africa,_ _>4 The Hague, Martinus '__ '.~ . Nijhoff. 9'. USAID/Niger. 1982. Niger,.Agricultural Production Support, Niamy, *10. USAID. 1986. Niger, Country Development Strategy Statement. Washington, 'D.C. ,"' 11. International Fertilizer Development Center. 1978. West frica Fertilizer Study, Volume V--Niger. '-' ' ' 12. Ministere du Developpement Rural. 1980, Cooperative Devlopment Training, and Niger Cereals Project, Republique du Niger,Nimy 13 Popul'alon Reference Bureau: 1987. "World Population Tables," -'r Washington, D.C. t '"' ' 14. The World Bank. 1983., World Table-s, Vol.' II,, Social Data, Third 15Oho SateUniversity. 1987. Rural Finance in Niger: A Critical t Appraisal 'and RecommiendationsforChane. yyy' 6. The 'World' Bank,"yt980-87. .. orldDeveloment 'eors WahigonD Ag" rten~cy for' In' - "'<'". Development, 1979'- Nire Apic:-rl ec ~~~ Assessment, Vol.. II, USAID/'1iger.~''-y;'' Table 1. Selected Demographic Characteristics of Niger in 1987 Characteristic Numerical Indicator Midyear population, 1987 7.1 million Annual natural increase 2.9% Doubling time 24 years Projected population year 2000 10.6 million Infant mortality rate 141 per 1,000 Fertility rate 7 Population under 15 Years 47% Average life expectancy 44 Years Source: Population Reference Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1987 Table 2. Ponulation Density Per Sqruare .Kilometer of Ariculurai '-and for Sl-eclod Years, 1060- 5 Year Dens itv 1960 23 1965 28 1970 31 1975 37 1976 38 1977 39 1973 41 1979 42 1980 43 19S5a 53 a. An estimate ised on population .ro'wh. Source: The World Bank, Vorld Tables, vol. II Social Data 143. 3rd..dition. Table 3. Estimated Per Capita Cross Domestic Product for Niger. 1978-85 at Constant 1976 Prices Year GDP Per Capita GDP (Billions of US $) (US $) 1978 1,123 214 1979 1,288 239 1980 1,369 246 1981 1,356 237 1982 1,345 230 1983 1,310 216 1984 1,100 176 1985 1,172 175 Source: Based on Rural Finance in Niger: A Critical Appraisal and Re commendations for Change. The Ohio Staw Un imrsi. 19879t'. and FAO pt pul a. io{n ,. t. :.able 4. Annual Growth ates; in Roal and Per Capita Gross omes;tic Product, 107,-85'' Growth Rate Real Gross Year Per Caita Domestic Product - (*%) . . ..- -(; ) - 1978 5 7 1979 11 15 980 4 6 981 -4 -. 9 1982 -4 -. 8 1983 -5 -. 3 1984 -19 -16 1985 4 7 a. The figurey are rounded. Source: Rural Finance in 'i~er" A Critical Appraisal and ,Reconmendanions for Change. The Ohio State Univpr itv,, 1987. Table 5. Key Tndicators for the Nir'erien Agricultural Sector, 1981-85 Indicator 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 Agricultural Share of GDP (Z) 30 31 33 33 47 Cereal imports ('000 mt) 39 120 45 45 247 Food aid in cereals ('000 mt) 11 71 12 13 218 Average index of per capita food production 122 113 95 1974-76 1100 (1981-83) (1982-84) (1983-85) Source: World Bank, World Development Reports, 1980-7. T 6. Total Fertilizer[able Deli'eries for i Rer by Types, 1980 84 TOpe of Fertilizer i 91., 1981 1982 1983 1984 ------(mt)------ - - - - ~ Ure ~"14~ 8 2t824.6 12 ,351.3 23260 ,835.0 Ammoiun-zsu:7c 7z~6.)3 56.0 61.0 CAN 3.8 11.4 3.3 58.0 50.0 SP2,865.2 7,089.9 5,206.4 3,823.0 TSP 1,584,0 370.8 219.3 660.6 47.0 530.0 Ground phosphate rock 314.6 73.4 432.3 730.0 487.0 15-15-15 717.2 1,339.1 701.1 2,136.0 14-7-7 2,503.0 40.0 77.4 0.0 0.0 Other 0.0 127.4 ' 29.5 9.8 5.0 40.0 TOTAL . 5,951.7 11,681.6 9,368.0 9,581.0 9,090.0 Source: Etude Retrospective de 1'Offre et .! . de la Demande d'Engrais au Niger. Ministere de l'Agriculture Direction des Etudes, de la Programmation et des Statistiques Agricoles, Septembre 1986, • .. ''. . , .. ' " , ' , • .' '.'" , ."I '. i. . 'I,: L , ,... , -. "' L ' -.¢i fii lq i~i, !'!(!',-, ']l'l, i iA Table 7. Averape nnd Standard Deviation of Selected .oc iodermo aphic uharac to r st cs of the Hotisehoicis Strdied (N=48) Characteri:tic Averace Standard Dev iation .;umber of Thildren per household 5 3.1 Household si:e 8 35 .;umber of '4,:ves 2 0,55 .\e of househo ld heads (yea- ) 48 12 .2 .ears of school ing of housetlold head 3 0.0 Persons in household speaking French 1 1. 5 Table S. Selected 2 'u -i'.es Describin, Dry-Season M'liration Of Household H.eads 7nrc.,eed (Nl8 Variable Percentage Percont of total sample that migrated in the 19F,6-87 dry season 38.0 Percent mizratini to Within Niger CGte d'i.oire 17.0 67.0 Benin 67.0 Nigeria and C6te d'!voire 5.3 Within ,i er and C6te d'Il.oire 5.7 Type of "ork Sales and trade 98.0 Labor and construction 2.0 Estimated average dr- season earnings (US $/6-9 months) 650.00 Table 9. Mean Distances From Households to Fields and Markets in Kilometers (N= ) Total Sample Niamev Dosso Households to Markets 7.0 12.0 5.0 Households to Fields 3.0 2.3 2.3 Table 10. Number and Percentage of Household -lotsOwned and Borrowed Per Household in Niamev :and Dosso 0'=116_ Plots Owned bv Household Plots Borrowed hy Household Number" Percena re Numbe r Percentage Niamey L.8 60 1.2 40 Dosso 2. 2 35 0.4 15 All Sample 2.1 75 0.7 25 a. Average number of plots per household. Table 11. Percentag'e Distributon oF Crops on Household Plot.s Over 4 Yenars rin Niamev ,md Dosso N 116 Po rs 19814 1985 1986 1987 Crous N:iamev Dosso Nianev I)osso Niamev Dosso Ni-mev Dosso Millet 17 10 13 10 17 10 17 10 Millet- cow-ea sorghum 2 18 2 18 2 18 2 18 Millet-cow'pea 21 56 25 56 21 56 2i 56 illet-s orinhum - 6 - 6 - 6 - 6 :millet-co'oea sorrel 33 3 33 3 33 3 33 3 .il let - cowea sorghum-sorrel, 17 - 17 - 17 - 17 - Other 10 7 10 7 10 7 10 7 TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 a. Rounded. Table 12. Mean Househoild Producon of Millet. Cc'wpea_ ,n Sor -hum in 1986 Amon Users and Nonusers or "r i::er (N=<;8) Prodiuc ion Croo User-' (N-19) :nonuser- (N-29)_ - (k / fa r m ) ...... Millet 2,341 1,351 Cow ea 134 125 Sorghum 120 180 Table 13. Uses of Millet. Cowpea, and Sorphum Bvprod icts (N=48) CroD/Use Percentage Millet Groundcover 92 Animal feed 4 Other 4 TOTAL 100 Groundcover 77 Animal feed 18 Other 5 TOTAL 100 o,-D ea Croundcover 29 Animal feed 35 .arke:t sale 27 -rade 6 -~.~ 100 Table 14. Characteristics of Faim-Levol 'nae Labor (N=4S) Var iahl e Percent or Mean Percent of farmers hirini; labor 100 Mean number of laborers hired per farm 7 Mean number of household laborers per farm 2 Mean number of days of hired labor per farm 'iean daily ware 13 inUS.$ 2.20 Percent of far::ers hirf m labor for: W'edi.ng only 64 Planzing and weeding, 18 Planting, har.escind;, and weeding 9 Land preparation and weeding 4.5 Harvesting only 4.5 TOTAL 100 Table 15. The Expansion of Agricultural Cooperative Organizations in Niger, 1965-78 Department 1965 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Namev 8 15 23 27 48 78 Dosso 4 14 29 29 64 68 Tahoua 5 35 49 50 55 64 Maradi 8 72 125 153 158 159 Zinder 7 97 164 165 194 195 Diffa 3 8 29 31 Agadez - 2 3 15 21 27 TOTAL 32 235 396 447 569 622 Source: Niger Agricultural Sector Assessment. Vol. II. Agency for International Development, Niger, 1979. . iger Table 16. Perceived Benorftn ef Paricption in Arriculrturi 1 ool ,ra t i,.e Org~an i:at i,n; (Nl -. 98 Ben fit Percentape No perceived benefit , 67 Tools available on credit: 19 Fertilizer transporteid to village 6 Seeds and fer-t.ili::er available 4 Fertilizer available 2 Increased knowledge abnut fertilizers 2 TOTAL 100 Table 17. Source of ed~e -ci'1-ind information Ahout V.F"sr 7:r iy Peport,-d Fir er;, .- SA Sources Percentage In:ormal ,ou'ces 40 Cooperat:ives 19 Field ,:riils 14 Extension wor:e rs 19 Far:;.ers' ::eerin;s 4 No knowledre source 4 TOTAL 100 Table 13. Percentgae of Sampled .otuiehold Plows; Rcel.in,', Fertilizer in Ninmev .and Dosso, 1'OR4-87 ,Y -116) Percent of Plots Recei.in jjF orn.::ers Devartment 1984 1985 1086 1987 Niamer S 6 3 6 Dosso 18 38 38 37 Table 19. Percentrape nf Sampled " rt:ii iO:M IHu;phni.d P1 orw; R ce i.i -' i-jcin ., !-C Forri i::or in i mov ind nosso, 10 &-,.7 1 4 1Q811, IQ85 19,86 1987 Fertilizer "i3a:ov Do;;o 7; ,,, wi I; o Do Niamev inws'n Niamev DoSso SSP .5 67 100 58 75 61 N0 88 15-15-15 25 - 12 12 Urea - 33 - 42 27 - TOTAL 100 100 100 0 00 100 100 Table 20. T,,,pe of cm,1 ri" ; --C.i:s o d h vy : -r o -. : .', Constrain, P reen:a'o Cost Cost in conjul:ction '.4jt.h lack of cre(it 48 Lack of knowledge and faini Iiari tv 25 No conS :ra int: identified Other 4 2 TOTAL 100 Table 21. A Comparison of Selected Socioeconomic Characteristics of Users and Tonu. ers of Fert-iii[o r (N=,, 8) Characteristic Moan or Users (N=I9 No ns e rs (N=29) Mean distance to markets (rkm) 5.4 7.6 Mean distance to fields (kim) 2.5 3.0 ',lean nutber of0 nonhousehold relativ.es providing labor per far. 11.0 3.0 Mean number of hired laborers per -arm 6.0 2.7 Percent citing fertilizers as most important agricultural input 84.0 36.0 M-ean number of day;s a hired herd Ls tISz ro-- or.a nic manure 0.0 25.0 Table 22. Principal Sources of Information About Fertili:,er Cited bv Users and Nonusers of Fort ii:ier': (N=48) Percen tape Source Users (N=19) Nonus;ers (N29) Agricultural cooperatives 36 7 Agricul:ural extension services 5 27 Farmers' ins 1i1ee1t Far:n-level trials 16 14 Informal sources 32 45 No sources cited 7 TOTAL 100 100 Table 23. Uses of Bvproducrs Amorw Users -nd Nonusers of Fortili:oer Users (N-19) Nonusers (N=29) (7) (%) Millet byproducts Ground cover 90 93 Animal feed 5 Other 3 5 4 Sorghum byproducts Ground corer 63 89 Animal feod 25 11 Gift 12 . Cowpea byproducts Ground cover 7 45 Animal feed 43 Gift 30 5 Market saLe 43 15 Trade 7 5 Table 24. Variables Showingi Siglnificant Differences Between Users and Nonusers of Fertilizer (N - ZS) Mean .ariable Users Nonusers Differencea Distance no market (kin) 5.4 7.6 -2.2* Distance to field (km) 2.5 3.0 -0.5* Number of household laborers 6.4 2.1 +4.3* Number of hired laborers 6.0 2.7 +3.3* Percent of farmcrs usin; organic manure 50 58 -8 a. Users with respect to nonusers. *Significant at the iZ level of significance. APPENDIX 7 BASIC QUESTIONNAIRE FOR VERIFICATION SURVEY OF SOIL FERTILITY RESTORATIONJ PROJECT IFDC JUNE 1988 . IDENTIFICATION Country Village Farm No. .- INFORMATION ABOUT THE FAR.MER Name: Sex: Man Woman If a woman, is she: Never married Married Widowed Divorced To what ethnic/cultural group does the farmer belong? Ashanti Djerma Kabye Fulani Hausa Other (specify) LOCATION OF HOUSEHOLD What is the average distance from the household to: (km/miles) - The farmer's household plots? - The farmer's individual plots? - Market where their agricultural products are usually sold? - Store where products for houseLjld consumption are purchased? - Store where fertilizers are (or could be) purchased? What is the principal mode of farm transportation? Donkey Donkey Cart Auto Ox Cart Foot Other (specify) Does the farmer have access to regular and predictable commercial transportation to market centers? Yes _ No 4. HOUSEHOLD COMPOSIIIlON, EDUCATION, AND EMPLOYMENT Employment Outside Household the Farm Age School Yes If Yes, Members Where? Type Months Estimated (Years) Years /No Country/City/Village of Work per Earnings year - -arlme r Adult 1len (1): Adult Women (2): (1) Indicate relationship with farmer. NumLer of Children? (less than 13 years) 5. INFORMATION ABOUT 'liE FAR:.' A. Land Availability' al Tenure Draw a diagram of zjhe farm indicating polots having different crcs cr manageent and their dimensions. Obtain the following informaicn on the farn plots wit cr.ps this season IMen ,.:Inacled ",'omen I" nie Ai I Plot Type of Plots plotso aA by Land Tenure No. o tea No. cof Area No. of Plots Area (ac/ha) Plots (ac/ha) Plots (ac/ha) Household Plots: - Owned - Borr0d W2 - Rented-in ___ Individual Plots: p - Owned - Borrowed- - Rented-in Other Plots: (spectv) _ _ _ B. Availabilitv of .2c i.n... , .c up ment, and Aninals. (Questions to farmer) Do YOu own or use a trjctcr Owns: ___ U'se (rented or borrowed): ___ ;o: Ij Do you use other eciu: rment? o:Yes: -> What equipment? (specify): Own Rented or borrowed Do you use animal traction? No: ___ Yes: j--> ;hat animals? (specify) : Own Rented oz borrowed Do you own other animals? ,1o: Yes: ,hat,--> animals? (specif,,. Number 6. AGRICULTURAL CI EDI7 (Questions to farmer) Did you borrow money fcr 'our farm this crCs season? Yes: I.J No: If--> Did you TRY to borrow mone,? No: why?-->,hy? Yes: JJ--> From whom? Why did you not get it? - From whom? - Distance frcm housenold? /mil) - row mucn did you borrow? (in/_iles) - What interest rat, are you pcav.n.zI- ': . -" ( pereryeryear) 7 SOURCES OF I11; . *CWLO'DCE ABOUT F RT . How helpful ha, the f l 1oincT sources ferti li ers Lo been in rcvi jm- iniormation the- - f "rm.. ... about cry S.m_;,a: Not.No S - . heipe:nuI .eip ul sure Personnel o: Crz-.r-t--- Extensicn ;;err_ ___ Other ;armr- Fertili1er Radio Other sec I...., Does the farmer own a radio? Yes: 0 Has the farmer seen a-vertisement for fertili:ers cn televiion? Yes: No: How many times was the farmer visited by -',tensionworkers last year? 4J o I H iii' I o K I I I I I j I I II ~4J I I U I I o ... ~ II C-) C K II * ' ..-~ 'II -. 4 - I - I!, *iI~ -4 .4 - II -~ '- I ~- II IIi I~*-J j -* -~ J.-i .. *~1 j - I II I I ~ :.:: (U - - ''9 - * ~-~*~'~j~ uz - - 0 ',~ .449 ~-*~ .9 4K~ - - - 4-. J~.. - .9 - ') ,- - , -' C-. -,.~ *.) -4 - I) C, - .s. - -. 9 * .-- *Ui '-4 4-' -4. C, '-4 ' -~ -C----', .~4 -, -. 4 - 4~---**4-- - 4~ 4 4 491 * .~ ~ 4- I j zz r-4 413 0 a4 4-3 0 000 0- 0- 0 , U 4 o 'a 0 o .,j i C) 0i C00 C)U 0) u ' N 0 t4~ r 4 04. 0)4-4.J C) 0 -0H 2 4J (0t rj4 C)1 -4q 0Q) -o a. CrY uOi CJ i r J o ~ W0 U a'..~ C:4- ~4 4 0, W ' ( H4 :; - ( i - FE N 3 441" 4. i " < - ' 4 4 j j 0) - Hj (4-44. 4HOCrJ-4) ( (4-4) )-H I40 0 _4i 0 o-v-0 H~~~~~C 4-4~ ~ CI)= ~ C~~ ;4r c 4 HU0 i( J-JM4 J ci I4 I-W I I I I o <1Lr ri I Ii (n jr 4 r Q 0 Q ~ ~4~ VI 4 4 4 Q4 04 W 4) 4. H Q4 4- C)'' ((n <4 HHl a)4- V)r- .-- i 0 44 . I .- C)) Il 0001 a4 7 ------ -rl- I . 0 P44 01 10 1 C C -> C: , - Q, 24. - C4 0 04-) I- V : l U 0 ) 0 4 ro 0 p4 0 I11 141 01 I s-i E- ~ - - -4'~ 1 440 I I'" I I4 $4 I1 <4 4 ) S1HI I iIII...!I l l...... -s-i ' i' '?!?~,ii Li.i~i i: !!' ii! ; i~i! ii~:i U ii !: i, ii i: i )i: i ii ,,,ii~ ': ",,iiiiia 00 04 .0 0,3-i -I ., : i'~iii iiii! i ! 'ii!ii, !' U !i ii ; i , : ro-H 04> ~: , G I ii, , ii ,i!l "ii! 4 k~i~>!i !i i!, i,:i~ i!,:C),i,! i ,i!i:ii! i i~i 'i i~ii~i i ii iri! C), G : , i!i U,i~~ ';! 'iI: :! :L"II-s 4 44 04o1 4 4 ii0 lLO. ! I- S ,4 4. 1 i I!411! rllil I 111/II!IlilI , ! ; lI 44 ' l ii l i4l ! , .... - i r, , Ll l - !,\4.4i 4. --i .-1 ! - '' C4M, :, , LO'44l i!~~, i',i: ii!iii C pr , , i !ii~ ii i ,! , : iii!L ~ i!!~iii~!!ii~l iiiiiii ,-'~~lL~~i 'iii, ~ ii~ ~ iiii! ~iiii~ii~! 404- 0 04 j ) '4 r 0:04 0i 'J4 0rJ~4 0J rJi4 -, M~~i!r.ir (1):!4 U)i,4-Jii 4.j t+4 I C; w I 04 C)V)HHa)HW- HJIIHJHHUn - - u U):- Q4 r3C 44 4 , 4 4440 ::1.4a ) :- U) 44 HC) 4i -4 C.)a) 44 4~ C.) 4-J 4---.------ 0 00 0 ra C) 0 tl0 0 -H bg ) Vr) C)4 ,~ -4-1 . Li 0 0 00e V. U r, :D ) 4-4 0 2 )0 H. 4 0o - C .) U 4tl.4 0 T 0 :H 0 .4cj r 4-J0 44 C0 UO, U) O.C0 U) 0 Ln mU U 0 0 C 4. 0 U0 >,)t24 -J U 0> Li*U) l> U) 0>,U C4.j4 1 4 U)1r*j * 44 -1Li-r 0 4 4 Ll ',H - ri~~u* - V ' 1~U C) ' > - S~~r i~ rj o 10. OTHER 1111FOR1MTION.ABOUT INPUTS USE A14D COSTS AUse and cost-of Fertilizers Is the~ farmner using fertilizers this season? YES: No:, 4-Did he ever use fertilizers in the past Yes:.j I No: j~-->Why? ______ T-> Why did he discontinue use? ______ If YES, (the farmer is using fertilizers this following information: season), obtain the Type of Quantity Amount Transport ~fertilizer purchased of fert. from supplier paid ______purhasl eans of Distance Cost of (kg) C)(kin) Transport Transport ~ ) 2. .4.4 B. Use and Cost of Organic '.anures Is the farmer using orc:anic manures this season? YES: I I NO: If NOT: - Did he ever use organic manures in the past? Yes: No:40I K - Why? T> Why he did discontinue use? If YES, (the farmer is using manures inf-ormati on: this season), obtain the followin Type o_1 Oroi. Quanzlv Used I: Cucttas: Manures Used (in kq or No. of days Quanr~z. :...... , i herd par1:in ) (in -o o No n"c of days; of in noney or 3arking) in n C. Use and Cost of Labor Men Women O idren Number of household on household members who work plots? Number of nonhousehold1 relazives work on household olos? who .E,? r;as labor hired the farmer? "es: N: -- i--> why? What labor? For what activities? For what wages per day'? (1) Men: Wom en: Children: i ndicate naywi',en: i n money c..c/or" n k nu (ieals,I jS:r i, -c. FARM'IERS PERCEPTIONS ON - CONSTRAIN.S TO FER: US AND AGRICLTURAL PRODUCTION ihat does the farmer think are - the most important constraints to improve crop Yields? First: (most important) Second: Third: - the most important constraints to use fertilizers? First: (most important) Second: Third: 'er(ihCi c vopnient iCenter--mAfrica+~fw ~~, rAPPENDIX 8 I A .14' A~~ LI1~4~ A ~T/ I J ' ~.4 STTU PEPOP AN LLT)LA SUBJCT:Pretcaisl thft "lFC'f vil ensur So] 1 , rer tmfc' st gat eS cidtas or g ve n en nv st e t , oi er iI t res andora ionmai ten nce wi-1 t ke ntor ata considerati on factors that faci IitptE tO irniede access to and women s, utilij.C~x'ic- of soil] fertility techniques. To: accomplish% nprovlig this objetcive, the I CcntL)J j t.ute a rox i ma t e I Lhe, planiid Eocio-economic 510 o f r es p a nd erts;fo studio's of pilot sreasL at Ieast 1/3 of the partic-;pai)tsinpla (2)4 * on-farm-.trials 6 onavfida tawill 1cJbelec'te6 wc:ae-frmr anal~an vi I he gend; an c r-,-'(2 1)' whe s(2 rc) re Possibl e; ''agsg~ FA~QriveiFou.tof te rep1dns r tee:lrtr sur w re f w Chm4' na rare e of-hpauner , ' tj tt I SI Th (2 0'OL 13 Ji n fl-'N u dL ha vet C,aIC o r)ut th) f 10r~rlul 0,11 J c ie1 L4 ... -. f<-), V ,4 4 >Ii .e n l.k. , Togo Ji be iiw p' 1 i~~~i:u ei ri .):i . . . :cti:;e n f y pc r e...... n t of . prt (3) dec~isin makngazbm-trab-in cnibu -tor to Va vi armn fcivitiesc~ vint be asessede in h 4l tdetailed T t ',:*re: cntsey of ain subseuent :-1nT,,c ')t of s~rwo ane T.r.in .r s u fhfrue nxetIya g oIinvlvenmfr oIvwren nin sf (a) tinofdt ii the~]aou-cotut't C;- )Safertle izeation ofhe verjfjit'ol -s sve 141VeV fm -ong largve-orp alit will -to asesrzctie erij-th ation of'JcV1701es' (sturite ' c s ss t h p r t ~ ~ j i o o w .' e b y a p p r o r a t e N - ~Sur'VOy design.-':w : < 4 i4 In J'ursu&ing- thecse Object i*,.s, "'pi r-ivIus of vIUse ledes %,*ii be sought i n order rnot to di srup-Lt 4, so ejo '~ul1 a rran g emen t s .I4- APpen'dr&9 LIST OFATIIAT AT THE O)N-FALRd TRIAL TRAINING IN GHANA'' S. Opoku- T 'ountrv(Ioo'dinator, :Ministry - ,-~~R-.Rh~ds - Agrnomc-L FDC K. Acheampong - Sociologist IFDC T. Thompson - Sociolgs AA'C K. Dar-e Princil Techniical COfficer Soil Research Institute - -A Dennis - Soil Research Officer, Soil Research Institute . A.M Nyamekye . - Seiior Technical fce, intr OfAgriculture Mnsr i.A. Arthur - Senior Technical Officer, Ministry of Agriculture A J.K. Opong -,District Agriculture Officer, Ministry of Agriculture E. Asiedu - District Agricultural Officer, Ministry of Agriculture ' T.K.A. Marboah .District Agricultural Officer, A Ministry of Agiutr 'AK. Boamah Djan" District AgricultUl-,-i Officer, Ministry of Agriculture' J.0. Mensah - Di'strict Agricultural Officer, ' AD. Boateng - Research Ass:-istant, Ministry of Agriculture Agricnlture A 'M. Bafour Asare- Technical Offider., Ninistry Of V ~' ~ Agriculture 'A ~ . DokT'echniciJ i A A . A Agricu 1tU re ~-Z~ T - "'C.> ,-~, ~ C C-' ''-C ": ~- C ' C C~'~ - -- ''.~- - C- I A. Noah TechzLical Offic~z ~ Ninisi-ry of ~ C Agriculture ~ 'E;G Mensah Technical Offi. ~r, Mini try of' "'~-'~ *" t:K. Sena ah Research E~tensaon Offirer ('IDA Kurnasi - K.M. Fordjour Agriculture Officer, Ministry of - Agriculture ~ C4, 'CCC Ci~ V 4 SI,,. I - - - C' V 'C C~C CC'~C' '-"C ,CC Ce'' CC 2, - ,C" ~C~' C4CC'C C C CC ~C 9' - C' C' CC C '"'"C''- 'CC C' CCC./~ 'C C C CCC' C C C 9' C~V1 ' 4C~ " C' CC C< 'C CC C -" . A> C "C' C "' " C 4 C ' C "C ""'CC CC ~ C C CC CC C " - C "C> C" 'C~CC C C Cr C 'CCC'CC9'C'C' CCCC- '~ C C CC'' 'C'CC~4C 'CCCC-~C'C' 'CC CA" C' C C 9. -ICC-C.C-,- C C - -' ,,C ~CC- ~C 9" A ' C 'CA C C ~ '-'CC' 'C'~CC"9CCCCCCC'C-C- C' 9 ~C>C.C~CCCC>CC 4C "-C'-' CC" 'CL --A - C~CC>~C'CC'CC'CC'C,,C'CCCC 'C"'" AC~C>CCCAC'C -C- "''-C'C C'-C~ C'CCCCAC'C",CCCC>C~~C~CC LI T RO PS M D O PROJECT ZONES FDC' STAFC 5-8Oc'3 To ,arrnge; :mee tin gssl1:6tee ,IFC. .Acheampon 1. 4: 4. ' ' - gric.u l 'inure Ac .. ",4 . k .- 4 4 4 . 7 ,4 20-21f'o, Oct' 8 7 To o4..n'.n .; ~in'Accra,.!Ghana ,ion'.collaborat ion' - :'.:i7-i:ii!ii! . .. the Ministry of Agrcult-r-.. ..K. Ach " 4 " S.Accra, ana on collaboration' , . ; n~~in the SFRP . - .... 5-8OctNigToer.ag etns tenI 120Dc87Apendi..... K. Acheampong , To collect secondarysv o dtforGaa.10 :'! . +. 7t:; h; Fe b 8 8 To: di scuss implIemen tathion.of" : P.."G.-[V lek,!i 7 :!:::. , SFRP with officials of the E. Rhodest iii:.. Ministry of Agriculture in: .Ac mpn 'iii71 -!' ' Accra , Ghana ,. ;i: ! : ( L i 14SF2 1 Feb88 suryinTdiscuss T the TsigningAsaniRegono of the MOU ID TA :.,:" .:.and imp o0fficialslementation of INRAN :;ofinNiamey SFRP w ithi :0A..ERhodes U.; :M k:wunye77;iiT!7 tanin Acra Ghanaon collaboration _20 eb-4Mar88. To obtain feed-back onffii-l P.L.G. Vek & by IFDCand to fdiscuss draft K. Acheampong Sin-5Ma.,88 To asscst Ghanian collaborato .'rMinintry of lAriculur iT. Ahempong fNiger,F. -To pa rtnipate i.o agriulte Acempn Acae ampon 17 To collect eontdaryndata fnp 22Fe-4tIar'8 T obain eedbackon emo P.LG.,Vle 7rad0 t h Fd ie b'of 8s 8u i d hrl e et -**,n ni t gi, d t -Lekaof t d E h d s 'w 4 -AS r wopithiaffi ci pas of2 e.E...ho.es 0> T Tof~l~. p nIFCrequest for Permit to sedfertilize~r oGhn - fo F.T. 444 4 9-13May'88 To inspect 0.F.T. E. Rhodes K. Ach'eampong 4 tory suvyin ne MaaiDp ofIL Niger. Tohdbe fi.nd outindwhether the M.O.U 27-1GJul'88 To collect secondary data for K. Alognikou & the exploratory survey of Togo A. Sakite 47 and have discussion- with re search and extension workers. *7-12Jul'88 To assist Ghanian collaboration K. Acheampong 4, in determining a sampling frame 44 ~-for the detailed verification survey. - 18-22Jul'88 To assist TogolaiLse collaborators E. Rhodes & in the conduct of the exploratory K. Acheampong survey in the Savannes. kw 21 APPENDIX 11 FOLEY & LARD1)N ER 1775 PENNSYLVANIAAVENUE, N W WASHINGTON, D. C. 20006-4680 TELEPHONE (202) 862-5300 TELECOPIER (202) 86L.5399 IN M.ILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN TIE 94~ MADISON, WISCONSIN FPOLEY & LARDNER1 77CSWICNICNEWRITER'S CHICAGOILNS DIRECT LINE ITSAILLINOIS MILWAUIKEE. A A I 77 E S WICOWIS. N I 53202-5367ANN AV E NUEO INIA POIMRL .A C KS O NVIL LE , L R ICDA= _ tELE2o~ag 2ORLANDO. FLORIDA Secretary General :i. ;:Mr .'Abdelwahed Benchekroun I iii;::: - World Ph osp hat e In st itut e:...... iiA ... ngle R oute d 'El Jad id a -:et • :~Bd Gr an ' '' ...... d e C e intu re ." " .." : :t::.;u .B.P . 5196 "' . .. " " " :Maarif ' . . .. , : - ""J " - . : '" " : .< Mer AbMrwhBenchekroun ..<:,. :.: ... Re: 'Fertillizer.Investment.for Soil Fertility Restor- " . tio Proec inWetAfia ;.q ter Commi-ttee .:' : S~erA t S ering o:urommitee :meetizng unanimously i:n, Niamey, Niger,-on- o Rthe: Fertilizer Investment approved theconceptualAugust 130-31,; model 19881 " ' AtiSnRPo),, our meeting in for Soil FertiityRestora-..... the work pWan for the S 30-31n . dring.. Cetember 198 - December 1989 and the 1989 fertilizer requirements which Phosphate Institute ("Imphos") the World Foundation as well as the American Phosphate (gAPF) have agreed to supply. enough While we did not have time Ito complete our discussions or to see the ject sites in Maradi as actual pro Director General Soumana had is clear that desired, it substantial progress is being the project. made in implementing IFDC and its IFDC/Africa staff are to be commended for their organization of the meeting. *l As should be evident from the deta-led port," the presentations "Progress Re IFDC/Africa to the Steering Commiittee by senior staff, the discussions .1 by the SFRPs national coordinators and through our field visits, Iniphos and 1<111 asignificant opportunity APF have and an important challenge to successful this important project. makeo :A ~ Mr. Abdeiwahed Benchekroun September 9, 1988 Page Two We can achieve this goal only if together with we are willing to work IFDC and to trust each other to act interests of the project. in the best iIt is with this in mind of cooperation to that I am writing in a spirit respond on behalf of APF to your during the August 31, comments 1988 executive session of the Steering mittee. As you may have Com observed, I was a little lost for and feel it important to respond~ words so that you understand our posi tion. I had thought that the been settled and that our agreementissues Imphos -raised had long ago the on them had been embodied in Protocol which was signed in September you that APF 1987. Let me assure remains firmly committed to the ment and Protocol of Agree the responsibilities it has undertaken. For APF, the questions of the Committee, the name of the Steering use of the formal title of the question who originally project and the proposed the project are in comparison to insignificant the substance of the project and for its implication economic development in West Africa. This is n IFDC's project, not Impnos' project, APF's project. For us, it is not our collective opportunity to carry out together a project that, in approved the final analysis, has been and structured by the international are providing aid agencies which the substantial funds for its IFDC has responsibilities implementation. ince to these agencies to solely account the proper expenditure of funding for the and to assure compliance hwith project as executing agent, it who is the international aid donors set the standards. As Dr. Stewart of IMC said, "He who pays the piper calls the tune." The duties Protocol of Agreement reflects this of the Steering Committee are reality. The set forth in Section II of the Protocol. In that regard, APF Committee believes that the Steering must concern itself with technical than focusing solely on "policy" questions rather as you suggested. It is our responsibility, indeed one of Committee our major roles, to bring to the the substantial, technical expertise in order that of Imphos and APF the project may be steered in in adopting fertilizer the proper direction strategies. APF believes that ing Committee is properly the Steer carrying out its intended responsibili ties and that IFDC is fairly and reasonably 'orkingto assure that the Protocol is properly implemented. McCune has suggested that To that end, Dr.4 year when the Steering Committee meet later the budgets for the work plans this 1989in are being developed for order that the Steering Committee responsibilities might carry out its in Section II.E of theeProtocol. Mr. Abdeiwahed Benchekroun September 9, 1988 Page Three As you ffurther are aware, Section IV of Protocol requires Imphos and APF to supply on a delivered bazis such non s ferilize as maybe required to carry outthworo ...... the--p... e 1n-::hat regard ,:.'- u that distressed and upset to learn IFDC was very Imphos during our meetings in Niamey that was declining to pay its share of 1988 While the actual fertilizer costs. cost oif the 1988 fertilizer requirements substantially higher than the was $20,000 IFDC finally submitted to us, IFDC reduced its request to this quest, lower amount at APF's re and APF has paid its full $10,000 contribution basis. Since it Imphos on this who repeatedly urged in 1988 that project be implemented as quickly the pay as possible, its refusal now to its contribution seems not only unreasonable APF strongly urges but rather ironic. Imphos to reconsider this questio. 4 Finally, I want am writing this letter again to assure you personally that in a spirit of cooperation rather than I confrontation. The SFRP provides a significant opportunity for Imphos and APF to achieve the goals Protocol. of our September 13, 1985 We have made substantial progress working together, in that regard and, as we are privileged to do with continue IFDC, we can the sound beginning we have made. sincerely yours, tv. Howard W. Fogt, Jr. ' HWF: las cc: Dr. Gino P. Giusti Mr., C.C. Williams ,,-Dr. Donald L. McCune Dr. Kenneth X. Pretty (Via Dr. John I%. Stewart Telefax) Dr. Paul L.G. Vlek (Via Telefax) (Hui .on- , ------ C.TogAUGUST/SEPTEMBER 1987 ~1.12 a EsVilageoLeve Fertilizatr Reureet 55?ctin+arUrea are tOP onetheobove of families size per be carrier per family fertiliz. (kg/ba) village ha ha (t) a. 15:15:15 4C0KgN,/P2Os,'K2() Urea 40KgN 4222 1 141 37.6 .. 12.3 b. SSP (18%P205) 40Kg P205 4 Urea (46W) 8OKgN 31.3 MOP (6CJ/Z20) 24.5 c. Togo PAPR (26% 40Kg P205 9.5 P205) 21.7 Urea 80Kg N MOP 40Kg K20 2. 9.5 .4 4:.,j 'I;t Urea 61.3t SS SS . • + 10 3.1.3 t 15% contigency Togo APr 50 + 15% contigency 70.5 t 1.7 4- 15% contipency 15: 25.034. 37. 6 t + 15% t 1OP COntigency 543. 19 t + 15% contigency t 2 2 t 1.2 On Farm Trials (maize/caGsava) 1.21 Treatnents TSP 0, 30, 60, 90 kg P205/ TS?-S ha 0, 30, 60, 90 DAP 0, 30 60, 90 SS 0, 30, 60, 90 Urea a- 90 Kg N/ha + MOP at 40 kg K20/ha are common to all plots 1.22 Estimate of Fertilier Requirements ,a i.of jlot Nurnbof'.r of L of Nhumber -caion of Quantity I Po.. ? ite s villages of carrier K 'er sIt Pe r v i l l age ( K g ) i ---- (Kg ) T6 -4 5 50 3 4 5 19.6 939.2 TSP - 58.8 (48%4P2Os)f 6030 :7na 50 3 F 45 90 319.69.2 39.2 58.8 (45%P?0s 60 -'3 Il)0 19.6 39.2 58.8 310 90 50.0 100.0 150.0 Urea 90 Kg 12 234.8* MCI 40 KgP20 12 80.0 Correction will be made for N supplied by DAP. Urea "34.S Kg 10c% coltigency 258.3 Fg SS ? 300 K.g 10% C,, ,- -,c K j -71 0 . : g nc y 330.0 TSP 17.6 0%, contigency 129.4 Kg "O 10% cort igercy IOP 80 "129.4 Kg Kg 10% contlgency 88.0 Kg II UGE :cl - - 7A- l 1 7 ----- (a SIP r 4mn j<<2.4;;, recivea treatmet2.~~ (acr/cta ap receive P 4. -UreaetrametInt Vrcietreatment (c) above.an40 2,12 Estimate of'fertilpzer Requirement I'LATERIAf, RtATE CV No -OF F~a?! ) A E A E FICATI FRiI o . R A !1sI APP q FA ILES P=E- SIZE/tA.T F QJ~'' (Kg or tflia) VILLG I 7c ERu~ ARi E I.J (-a (ha)- - (a) rp 30 Kg P205 Ure 45K'136 Masur 54,t 8 LMnurc 90 5 tv; p >.4 74 ,KgC) 9SE) -0~ (b)SSP3 F Ure 3 Y1 9 2 0 5t - ~ -~ 4 - 376 (2/5 45 KgN a ~ ~- 0- f 940)-~ 62. ' ~a'.s,v.:r : :A na~ Lowe r aate c, cf a .- 44 ~~d3Y $ 1 2 ~ e .-' ~ 4 00 c o t ~g e nc y : 5 3150<~ Xg 4 1 ~44A4.4'4S P.L. Kg120 g.4. 120 K'g444 3- 0(TGO SavannaZo 3... 14 Vilg eviFrlizatco. 13 .11 Investment Strategies b ) SS? +. U rea + M )p (C To090 FA?-R 50 + Urea + M~OP (d) Manure + 5SF TLhese treatment s will be randomized among farms approximately such thiat 3 C o of sorg-hum/mllet N~reatment farms Will (a) ,or (b) recei~ve4 or (c~ e~n jI percent will. rece ye44 4 $~ix~y 3,:2 .-- Eir'te of ~feiti~lizer Requiremnents . Fate of X-unber of Afan Avrg oaIae t:itj.-, i 4 <4, ~ ~~~ cto ~ 1~ f lt ii e 5per Eize lpr to. be of oLCI.-, are e r __~'llg 4i 4 <4. 4 .4 44 ertiied> (t)- 4 444 4 (a:1 02 r 54 44 _~~~N 444 44A;4. C4~. 14 4 - Ile* 4'~4 4 1..44 4 () 4 4' 4 ~.. 44 11.4 4 44 4 4 4 ? - 4 4 44.4444.4.444444210f0 ~ 444 80) - I4444.44. 44.44 44.4,44.4,444440i4.> $ ~ 4 4 4~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ j4,4~ 5. 31 1ta~ ~4 ~ ~ 44 4~4 4 4.44 4~412,(4 .4~Of~$. 800) t44 ILI- 13. *~44~4 4444 Ij4 4. 4.$44 4 ~ 4444'4 4 >4.4Y~~' $~44 ' 44-4 A~~~~' 4 ~ : ~ 4 4 tAK 1515 4 4t3 r A4 0 044u 4~ 44 44- 444444.44 i444~ 4 4500 On44 Farm4 Tral S4 o 4ghu-/m 1 similar 44~ 4444~ to'~4 F so rc in arid44444444 K 4-ia L4 c4wer intermediate r4'f 4a 1 bet ee Gh n a d N4ger i l e t d The444 4u n it e es i ae are s ';7 11 W E 4~ 4 4U r e a 1 7 8 .14 K5~ g 9~3~. 4~ i44fnc4 - - -t p i 44~ s 444 4.44 SP$44 44 42;200 *~444*~4*4 MO 44 4c 4 7 8 , ,:, 6f0,4 6 500K g ~~~- 4 .- (a)u 40 86,34 f :- '- 4- ..- '--T- 44 0 / TS to P s u c r n G a a 336la go er r e s o ~ Theuaniahou Phs phate aRoc as 5los Marea 17.5~+1%~niec 0St 2 0 1S c t ge c 2 TS 78. b ! o di 86e.3rc~a 444AP 7 ,4 -88. 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