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From Bell Labs to Silicon Valley: a Saga of Semiconductor Technology Transfer, 1955-61*

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From Bell Labs to Silicon Valley: a Saga of Semiconductor Technology Transfer, 1955-61* From Bell Labs to Silicon Valley: A Saga of Semiconductor Technology Transfer, 1955-61* by Michael Riordan espite the fact that the Bell Telephone Laboratories had Doriginated almost all the silicon technology eventually used to invent the integrated circuit, or microchip, this revolutionary breakthrough occurred elsewhere—at Texas Instruments, Inc., in Dallas, and Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation in Mountain View, California. In the latter case, the transfer of this technology occurred largely through the offices of a pivotal but ultimately unsuccessful company, Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory, which had been formed by transistor pioneer William Shockley. After leaving Bell Labs in 1955, he brought together a stellar team of scientists and engineers who later departed (in September 1957) to found Fairchild, FIG. 1. Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory at 391 San Antonio Road in Mountain View, bringing a deep understanding of the California, as it appeared in 1960 after Clevite Corporation had purchased it and diffused-silicon technologies they had renamed it Shockley Transistor Company. (Courtesy of Kurt Hübner) learned while employed by Shockley. One pivotal contribution to silicon proved satisfying. So by early 1955 of automatic means for production of technology, however, originated entirely Shockley was seeking to get back into diffused-base transistors.”3 at Fairchild—the planar manufacturing industrial research—this time as the His original plan was to lure away process invented and developed by head of his own company.1 some of his most accomplished Bell the physicist Jean Hoerni. This crucial In March 1955 his sense of urgency Labs colleagues, such as Tanenbaum technique, in which an oxide layer on in these efforts was stimulated by news and Morgan Sparks, who had fabricated the silicon surface is used to protect from Bell Labs. Not only had chemist the first junction transistors. But one the sensitive p-n junctions beneath it, Henry Theurer finally produced by one they turned him down that fall, has served ever since 1961 as the basis silicon with impurity levels of less claiming their families were too deeply of microchip fabrication. And Hoerni’s than a part per billion using float-zone rooted in New Jersey and they could conception of this method occurred refining. But Morris Tanenbaum and not bear to leave Bell Labs. Thus he substantially earlier than most historical D. E. Thomas had also succeeded in subsequently criss-crossed the United accounts have thus far reported. forming the first diffused-base (and States, trying to recruit the best possible In this article, I try to set the record emitter) silicon transistor using samples scientists and engineers for Shockley straight by recounting the important provided by Calvin Fuller (see article Semiconductor Laboratory. And he hired steps and major influences that brought by Nick Holonyak on p. 30). “Morrie some top-notch ones, too: physicists silicon technology to California—in Tann has AlSb plus Al bonded,” reads Hoerni from Caltech, Jay Last from the process laying the technological a cryptic note in Shockley’s pocket MIT, and Robert Noyce from Philco—as foundations of Silicon Valley. notebook dated 23 March 1955, while well as physical chemist Gordon Moore he was still at the Pentagon, referring from the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Silicon Technology Heads West to micrometers-thin aluminum and Laboratory. Among the eldest of this antimony impurity layers diffused into group at age 28, Noyce was about the By 1954 William Shockley was the silicon.2 only one with extensive semiconductor becoming increasingly frustrated by Over the next few months, Shockley experience, having developed high- his lack of professional advancement at began talking with executives at RCA, frequency germanium transistors at Bell Labs. Although head of transistor Raytheon, Texas Instruments and Philco.4 research, he had been passed over for elsewhere about the possibility of Only Noyce among them had higher positions and seemed mired starting a firm expressly devoted to attended the third Bell Labs symposium at this middle-management level producing diffused-silicon devices. For on transistor technology in January despite his many publications and most of that summer, he met with 1956, devoted to the advanced patents, including the all-important only passing interest until he spoke silicon technologies just then being ones on the junction transistor. Thus with his friend and fellow Caltech developed—especially diffusion. But he began casting around for other alumnus Arnold Beckman, founder and because Beckman had licensed the rights possible positions, taking a leave of president of Beckman Industries, Inc. In to the transistor patents from Bell’s absence to serve as a visiting professor early September they met in Newport parent company, AT&T, Shockley and his at Caltech and as a military advisor Beach, California, and agreed to found new employees had ready access to the in the Pentagon’s Weapons Systems a new division led by Shockley whose information presented there, including Evaluation Group. But neither option purposes included “the development early preprints of the papers that * Adapted in part from Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age, by Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson, W. W. Norton & Co., New York (1997), esp. pp. 225-275. See also M. Riordan and L. Hoddeson, “The Moses of Silicon Valley,” Physics Today, pp. 42-47 (December 1997). 36 The Electrochemical Society Interface • Fall 2007 to focus the company’s talents and energies on devices that were then at the frontiers of semiconductor technology, such as field-effect transistors and the four-layer p-n-p-n diode, often called the Shockley diode because he held a patent on it. At a given potential called the breakdown voltage, current would suddenly begin to flow through the two-terminal device, switching it from “off” to “on.” A remarkably simple, compact semiconductor switch, it was the ultimate realization of a goal that had been subtly implanted in Shockley’s mind at Bell Labs two decades earlier.10 Although a brilliant conception, however, the four-layer diode was extremely difficult to fabricate with uniformity and reliability. Workers had to polish a silicon wafer to have exactingly parallel planes on its FIG. 2. Senior staff of Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory toast their illustrious leader two sides and then carefully diffuse William Shockley (seated at head of table) at a celebratory luncheon on 2 November impurities into the wafer from 1956, the day after the announcement of his Nobel Prize. Seated at left is Gordon Moore both sides simultaneously. Lack of and right of him is Sheldon Roberts. Robert Noyce stands in the middle and Jay Last is enough precision meant the diffused at far right, both lifting glasses. (Courtesy of Intel Corporation) impurities would penetrate to irregular, unpredictable depths, leading to would be published in 1958 as the final on this important method. The preprint variations in the breakdown voltage and other electrical characteristics.11 volume in the classic series, Transistor also contained crucial new information Noyce, Moore, and others thought Technology, which was becoming known about how to etch tiny openings in throughout the semiconductor industry that layer and to use the remaining that this diode was much too difficult as “Ma Bell’s cookbook.”5 Shockley oxide as a mask against the diffusion a project for the young company to could also call upon his old colleagues of trace impurities into the silicon. attempt at such an early stage in its Sparks, Tanenbaum, and Jack Morton, That technique would allow workers to evolution. We should concentrate head of device development, to visit the establish intricate patterns of n-type new California company and consult and p-type material in the silicon. with his charges in their converted Shockley circulated this document Quonset hut at 391 San Antonio among his technical staff (Fig. Road (Fig. 1). They spent most of that 3), giving them all a crucial early first year purchasing or building the glimpse of what would become one necessary equipment, such as silicon of the core enabling technologies crystal growers and diffusion furnaces, for silicon integrated circuits and and learning how to use it in making ultimately lead to the emergence of semiconductor devices. Silicon Valley.7 By the time Frosch On 1 November 1956, marvelous and Derick’s paper was published news reached the Mountain View firm in the Journal of The Electrochemical that Shockley had won the 1956 Nobel Society the following September, Prize in physics for the invention of the Shockley and his staff were already transistor, shared with John Bardeen developing ways to implement this and Walter Brattain. The next day they disruptive new technology.8 stopped working before noon for a celebratory luncheon at nearby Rickey’s A Rebellion Erupts Studio Inn in Palo Alto. A photograph of that gathering (Fig. 2), with Shockley But all was not well at the at the head of the table being toasted by Mountain View laboratory. By Noyce, Moore, Last, and others around 1957, members of the technical him, has achieved iconic status in the 6 staff had begun to resent Shockley’s lore of Silicon Valley. often heavy-handed management Upon returning from Stockholm style and his quirky selection of in mid-December, Shockley found a R&D projects. After a couple of package in his mail from the patent worrisome incidents, he started licensing engineer at Western Electric investigating the backgrounds Company, AT&T’s manufacturing arm. of a few of his employees. And It contained a preprint of an article by he gave one of them a vicious, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick titled embarrassing tongue-lashing that “Surface Protection and Surface Masking many others overheard. Several of during Diffusion in Silicon.” Frosch the early employees were extremely FIG. 3. Copy of the 14 December 1956 letter to Shockley had delivered a paper on diffusion in 9 dissatisfied and ready to quit.
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