Privacy Games the Vancouver Olympics, Privacy and Surveillance

Privacy Games The Vancouver Olympics, Privacy and Surveillance

A Report to the Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada Under the Contributions Program

March 2009

Authors

Philip J. Boyle Department of Sociology University of Alberta

Kevin D. Haggerty Department of Sociology University of Alberta

c/o Department of Sociology University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2H4

Executive Summary The Olympics now amount to a recently, the targeting of the Sri machine for change, helping to Lankan national cricket team in initiate transformation in the Pakistan provides yet another host city and country that take reminder that sport is not place at different levels and immune from political violence. culminate in legacies that persist long after the closing The September 11th terrorist ceremonies. This includes attacks helped radically expand legacies that are manifest at the the corporate market in security corporate, urban and political products and services to such an levels. extent that we can now speak of a global ‘security industrial Olympic officials typically complex.’ While Olympic security accentuate the positive legacies only accounts for a fraction of that the Games can produce in the total amount spent on terms of new stadia, security internationally, the infrastructure projects, and even security price tag for these national pride and collective events can still be impressive. memory. There are, however, Close to $1 billion (CAN) is now some less discussed Olympic budgeted for security for the legacies pertaining to security 2010 Games, well beyond the and surveillance that deserve initial estimate of $175 million attention. Since the 1972 Munich (CAN). Security costs cover many Games, when Palestinian things, but in the current context militants murdered 11 Israeli one cannot separate security athletes, event organizers have from surveillance. A raft of been anxious about security. security measures aim to make Such fears were borne out again people, places and processes when Eric Rudolph detonated a visible in new ways using diverse bomb at the Centennial Olympic tactics and technologies. Some of Park during the 1996 Atlanta the notable surveillance‐related Olympics, killing one person and technologies and practices that injuring over 100 others. The have been deployed at recent recent spate of terrorist attacks Games include biometric in New York, Washington, identification cards, toxic London and Madrid have put material scanners and detectors, security on the agenda like never computerized background before, altering the face of the checks, CCTV cameras, Games while also producing a magnetometers, satellite host of wider technological and monitoring, cellular telephone attitudinal changes. More monitoring (both legal and

illegal), overhead will serve the host city and communications/ monitoring country for years to come. blimps, traveller profiling and the increased integration of Such developments are artificial intelligence into a host important because of the wider of private and public sector surveillance legacies of the databases. In addition to the Games. Executives, drawn by the bewildering variety of prospect of a financial windfall, surveillance measures employed are developing innovative, to secure the Games, the intensified and integrated integration of various monitoring technologies surveillance technologies is specifically for the unique risks perhaps one of the most posed to the Olympic Games. In remarkable and, from a privacy the process, the surveillance perspective, disconcerting facets infrastructure established for the of Olympic security efforts. Olympics expands and each new iteration becomes the standard Security considerations make the to build upon for future Games. Olympics important moments in Moreover, security firms the development and dispersal of capitalize on the prestige of their surveillance. Public officials Olympic involvement to promote occasionally use the pretext of their technologies and systems the Olympics to introduce forms as security solutions for other of surveillance that the public major events and more prosaic might oppose in any other security situations. Designed for context, capitalizing on the fact the unique risks of an that in anticipation of the Games exceptional global sporting event citizens tend to be more tolerant and driven by the search for new of intrusive security measures. markets and profits, the As the Games are bounded in technologies, expertise and space and time, security planners contacts characteristic of also treat them as an opportunity Olympic security therefore risk to conduct real‐world tests of dispersing into more mundane new informational and contexts, simultaneously technological systems. The routinizing and intensifying Olympics have consequently security. become a crucible for experiments in monitoring. After Beyond the role of the Olympics the Games, however, these in creating and extending new systems may not disappear but surveillance measures, the stay, delivered and justified as Games can also shape public public safety and/or counter‐ attitudes in ways that are both terrorism enhancements that vital to understand but difficult

to demarcate. The tremendous global media attention dedicated Such legacies have emerged from to the Games now involves a many previous Olympics in steady drip‐feed of stories about recent decades. However, in the security preparations. Reporters post‐9/11 period, these legacies photograph rooftop snipers, map are no longer accidental, security zones, and provide unintended or partial outcomes. wide‐eyed accounts of the They, like transportation technological abilities of new improvements and property screening technologies. Such development, are entirely stories cumulatively amount to a planned deliverables, just form of public instruction in the another beneficial outcome to be ‘new realities’ of security. ‘leveraged’ from an opportune Citizens are familiarized with the moment. As these legacies new routines of high security, a continue to reach beyond the process that helps normalize time and space of the event, the practices that might otherwise Games themselves provide a be seen as intrusive. The glimpse of a possible militarized, proliferating security routines surveilled urban future. characteristic of the Olympics therefore fosters a security‐ The Vancouver 2010 Olympics infused pedagogy of acceptable will undoubtedly provide comportment, dress and unprecedented opportunities for documentation, as small lessons a global audience to witness in security are inflated and memorable athletic played out before a global performances. We also need to audience. This reinforces the contemplate whether one sense to which it becomes self‐ unanticipated consequence of evident that such measures are the Games is that we, as required, that they do not unduly Canadian citizens, might not also infringe upon personal liberties, find also ourselves visible in that certain dangers are ways for which we had not pervasive – and more pressing bargained, a visibility that than other risks – and that the inevitably involves diminished existing constellation of security personal privacy. interests is inevitable.

Introduction

Drawn by national pride and the of Vancouver presented these prospect of witnessing world‐ events as providing: class athletic performances, an enthusiastic global audience has “an opportunity for the City of made the Olympic Games some Vancouver to foster civic pride of the most observed events in and a greater sense of history. The sheer scope of this community in our residents, to viewership has also meant that create positive experiences and for a long time now the Olympics fond memories for our visitors, have been far more than a and to captivate the media sporting event. Massive through a festive environment, international audiences, positive images and broad combined with the promotional exposure to one of the most efforts of Olympics organizers, liveable cities in the world” (City have made the Games one of the of Vancouver 2006a: 4). world’s premiere corporate sponsorship venues and For organizers, however, the advertising platforms. For extensive publicity of the Games organizers a large part of the is a mixed blessing. It is now appeal of the Games is that they routine for protesters to use the provide an opportunity to Games’ global media profile as an fashion and promote an opportunity to advance various attractive image of the host city social causes. While some might and country to these same see this as regrettable, such non‐ audiences, something that is violent protest is a legitimate important for national pride but and ultimately laudable attribute also for international trade and of living in a free society. tourism (Hiller 2006). Looking forward to the 2010 Olympics More disturbing is the prospect and Paralympic Games1, the City that terrorists2 will target the

2 The term ‘terrorist’ is famously difficult to define, as one group’s terrorists are 1 For clarity sake we use the expression ‘the another’s freedom fighters or guerrilla Olympics’ or ‘the Games’ in this document to soldiers. For our purposes here we simply include both the Olympics as well as the treat terrorist extremely broadly as those Paralympic Games that follow the Olympics. individuals who would use violence to We are aware that these are separate events disrupt the Olympics to further a social or that present different types of security and political cause. We leave it to others to safety concerns. determine whether such individuals fit

Games. While terrorism is often Centennial Olympic Park during equated with the use of random the 1992 Games, killing two violence, terrorists need not be people and injuring 111 (Cottrell violent. For example, using 2003). And while the terrorist remote computers to hack into attacks on the United States on and bring down a city’s electric September 11th, 2001 (hereafter grid could qualify as a terrorist ‘9/11’) did not occur in the act, although it would not be context of the Olympics, those straightforwardly violent. attacks were so unprecedented Terrorism is, at its heart, an act in terms of their scale, lethality of communication. Terrorists use and boldness that security violence and disruption to officials have had to re‐think the communicate a series of security dynamics of all large, unambiguous messages; that media‐saturated events where they can access ostensibly secure substantial crowds gather (see locations, that people are not Wong 2001 for example). The safe, that the state cannot protect 2004 train bombings in Madrid its citizens. They also use the and the 2005 attacks on public and media attention that London’s transportation system is drawn to their actions as a have only accentuated the fact forum to communicate more that large open systems are specific messages that pertain to difficult to secure and therefore individual causes. Terrorists can make attractive terrorist targets. therefore also be attracted to the More recently, the March 3rd Olympics because it provides 2009 targeting of the Sri Lankan them the prospect of using national cricket team by armed violence and disruption to militants in Pakistan provide yet capitalize on the assembled another reminder that high‐ global media to communicate to profile sporting events can a massive international audience present an attractive platform (Tulloch 2000). for those wishing to convey their message through violence. The modern history of violence at the Games is inescapably Peter Ryan, leading security linked with the 1972 Munich consultant for the International Olympics when Palestinian Olympic Committee (IOC), militants killed eleven Israeli recently expressed the view that athletes. This connection was it is ‘only a matter of time before reinforced when a pipe bomb terrorists target a major North was detonated in Atlanta’s American sports venue’ (Houston Chronicle 2007). At within accepted popular understandings or least one journalist in Vancouver legal definitions of what constitutes a ‘real’ has speculated on the likelihood terrorist.

of a major terrorist attack on the into securing the Games. 2010 Games (Smith 2005). Prominent amongst these Anxious segments of the public measures is the use of share this sentiment. Even in a surveillance. context where no specific terrorist threats targeting the Surveillance should not be Vancouver Winter Games have narrowly construed as simply been publicly identified, fully one referring to spies or CCTV quarter of the residents of cameras. Instead, surveillance British Columbia asked in a involves collecting and analyzing national poll conducted one year information about populations in prior to the Games believed a order to direct their behavior. terrorist attack would occur This includes simply monitoring before or during the Winter the prevalence and dynamics of Olympics (Curry & Friesen assorted risks, but also more 2009). directed attempts to use surveillance to try and solve Given that the Olympics are particular problems. Such attractive terrorist targets, monitoring now comes in an officials must work to thwart astonishing array of forms and individuals who would disrupt configurations, and can the Games while also incorporate such things as establishing contingency plans to satellite imaging, assorted official deal with the eventuality of a documents and credentials, successful attack. At the same wiretapping, radio frequency time, planners are always identification chips (RFID), data dealing, to some extent, with an mining, X‐rays, DNA, assorted unknown. Even supported by forms of biometrics (iris scans, large budgets, dedicated staff fingerprinting, facial scans, gait and the best available analysis), and many other things. intelligence, it can be difficult, if not impossible, for officials to As we detail below, security determine the real likelihood of a efforts for the Olympics now terrorist attack. draw upon and integrate a plethora of surveillance In the post‐9/11 environment technologies. The Games also the Olympics have consequently represent particularly important become full‐scale exercises in moments in expanding, national security that necessitate intensifying and normalizing extensive and increasingly surveillance practices. expensive security preparations. A diverse array of tactics and While the general public has technologies are incorporated become attuned to some of the

security threats posed by difficulties should something go terrorism, other factors also wrong. drive the use of surveillance at the Olympics. Safety, in While it might be tempting to particular, is also a prominent consider these safety issues as a concern. Here ‘safety’ is less pressing concern than that understood to consist of assorted of security threats, in the past risks of untoward events that are thirty years comparatively few serious and disruptive, but are people have died from not the result of the actions of intentional acts at large sporting militants or terrorists. events. Many more individuals have died as a consequence of Some of the potential safety dangers that would be concerns that might characterized as ‘safety’ issues, hypothetically arise during the including collapsing bleachers, 2010 Games include a flood of riots, stadium fires and food the Lower Mainland, an poisoning (Stevens 2007). earthquake, major fire, excessive snowfall, or the (spontaneous) Safety issues are a serious collapse of the Lions Gate Bridge. concern to organizers because of Indeed, the number of potential the dangers they pose to the safety concerns that officials health of citizen and visitors, but must contemplate is astounding. also because they can detract Many of these safety risks are from the project of impression managed as a matter of course in management that is so central to the routine operation of the an Olympics’ success. Here, the public safety infrastructure. The specter of the Atlanta Summer Olympics, however, brings with Games looms large, as many it new safety issues and people remember those games intensifies existing worries. The not because of the athletic sheer number of people who performances, but because of the visit the Games places added Centennial Park bombing and pressures on many components Atlanta’s well‐publicized traffic of the host city’s infrastructure, chaos. Indeed, traffic is a particularly the transportation particular concern for the system. The fact that large organizers of the Vancouver segments of the people in Games given the prospect of attendance will be new to the disastrous traffic interruptions if city or country, and might not the Sea to Sky highway were to speak English or French as their be blocked, as it is the main route first language, can also connecting the city of Vancouver compound the downstream with the town of Whistler where the majority of the sporting

events will be held. Such problem with Hepatitis C, and concerns turned acute in August the highest per capita HIV of 2008 when a landslide of an infection rate in North America estimated 16,000 cubic metres of (Health Canada 1995), rubble closed the highway for prompting the City of Vancouver several days. to declare its first‐ever medical emergency in 1997. To further Olympics organizers must also compound the area’s problems, be conscious of routine forms of alcohol abuse is rampant, criminal behaviour. This includes exacerbated by the the escalation of predatory disproportionate number of crimes which can occur as pubs and liquor license seats in criminals are also drawn to the the neighborhood (City of illicit opportunities provided by Vancouver 1998). the large Olympic crowds, including robberies, pick Long viewed as a policing pocketing and thefts from cars problem, the Downtown Eastside (Decker, Varano, & Greene is home to about three percent of 2007). the city’s population, but statistics for 2002 show that In Vancouver, many of these approximately 19% of all crime‐related anxieties fixate on recorded serious violent crimes the Downtown Eastside (DTES). occur here (City of Vancouver This neighbourhood consists of 2006b). In that same year, 36% approximately 16,000 residents of all recorded drug offences and has the lowest socio‐ took place in the Downtown economic status of any urban Eastside (City of Vancouver area in Canada. The median 1999). Few businesses remain income for people living there is and entire blocks of storefront $14,024. More than 40% of its property on the main residents receive some form of thoroughfare of Hastings Street income assistance (City of are boarded up. Pawnshops are Vancouver 2006b), and the the only thriving commercial average annual income, minus interest in the area (Matas 2001) government subsidies, is only while police and drug users alike $6,282 (Matas & Lehmann acknowledge that local corner 2009). It is also home to a stores are often fronts for the disproportionate number of illegal drug trade (Huey 2007). Vancouver’s drug addicts and mentally ill. The approximately For Olympics organizers, all of 6,000 intravenous drug users in these problems are compounded the area and the active sex trade by the fact that the DTES also lies have contributed to a serious immediately adjacent to

Vancouver’s central business and stimulus to turn to various retail districts (Lees 1998; City of manifestations of surveillance to Vancouver 2001; MacPherson identify, manage and ideally 2001). The prospect that resolve these problems; Olympic visitors will problems which operate at quite inadvertently wander from different levels.3 Gastown’s high end tourist shops into the open drug and Like investments in prostitution market of the DTES transportation infrastructures or presents risks of criminal major urban development victimization and also the projects, Olympic‐related prospect of public relations investments in security, safety disasters. Indeed, almost since and surveillance are often the moment it was announced delivered and rationalized in that Vancouver had won the terms of their legacy impact. In Olympic bid officials have been the domain of public safety, law anxious about how to ‘deal with’ enforcement, and counter‐ the DTES in the context of the terrorism these legacies can Games (Armstrong 2003). Any consist of improved inter‐agency concerns organizers have that working capacities, media attention to the problems organizational modifications, in the DTES might detract from specialized skills enhancement, the image they want to convey of investments in public safety Vancouver being ‘one of the most livable cities in the world’ were certainly not diminished by the 3 Although it is beyond the scope of this Globe and Mail running a front report, it is worth mentioning that fears page story on February 14th about cheating at the Olympics, and in global elite sport more generally, have also 2009, proclaiming the DTES to been responded to through a host of be ‘Our Nation’s Slum.’ surveillance measures. This now includes measures to test for assorted drugs and masking agents; something that is done at The point in briefly drawing the Games themselves but now also consists attention to some of these of a regime of unannounced out‐of‐ security, safety and crime competition testing, which allows ‘doping governing authorities to test athletes issues—all of which are anywhere and anytime without any prior informed by a Olympics‐inspired notice’ (Park 2005). Similarly, the global desire to display the best transmission of disease is a problem accentuated by the Olympics and other possible image of the City of large‐scale gatherings as they bring together Vancouver to a global large numbers of people from around the audience—is to accentuate how world within close physical proximity for extended durations. As such, the the existence of these and other epidemiological dimension of mass concerns in the context of the gatherings is another facet of major events Olympics provide an added where surveillance practices have increased exponentially (Lombardo et al. 2008).

technologies, or legislative Assistance Program to develop /policy changes. its expertise in a series of law enforcement and counter‐ One prominent example of an terrorism specialties such as VIP organizational legacy stemming security, port and maritime from the Olympics Games is the security, canine explosives German response to the murders detection, and crisis response. at the 1972 Munich Olympics. The Greeks also received training Soon after this tragedy Germany assistance from Israel on how to created Grenzschutzgruppe 9 identify and neutralize suicide (‘Border Guard Group 9’, or bombers (Migdalovitz 2004; GAO GSG9), that country’s elite 2005). Similarly, China created counter‐terrorism and special and trained the elite counter‐ operations unit (Reeve 2000). terrorism unit ‘Snow Wolf’ in This example is notable not for advance of the 2008 Beijing the privacy issues it may or may Games (Spencer 2008). not raise but for how it serves to underline the point that the More mundane but no less Olympic Games (or other major, relevant skills development non‐routine events) can sharpen accelerated by the Beijing Games the perception for needed included training for law changes. enforcement officers in how to effectively communicate with The creation of the GSG9 was, western tourists (provided in however, a retrospective action Canada by BC’s Justice Institute) taken in response to a previous and high‐speed vehicle pursuit failure. In contrast, recent maneuvers (The National Post Olympic Games have been 2006; Sinoski 2008). Consistent proactively positioned as with this pattern, the Vancouver catalysts for long‐desired public Police Department (VPD) has safety, law enforcement, and announced it is training a counter‐terrorism counter‐terrorism unit that will developments. An early example support Olympic security efforts of this took place in 1980 when before and during the 2010 planners for the Lake Placid Games and will continue Olympics expected to turn the operations afterwards in Olympic Village into a minimum conjunction with the RCMP’s security prison after the Games Integrated National Security concluded. In a more recent Enforcement Team (INSET) example, Greece took advantage already in Vancouver. The of the 2004 Olympics to parlay creation of this unit mirrors the its long‐standing participation in creation of the VPD's crowd the US’s Anti‐Terrorism control unit that was developed

in time for the 1993 Clinton/ infrastructure for the Olympics Yeltsin summit and which has could be an ‘enormous legacy for subsequently grown from its the country and its national initial contingent of 40 officers to security capability after the a complement of approximately Games. This opportunity should 120 officers. not be wasted’ (Ryan 2002: 26). Facing criticisms about the These examples are intended to escalating security budget for the underline how the contemporary Vancouver Games, the Olympics are often used as International Olympic occasions or catalysts for the Committee President, Jacques development of public safety, Rogge echoed Ryan’s point, security, and/or law indicating that Vancouver’s enforcement legacies that Games would leave a legacy in connect both to the short‐term terms of better security expertise requirements of the event as well and hardware ‘that will serve the as long‐term needs of the host country… for decades to come’ city/country. These legacies have (Mickleburgh 2009b). become explicit objectives of organizers, and are not the As we outline below, much of accidental, partial, or reactive this legacy entails an increase in outcomes of hosting the Games. surveillance capacity. Any use of surveillance also involves an Proactively leveraging the inevitable loss of privacy. For our Olympics for such legacies is purposes here, we are concerned stock advice for at least one with how the Olympics can result official with significant Olympic in a loss of ‘social privacy,’ which security experience. Speaking at should be distinguished from a post‐2002 Olympic Games questions about ‘legally security debriefing conference, protected privacy.’ Something is Peter Ryan, former Chief of the private to the extent that it is New South Wales Police Force free from scrutiny, and where a during the 2000 Sydney Games person maintains effective and current senior security control over who is allowed to advisor for the IOC, advised that access and use their information. Olympic security efforts can have Social privacy is a larger order a ‘huge and lasting impact on concept, one that subsumes the national security’ that should be smaller realm of legally ‘preserved and absorbed and protected privacy, the latter of developed further’ (Ryan 2002: which consists of those realms 24‐25). Ryan continued his which are preserved by national remarks by advising that the and international legislation. investment in security

To succinctly make the point embedded in Section 7 which about the relationship between protects a person’s ‘right to life, social and legally protected liberty and security of the privacy, the fact that in advance person’ and also Section 8 which of the Winter Olympics officials places restrictions on plan to photograph Vancouver ‘unreasonable search and neighbourhoods using high‐ seizure.’ Notwithstanding these resolution satellite‐mounted legal rights, the lives of cameras entails a reduction in individuals, as well as assorted social privacy. Satellite imaging places and processes, have been is a fairly new and intensive way opened up to unprecedented for physically dispersed forms of scrutiny by public and audiences to view phenomena private institutions. Privacy that were previously more advocates therefore spend a difficult to monitor. Moreover, great deal of their time such images can sometimes evaluating whether an escalating allow viewers to make inferences and expanding range of about a person’s lifestyle or measures that reduce social interests (whether the satellite privacy might amount to images reveal a backyard pool, infringements of legal privacy swing set, compost box or beer (Bennett 2008). fridge, for example, obviously implies something about the For our purposes here we are homeowner). That said, this not concerned with tracing satellite‐produced reduction in instances of privacy social privacy is not an instance infringements—which can entail of legally protected privacy, as both breaches of legally such monitoring has not been protected privacy rights as well deemed to violate established as more subjective assessments privacy protections. that someone’s privacy has been violated, irrespective of the While security or policing legality of such measures. officials often feel constrained by Instead, we are concerned with legal privacy rights, the broad the larger and first order social trend of the past quarter question of how the Olympics century has involved an can cumulatively result in unambiguous reduction in social immediate and long‐term privacy. In Canada, this has reductions in social privacy. occurred in a context where the These reductions are important Canadian Charter of Rights and to document as they can serve as Freedoms is understood to early indicators that we may be provide basic privacy building a slippery slope that protections, specifically could be difficult to disassemble.

We delineate these indicators, previous mega‐events such as dynamics and drivers of the Olympics, World Cup, Super surveillance initiated in the Bowl and the like. While context of the Olympics, and Vancouver will obviously not leave it to others to ascertain duplicate these arrangements whether, and under what exactly, security planners for all circumstances, these might mega events must face a series of constitute legal or personal comparable questions about violations. crowd control, and how to secure venues, athletes, electronic Identifying the surveillance and systems, and so on. Strategic privacy issues of an event like advice on these issues is now the Olympics in advance of the shared among a global network Games themselves presents a of security officials who speak at host of difficulties. The most international conferences, write obvious is that officials are in specialized publications, and understandably reluctant to have developed numerous mega‐ detail the specifics of their event security ‘best practices.’ security arrangements. There are After each Olympic Games, and legitimate concerns that many other mega events, publicizing security measures security officials also produce can provide an advantage to after action reports that detail those who might want to disrupt lessons learned. Those and the Games. Consequently, much comparable documents provide of the specific information that valuable insights into the one might want to acquire about realities and challenges of the operation of various security Olympic security. systems is classified, and officials are generally tight lipped about While this report was researched their preparations. While this is and written over the past year, it true of the Vancouver Winter also builds upon the knowledge, Olympics, it is also generally the documents and interviews that case with all mega‐events; we have amassed over the past security official do not talk about several years as part of a larger their security arrangements in research project we are anything but the most sweeping conducing on security at mega‐ generalizations before the event. events. We did, however, undertake a series of interviews Our findings in this report are specifically in aid of producing therefore drawn from a number this report. In October 2008 we of other sources. Most travelled to Vancouver to speak specifically we analyze how with and interview ten security has been managed at individuals who have different

types of involvement in Olympic profile security workshop was security. This included a populated by a host of mega‐ discussion with RCMP Assistant event security planners, many of Commissioner Bud Mercer, who whom have experience with is heading the Vancouver 2010 Olympic security, including a Integrated Security Unit (V2010‐ security official from VANOC. ISU) responsible for the overall The Rushmans' event allowed us security of the Games, as well as to participate in many talks with officials involved in workshops on mega event safety preparedness, a security security, accumulate additional official with the Vancouver documentation and also Olympic and Paralympic interview 14 world leaders in Organizing Committee (VANOC), event security on the trends, and also private citizens dynamics and tensions in sport concerned about the security mega event security. implications of the Games. From these assorted sources we It should be noted that in our have been able to ascertain some preliminary discussions with of the main trends in mega event Assistant Commissioner Mercer, security. It is important to stress, he made it quite clear that there however, that the existence of is now a global media fascination previous security patterns does with Olympic security. not mean they will be faithfully Consequently, the V2010‐ISU has replicated in Vancouver. These felt compelled to develop a patterns interact with differing policy that they do not grant legal regimes, pre‐existing public interviews about even non‐ safety capabilities, and widely sensitive security issues because divergent financial resources simply responding to all of these that will generate unique requests for information and context‐dependent outcomes. interviews risks overwhelming Hence, while we can anticipate the unit. Hence we are some of the security attributes particularly grateful that for the Vancouver Winter Assistant Commissioner Mercer Olympics, Canadian citizens will and other members of the wider not learn about the full scope or Vancouver public safety particulars of this operation until contingent were willing to speak some time after the Games have with us. concluded. That said, commonalities in the wider In October 2008 we also circumstances shared by host travelled to London, England, to countries and cities suggest that attend the Rushman’s Sports commonalities amongst Security Summit. This high solutions can also be expected.

Our research has identified for lucrative contracts, but also several key changes that the as a global showcase for new Olympics tend to bring about in security and surveillance relation to surveillance and initiatives, many of which privacy. The remainder of this involve information, report sets out those phenomena visualization and communication and explores them in some technologies. Our third section detail. We commence by specifically focuses on detailing discussing organizational issues some of these new technologies pertaining to safety and security and how they have been used at management at the Olympics. It the Olympics and other mega is important to begin with this events. topic as any changes implemented in surveillance The Olympics also give rise to a practice are ultimately host of mundane policing issues; accomplished by organizations, a topic we explore in three sub‐ and in the case of the Olympics sections. The first addresses how this can involve the need to previous Olympics have often coordinate among a staggering contributed to increased efforts number of institutions. to police the poor and marginal Moreover, the Olympics serve as segments of the host city. The a catalyst towards different types second policing issue is much of organizational transformation, more specific to the Olympics, in typically involving new that it involves efforts to protect organizational forms, changes to the commercial rights associated communication structures and with the Games; something that lines of authority. We move from can culminate in citizens being that topic to discuss how security subjected to quite distinctive for mega‐events has become an forms of scrutiny. Finally, the increasingly large and profitable Olympics also bring added business. The Olympics are an pressures of policing protest and important moment in this wider dissent, a topic we explore in the security industry both as a site final subsection.

Organizational Structure and Integration

Security for the Olympic Games wolf’ scenario4), either of which is a massive and complex task. could be potentially catastrophic, Security officials often describe and one gets the sense of these efforts as the ‘largest Olympics security as a complex peacetime security effort’ of their high‐stakes venture. One of our respective host country. One interviewees accentuated the Olympic security official goes enormity of this task by further, noting that ‘wars have comparing Olympics security been planned and executed in measures with the extensive less time and with less people’ security preparations that (Ryan 2002: 24). accompany a Super Bowl, suggesting that the Olympics is This complexity arises from a ‘like holding the Super Bowl number of factors. Protecting three times a day in ten different large numbers of people spread places for seventeen days.’ across entire cities (sometimes more than one city) at dozens of Managing these issues involves a venues creates a host of deliberate emphasis on mundane public safety concerns integrating disparate and gives rise to routine forms of organizational parts around a crime. Hundreds of athletes and common security objective. thousands of media officials and Organizational integration has visiting diplomats need to be become a standard feature of accredited. Domestic officials of Olympic security operations. varying ranks and visiting This emphasis is, loosely political figures, even heads of speaking, a key ‘lesson learned’ state, require special protection. from the 1996 Atlanta Games Indeed, even the logistics of that were marred by the housing and supplying the explosion of a pipe bomb in considerable contingent of Centennial Park. One of the security personnel is a daunting task, a problem the RCMP has 4 An intelligence assessment from Canada’s recently run into (Mickleburgh Integrated Threat Assessment Centre 2008). Add to these difficulties identifies ‘individuals inspired by a variety ever‐present concerns about of ideological motivators or terrorist ideologies to conduct acts independently’ as terrorism, ranging from highly ‘lone wolves.’ The same report assesses the choreographed attacks involving threat of a lone wolf attack at the 2010 multiple perpetrators to a single Winter Games as low but conceivable, particularly if aimed at unofficial and determined individual (the ‘lone peripheral targets (ITAC 2008).

dominant themes of an extensive Atlanta’s 911 call centre, which post‐Games analysis of Atlanta’s received the bomb threat, and security preparations conducted the state troopers responsible by Buntin (2000a; 2000b; 2000c) for policing Centennial Park is that the Olympic Security (under command of the SOLEC), Support Group (OSSG), the lead helped delay the evacuation of agency initially charged with the Centennial Park (Buntin 2000c). task of planning security for the 1996 Games, was plagued from Buntin made few the outset by, amongst other recommendations in his things, unclear jurisdictional exhaustive post‐mortem but the issues running from county to lessons from his analysis are state and federal levels, vague unambiguous: a strong allocation of responsibility and organizational structure with financial commitment clear roles and responsibilities agreements amongst policing paired with open lines of agencies and the Atlanta communication – literally as well Committee for the Olympic as organizationally – are crucial Games (ACOG), and to successfully managing the task communication capabilities that of public safety at the Olympics were diminished by (or any other large, significant, organizational and technical and non‐routine event). ‘The problems. The state governor Atlanta experience’ has since eventually replaced the become synonymous with these ineffective OSSG with the State organizational difficulties and is Olympic Law Enforcement used as shorthand to identify the Command (SOLEC) and vested it type of planning model that with the legal authority to should be avoided. mobilize and deploy all of Georgia’s public safety resources Subsequent Olympic host for the Olympic Games, with the countries have sought to exception of the Atlanta Police establish early in the planning Department (Buntin 2000b: 3). process well‐defined central However, SOLEC was created coordination units within the only eight months prior of the relevant policing agencies that start of the Games and could are responsible for all Olympic‐ never quite unify the fragmented related security planning and to efforts of the OSSG. Not including ensure they have clearly defined the Atlanta Police Department roles and responsibilities.5 In Salt within the organizational structure of SOLEC also proved 5 In Sydney this unit was the Olympic to be a crucial mistake, as Security Command Centre (OSCC) within communication delays between the New South Wales Police Force; in 2002 Salt Lake City the Utah Olympic Public

Lake City, the Olympic host that created the basis for state public is most comparable to Vancouver safety agencies to work together in organizational terms, this was with federal agencies and form the Utah Olympic Public Safety UOPSC. Command (UOPSC). Federal agencies were coordinated by Canada’s organizational the US government by structure for the 2010 designating the 2002 Games a Vancouver Olympics is similar to National Special Security Event, a how the US approached the 2002 designation that made the US Games. The 2010 Games have Secret Service (USSS) been declared a ‘major event’ by responsible as the lead federal the Minister of Public Safety, a agency for developing and designation that applies to any implementing security plans (in event of national or international conjunction with local significance where the overall authorities), placed the FBI in responsibility for security rests charge of intelligence and threat with the federal government of assessments, and tasked the Canada. This designation Department of Homeland automatically makes the RCMP Security with primary federal the lead agency responsible for responsibilities for consequence developing and implementing all management.6 The Major Events security plans for the designated Division within the USSS, in turn, event in conjunction with local employs an organizational authorities. The Major Event and template that further specifies Protective Services Division how federal agencies interact within the RCMP, in turn, with one another (Reese 2008). employs a major event template At the state level special similar to that used by the USSS legislation was passed that to outline strategic principles, define roles and responsibilities, Safety Command (UOPSC); in 2004 Athens and streamline organizational the Olympic Games Security Division (OGSD) within the Greek Ministry of Public communications within an Order; in 2006 Turin the Safety and Security overall command structure. Committee (SSC); in London 2012 the Olympic Security Directorate (OSD) within the London Metropolitan Police. The template places operational 6 The NSEE designation was initially planning as the responsibility of intended for presidential appearances and a Unified Command Centre, political summits but was applied for the first time for a sporting event for the 2002 which in the case of the 2010 Salt Lake City Winter Olympics and the Winter Games is the Vancouver February 2002 Super Bowl. All Super Bowls 2010 Integrated Security Unit since 2002 have been declared NSSEs (Reese 2008) . The Olympics were declared (V2010‐ISU). The V2010‐ISU is an NSSE prior to 9/11 in order to avoid the composed of (but not limited to) problems that plagued Atlanta’s planning, the RCMP, VANOC not as a result of 9/11.

representatives, and realm of public safety for 2010 representatives of the bylaw and are channelled through the law enforcement agencies of British Columbia Public Safety Vancouver, West Vancouver, Unit (BC‐IPSU), which consists of Whistler, and Richmond. Federal provincial officials who have partners include the Department expertise in disaster of National Defence, Public management, emergency Safety Canada, Transport planning, and public health. The Canada, the Canadian Air BC‐IPSU is physically co‐located Transportation Security Agency, with the V2010‐ISU, and Citizenship and Immigration representing in part the desire Canada, amongst others.7 for integrated planning on Department of National Defence multiple governmental levels. operations are coordinated through Joint Task Force Games The V2010‐ISU is a temporary (JTFG), a unified command group unit but will likely have effects working out of the Canadian that last beyond February 2010. Forces base in Esquimalt, BC, in One way these effects will extend what military officials have is through the development of dubbed ‘Operation Podium.’ the Major Events Template itself. Intelligence and risk assessments There is already significant are provided to the ISU by formal and tacit RCMP expertise Canada’s Integrated Threat in major event security, but the Assessment Centre (ITAC), a unit magnitude of the Games makes it within the Canadian Security and an unparalleled opportunity to Intelligence Service (CSIS), further develop this expertise for working in conjunction with the public events. The funding RCMP’s Joint Intelligence Group structure and international (JIG), an intelligence unit created profile of the Olympics makes it for the specific task of an anomaly that is not likely to monitoring Olympics risks and be duplicated in the near future, threats. Provincial efforts in the but it nonetheless offers an opportunity to more fully develop the Major Events 7 All of the federal agencies on the ISU are: Public Safety Canada, 2010 Winter Games Template in ways that will Federal Secretariat, Department of Foreign influence how future public Affairs Canada, Department of National events in Canada are managed. Defence, Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Transport Canada, Canadian Air Transportation Security Agency, Privy More significantly, the Games Council Office, Department of Fisheries and offer an opportunity to develop Oceans, Public Work and Government Services Canada, Patrimoine Canadian public safety provision within BC Heritage, Indian and Northern Affairs and between BC and Washington Canada. state. A good indicator of the

lessons Olympics security may but the fact that it is co‐located yield for public safety can be within the V2010‐ISU provides found in the report of a post‐ opportunities to develop 2002 Winter Games security relationships with the RCMP and debriefing conference (Oquirrh within the BC‐IPSU that will last Institute 2002). A central theme beyond the Games. Integrated amongst the seven lessons alignment between public and identified in that report is the private agencies may also be importance of good fostered by the operational communication processes within requirements of the Games. and between public safety agencies. Good communication Critical infrastructure protection processes, in turn, were seen to (CIP) is one domain where this rely upon organizational clarity, integration is particularly technical capability, but most evident. CIP is a key component importantly upon ‘the sociology to major event security and of human relationships’ (2002: public safety more generally. 20). That is, while strong formal Despite this centrality, effective structures are needed to enable CIP plans can be hampered different agencies to work because the majority of critical together to meet the needs of the infrastructure assets (such as event and public safety in telecommunications networks) general, workable relationships are privately owned; one built on reciprocal trust are the emergency management official ‘mortar’ that makes such we spoke with estimated that 80‐ structures truly integrated in 90% of Canada’s critical that they can overcome inter‐ infrastructure is owned by the agency divisions and rivalries private sector. This presents a that tend to hamper the flow of security challenge because information (Decker et al. 2005; corporations are often reluctant Bellavita 2007). to share information with government for many reasons, Many individuals we have one of which is because as a spoken with in our research general rule once information is indicate that the development of shared with government it can this type of social capital and become public under Access to subsequent inter‐organizational Information provisions. integration and increased Corporations see this as information sharing would be a undesirable because they fear significant legacy of the 2010 that such publicity can result in Winter Olympics. The creation of losing control of trade secrets. the BC‐IPSU for example not only indicates structural integration

Restricted information flow Security Committee (USSC) has limits the effectiveness of CIP turned to exploring legislative plans, particularly in light of how and/or protocol changes needed much critical infrastructure lies to enable US involvement in the beyond the informational management of cross‐border domain of government. issues that might arise during the Communications continuity Games (Morgan 2007). The cannot be provided for if, for details of this harmonization are example, emergency planners do difficult to ascertain, but a report not know where crucial but from the USSC indicates the privately owned network general areas where the US is stations are located. However, focusing their efforts: integrating the same emergency federal, state, and local security management official noted above operations, consolidating remarked that these barriers security emergency operations were being minimized in the lead for US response efforts (both of up to the Games. which are evidenced by the MACC), harmonizing bi‐national Another significant standard operating procedures organizational legacy of the 2010 for crisis response, and Olympics may be the deepening facilitating legitimate cross‐ of cross‐border cooperation on border travel while minimizing large‐scale emergencies, border illegal trafficking (Larson 2008). security, and counter‐terrorism. The United States is keenly The issues outline in the USSC interested in security report are not unique to the preparations for the 2010 Games, of course, but have Olympics given Vancouver’s emerged as central concerns for proximity to the US. This interest policymakers on both sides of is reflected in the creation of the the border since 9/11. Indeed, US 2010 Olympic Security the aims of the USSC resemble a Committee (the US equivalent of distilled version of the Security the V2010‐ISU) and an and Prosperity Partnership integrated Multi‐Agency mandate agreed upon by Canada, Coordination Centre (MACC) in the US, and Mexico to ‘establish a Blaine, Washington, comprised common approach to security to of representatives from US protect North America from federal, state, and local law external threats, prevent and enforcement agencies, military respond to threats within North representatives, emergency America, and further streamline response agencies, and various the secure and efficient liaisons from Canadian agencies. movement of legitimate, low‐risk Reports suggest that the US 2010 traffic across our shared borders’

(DHS 2005). This resemblance time to police the Detroit River indicates how security for the and surrounding waterways Olympics does not exist apart during the 2006 Super Bowl in from but instead serves to Detroit. This operation became intensify wider security the basis for further concerns. The 2010 Olympics development and expansion of provides an opportunity to such practices throughout the advance cross‐border Great Lakes region, St. Lawrence cooperation on issues that, while waterway, and the Vancouver germane to the Olympics, are Island/ Washington State border also relevant to the ongoing areas. harmonization of security policies between Canada and the The harmonization of emergency United States. As one response plans and Washington state official said in communication protocols regards to the efforts of the USSC between public safety agencies is to integrate public safety in one organizational domain that Washington, ‘we need this has received attention in the run‐ regardless of the 2010 Olympics, up to the 2010 Games. Numerous but [the Games] heightens the large‐scale public safety need’ (Taylor 2008). exercises have been undertaken to support the tri‐partite aims of Precedent for this type of event‐ ‘improved preparedness and catalyzed harmonization can be ability to respond to any found in the example of potential emergency during the operation ‘Shiprider’ used for the Vancouver Olympics Games in 2006 Detroit Super Bowl. 2010; ongoing and continual ‘Shiprider’ is a colloquial term improvement in the federal for Integrated Marine Security government’s ability to ensure Operations (IMSO), a cross‐ the safety and security of border initiative between the Canadian’s [sic] and Canada; RCMP and US Coast Guard to [and] support for the cooperatively police shared Government of Canada’s seaways as set out in the Security commitment to the Security and and Prosperity Partnership. IMSO Prosperity Partnership’ (PSEPC allows for RCMP officers to be 2006). Upcoming exercises placed on US Coast Guard include TOPOFF 5, the fifth watercraft and vice versa in round of high‐level public safety order to conduct cross‐border exercises involving top officials law enforcement operations. The (‘top‐off’) between participating project was pilot tested in 2005 countries. Notionally scheduled through a series of exercises and for April 2009, TOPOFF 5 will put into ‘live’ use for the first test response capabilities

amongst officials from Canada, aware that long waiting times at the US, and Mexico in relation to border crossing may translate ‘terrorist events that could affect into lost economic opportunities, [the] 2010 Olympics.’ Specific attention has turned to scenarios will not be disclosed, facilitating cross‐border but previous TOPOFF rounds movement within the confines have focused on different types set out by the US Western of chemical, biological, and Hemisphere Travel Initiative that radiological attacks. These requires all persons entering the exercises are in addition to the US to carry a passport or other specific exercises being acceptable documentation. conducted by the V2010‐ISU, which have included a ‘bronze’ Pursuant of its mandate to shape level table‐top exercise in border security policy and November 2008, a silver level implementation strategies, the exercise dubbed ‘Pegasus Pacific North West Economic Guardian 2.2,’ involving the Region Council (PNWER) has deployment of military air and been advocating for new or sea crafts out of the Canadian expanded initiatives in this Forces Base in Esquimalt, BC in regard, including the February 2009, and culminating development of more in ‘gold’ level exercises technologies for pre‐clearance scheduled for late 2009. and processing prior to physical arrival at the border, new online Facilitating the smooth entry of systems to streamline customs legitimate travellers at the and duty declarations and border while minimizing the payments, and the further flow of unwelcome people and development of pre‐clearance illegal goods is a wider concern procedures for train services made more pressing in advance between Vancouver and Seattle of the large numbers of people (PNWER 2008). Ultimately, the who will be crossing the border PNWER sees these in February 2010. An official recommendations as part of an with the Canadian Border ‘unparalleled opportunity to Services Agency recently stated leave a positive legacy, creating a that the CBSA is ‘not expecting new vision for a border that is major problems for the protective and convenient’ long Olympics’ such that they would after 2010 (PNWER 2008). These have to modify existing suggestions have been favorably procedures, a view that both BC received by the BC Solicitor and Washington officials sharply General who stated that the dismissed (Inwood 2008a; Lee PNWER recommendations 2008a; Paperny 2008). Keenly would ‘lay out our agenda’ for

the following year (Inwood 2008) there will likely be 2008a). pressures to use RFID capabilities far beyond their These proposed measures would initially‐proposed uses and also further fuel an already settings as they are adopted by insatiable need for the types of more jurisdictions. The personal data that are required exceptional demands of Olympic in order to fulfill the security will likely continue to informational requirements of fuel such expansionist pressures. the risk profiles upon which PNWER, for example, explicitly these initiatives are based. These includes ‘expansion of enhanced informational requirements, in drivers’ license initiatives’ as turn, foster an environment part of its raft of border security where new information recommendations to policy processing technologies are makers (PNWER 2008: 4). What continually deemed to be this might look like in practice warranted or where existing can only be speculated upon, and technologies are repeatedly the mere presence of the enhanced to meet ever‐ technology does not guarantee expanding informational that such expansions will occur. requirements. This process of Nonetheless, calls to exploit expansion resembles a form of RFID‐enabled EDLs may ‘function creep’ where practices ultimately serve as a model or and technologies that were reference case for the rest of initially established exclusively Canada. for one purpose rapidly expand into new domains and find new Finally, it should be noted that uses. Enhanced drivers’ licences part of the organizational with embedded radio frequency structure for the Games will identification (RFID) chips, for include 25,000 ordinary citizens example, were recently who are expected to volunteer to introduced in BC as a way to help out in assorted capacities. meet the demands of the US Such participation promises to Western Hemisphere Travel produce lasting memories that Initiative. Supporters of this could be one of the more positive initiative assured critics that legacies of the Games. Potential they would not pose any threat volunteers just need to be willing to personal privacy, but as has to dedicate their time, and also been recently argued in the pass an RCMP background check. Toronto Star (Clement & Bennett

The Business of Olympic Security

In the fall of 2008 we attended a at approximately $400 million workshop on sports event USD when the substantial security where one of the military costs were factored in. speakers began his talk by wryly Officially, China spent $300 observing that ‘The Olympics million USD on security for the aren’t just about big business any 2008 Summer Games, a figure more.’ This was a rather telling that does not include massive statement, and not simply security expenditures contained because he did not even mention in other budgets (Thompson sports as being an integral 2008). component of the Games. Instead, in trying to accentuate The security budget for the 2010 how security has become a major Vancouver Winter Games, consideration for mega event originally pegged at $175 million planners, he ignored the fact that CAN at the time of the bid, was security for mega events is itself subsequently assessed by the now already a large business. Royal Canadian Mounted Police as being ‘drastically low’ (RCMP September 11th 2001 2005). The Public Safety Minister dramatically escalated the indicated in late 2008 that a financial resources devoted to figure of $1 billion for the Olympic security. By way of security budget is about right, establishing a benchmark, and in February 2009 the budget approximately $180 million USD was confirmed to be $900 was spent on security for the million CAN (Curry & Friesen 2000 Sydney Summer Olympics. 2009).8 The London 2012 In comparison, and despite the security budget is seeing fact that the winter Olympics are escalations even steeper than smaller than the summer Games by about half, almost $310 million USD was spent on 8 The 2010 security budget breaks down amongst federal agencies as follows (in security for the 2002 Salt Lake millions CAN): 491.9m to the V2010‐ISU, Winter Olympics. The Greek 212m to the Department of National government dramatically Defence, 25m to Transport Canada/NAV Canada, 8.8m to Transport Canada, 11m to eclipsed previous figures by CSIS, 9.8 to Industry Canada, 1.2m to spending an estimated $1.5 Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 1.2m billion USD on security. to Public Safety Canada, 0.9m to Public Health Canada, 1.4m to the Federal Estimates for the 2006 Torino Employee Benefit Plan, and 137m reserved Winter Games put security costs for unforeseen contingencies.

Vancouver’s. Set originally at obviously timed to coincide with £600 million GBP, the security the 2010 Games. budget for 2012 has been revised upwards twice: first in December Potential host cities must make 2007 to exceed £838 million GPB elaborate promises regarding and again in October 2008 to security provision that have been £1.5 billion GBP (Sherman 2007; responsible in large part for Merrick 2008). some of the Olympic budget escalations that recent Games These figures likely have exhibited. Future Olympic underestimate the full costs of host cities may follow two Olympic security. First, the full apparently contradictory cost of deploying military directions when it comes to personnel and equipment, for security budgets, each of which example, or working hours is typified by current contenders contributed by government staff for the 2016 Games. On the one members on Olympic‐related hand we may witness further projects, may not be accurately dramatic escalations in Olympic reflected in Olympic security security budgets as potential budgets. These invisible costs hosts seek to guarantee security make it difficult for the public to at ever‐greater costs. Rio de acquire a full accounting of the Janeiro has recently disclosed a true cost of Olympic security, a $14.4 billion (US) budget for the figure that is perhaps even 2016 Games, a figure almost unknown to the government equal to the combined budgets of itself. Second, costs for projects the other three competitors. timed to coincide with the What makes this figure truly Olympics are not reflected in remarkable is that organizers Olympic security budgets. state they already have most of Accentuating this point is the the venues Rio de Janeiro would $6.5 billion USD China funnelled need to host the Games, thereby into the Grand Beijing Safeguard raising the question of just how Sphere between 2001 and 2008 much would be spent on security that exists, in terms of financial if venue construction is not the accounting, outside of Olympic primary budget line. On the security spending. In the case of other hand security budgets may Vancouver, upgrades to the paradoxically fall as potential lower mainland’s E‐Comm centre host cities make significant or federal spending in the areas inward investments in their of public transit and maritime security infrastructures prior to transportation security are not making an Olympic bid in order strictly speaking Olympic to make itself marketable as a expenditures but have been suitable host city, thereby

increasing competitiveness while allow potential worst cases to at the same time wiping drive costly and inappropriate significant amounts from later security measures.’ This was also budgets. This appears to be a point one of our Chicago’s tactic to bolster its interviewees—an extremely high 2016 bid by investing in Virtual figure who has ultimate Shield, an elaborate network of authority for the security integrated law enforcement and preparations for one of the private sector surveillance world’s largest mega‐events— cameras that blanket everything explicitly confirmed when we inside of the Loop and which, not asked him how he established accidentally, employs face the real world parameters on the recognition technology first level and extent of security developed by IBM for the 2008 measures they would deploy. His Beijing Games. In such a response was ‘that’s dictated by scenario, the security ‘legacy’ your budget.’ If this is indeed the may come to precede the event case, and security budgets itself. continue to be driven by the spectre of the worst case One reason why it is worth scenario, we can expect to see keeping these large figures for the continual expansion of Games security in mind is that intensive security measures both the amounts of money dedicated at the Games and in their to security can be a key factor in aftermath. determining the degree and intensity of security‐related The point here is not to enter the surveillance measures. In an debates about whether these environment where security costs are justified or if projects risks are always present, but are timed to coincide with the Games also almost impossible to should or should not be included quantify or establish with any as Olympic expenditures, but degree of precision, almost any instead to accentuate how security measure can be sold as a security has emerged in the 9/11 precautionary ‘just in case’ environment as a multi‐billion measure that is needed to dollar industry, one that is so mitigate—so some unknown enormous that it is increasingly degree—the possibility of a characterized as a ‘security‐ catastrophe. Indeed, the industrial complex’ (Whitaker authoritative Jane’s Intelligence 2006). And while the security Review (2007) cautions about preparations of the Olympics the embrace of what it refers to only accounts for a fraction of as ‘high consequence aversion’ global security budgets, the sums where ‘event organizers will spent on the Games are still

considerable. Moreover, sports security wherein ‘high mega‐events are an important technology companies are niche in the wider economy and wooing willing governments marketplace for security. with their security and surveillance products designed Large, multinational military to detect “terrorists” and also aerospace and national defence other miscreants who may be contractors are increasingly found in cities or in airports and drawn in to the business of at borders’ (Lyon 2004: 136). Olympic security preparations. This attraction is only in part due The corporations involved in the to the financial sums involved; 2004 Athens Olympics, for while the contact with Greece to example, used their involvement provide an extensive as a platform to advertise their surveillance and capabilities. SAIC’s success in communications network for the securing the 2004 Olympic 2004 Games was worth an contract was due in large part to estimated $322 million USD for its success in marketing their Science Applications previous involvement in the International Corporation (SAIC), 1996 and 2002 Olympics. SAIC this is a relatively small sum for also emphasized that it had the this San Diego‐based aerospace ‘brain power’ to handle the and defence contracting firm project; immediately after the given that it has posted annual 2002 Salt Lake Games SAIC hired revenues of between 7 and 8 David Tubbs, a 24 year veteran billion USD in recent years. of the FBI and executive director of the Utah Olympic Public Safety The competition for Olympic Command, and appointed him as security contracts also arises in manager of SAIC’s Justice large part because they provide Information Systems Group high‐profile opportunities to where he was instrumental in showcase new technologies, securing the contract over the develop core strengths in leading competing consortium expanding areas, crack into lead by Lockheed Martin. expanding domestic and foreign markets, and secure long‐term SAIC has identified systems ‘legacy’ contracts in a context integration as one of its key where ‘homeland security’ growth areas for the future and markets have dramatically marketed their involvement in expanded since 9/11 (Dao security for the 2004 Olympics 2002). In this context, the as a stepping‐stone towards Olympics are a singular occasion larger and more complex in a wider field of domestic integration work for the US

government and, eventually, also help secure contracts to aims to position itself as the other high‐profile events in preferred contractor for these China such as the 2010 World types of services (Finnegan Exposition in Shanghai and the 2005). Siemens, a contributing 2010 Asia Games in Guangzhou. member of the SAIC‐led Some of the major corporate consortium in Greece, currently players that supplied markets its ‘proven experience’ surveillance technologies to at the 2004 Games in order to China include IBM, Panasonic, position itself as the lead Honeywell, Siemens, and Sony, systems integrator for the 2012 which raises not only ethical Olympics (Siemens 2006). questions about supplying surveillance technologies to an While China handled security authoritarian state but legal preparations largely ‘in house’ question of whether US‐based with little outside assistance companies broke post‐ (though Interpol supplied some Tiananmen Square trade rules intelligence), they used the regarding supplying the regime Olympics as an opportunity to with crime control equipment stock up on cutting edge (Bradsher 2007c, 2008). surveillance equipment. Western technology firms, on the other The details of who is supplying hand, are eager to enter the what technologies for the 2010 Chinese surveillance market, Winter Olympics are guarded which the New York Times and will likely not be known estimates will be worth more until after the Games. However, than $43 billion USD by 2010 companies such as SAIC, (Bradsher 2007a). In a market Raytheon, Siemens, and Thales analysis report produced before Systems have approached the the Beijing Games, the Security government with proposals for Industry Association advised its security services that are likely members that the Games and the similar to their past involvement wider Grand Beijing Safeguard as system integrators for Sphere would offer ‘huge previous host cities. Regardless commercial opportunities’ and a of who supplies these chance to ‘showcase world‐class technologies, each Olympics can security technologies and be seen as a leading edge services’ to the Chinese showcase of security government (SIA 2007: 26). The technologies, some of which SIA also advised members that eventually trickle out into wider the 2008 Games might offer society beyond the Games. Some opportunities for long‐term of these technologies are maintenance contracts and could examined in the next section.

Technology and Technological Integration

While the international security official non‐competitive sites industry offers products and spread across Athens and 4 other services that extend to such co‐hosting cities as well as a things as weapons, private large part of central Athens security officers and safety vests, where peripheral events were the major trend in security for held. Approximately 50,000 the Games has been the use of security personnel were assorted information, deployed for the Games who communication and visualization blended with cutting‐edge technologies. This is in keeping surveillance technologies. Most with the wider embrace of high‐ conspicuous amongst these tech surveillance measures as a technologies was an overhead technical ‘fix’ for terrorism blimp that circled the main concerns since 9/11 (Ball & Olympic venues for up to 16 Webster 2003; Lyon 2003; hours a day. In addition to being Haggerty & Ericson 2006). equipped with television Though the specific technologies equipment, the blimp was fitted deployed for each Olympics with two military‐grade electro‐ varies widely, one commonality optical and infra‐red cameras, a is that the Games provide a high‐resolution, zoom‐enabled strong incentive to integrate visual camera, three digital discrete surveillance recorders (for recording flight technologies into comprehensive data and on‐board operations), a networks. These integrated GPS locating system integrated networks can not only produce a with a GIS street mapping remarkable visualizing capacity system, and a digitally encrypted to be deployed during the course downlink to supply images and of the games, but can also mark a data to the Olympic Security long‐term step‐change in the Command Centre. surveillance infrastructure of the host city. In Greece, NATO supplied and operated an Airborne Early The 2004 Athens Summer Warning and Control System Games, for example, were (AWACS) aircraft to patrol characterized by a surveillance restricted airspace zones. NATO blanket that encompassed three also patrolled the port of Piraeus dozen competitive venues and 6 with sonar equipment where

seven cruise ships providing technologies) provide ever more temporary hotel ways to generate data and accommodations were docked. visualize the external world, this Scanners capable of detecting proliferation of new devices also chemical, biological, radiological, creates the two‐fold problem of and nuclear devices scanned all how to manage all the vehicles entering specified information they produce and security rings. A double‐layered how to use disparate fence equipped with motion technologies in a complementary detecting sensors surrounded manner. the athlete’s village and over 1,500 temporary CCTV cameras The C4I system was designed to were installed around the central solve these problems by Olympic venues; in the main integrating the range of Olympic plaza this amounted to surveillance assets and one camera every 50 meters. computer‐aided planning These cameras were in addition systems (67 subsystems in total to the nearly 400 being phased in including vehicle locating and at the city’s new airport in time tracking systems, CCTV sub‐ for 2004, the 200 cameras networks, perimeter monitoring already in operation in the city’s systems, the airborne public transit system, the 220 surveillance unit), routing data (up from 48 for the Games) in through numerous subcommand the central business and centers and five mobile entertainment areas, and 200 in subcommand centers where it the port of Piraeus (Samatas could be filtered, and centralized 2004: 116). in a single central command center. The system was also The centrepiece of the Greek intended to provide secure security and surveillance blanket communications between the was an extensive digital command centre and field communications backbone personnel through a secure supplied by a consortium of digital trunk radio network technology firms lead by SAIC. consisting of 23,000 terminals. This system, known in military As such, the C4I system is a parlance as a C4I network for microcosm of wider tendencies ‘command, control, in the field of security, most communications, coordination, notably the desire for the and intelligence,’ aimed to solve seamless integration of a problem endemic in the technological, informational and information age. While human capabilities in a unified innovative new technologies whole in order to hopefully (including surveillance

anticipate, detect, and respond to explicit component of Greece’s security issues. Olympic legacy. George Floridis, Greece’s Minister of Public While SAIC’s system was Safety, said of the $1.5 billion delivered to meet the needs of USD Greece invested in security the Games, from the outset it was for the Games: ‘This great intended for long‐term use expenditure, however, is not afterward as part of a broader concerned only with the modernization of the Greek law duration of the Olympics. It is an enforcement and public safety investment for the future. The technical infrastructure. Not all special training, technical know‐ components of the Olympic how, and ultramodern security blanket remained after equipment will turn the Hellenic the Games, of course; the Police into one of the best and surveillance blimp, for example, most professional in the world, was stripped of its equipment for the benefit of the Greek and returned to the Swiss people’ (Floridis 2004; 4). company from which it was on Indeed, Greece expected the loan, although it is an open Olympics to provide the question as to how all of the opportunity to transform itself equipment contained in the into a counter‐terrorism blimp was subsequently ‘superpower’ that could export deployed. Nonetheless, the its newly‐developed expertise to central command centre and C4I other countries (Murphy 2004). network remained for post‐ Games coordination of fire, Security for the Beijing Games ambulance, traffic, and public followed a similar pattern of safety with SAIC providing weaving cutting‐edge system integration logistical technologies into a cohesive support until 2013 (SAIC 2008). blanket of human and Of the 1,500 ‘temporary’ CCTV technological surveillance. The cameras installed for the Games monitoring of venues and approximately 400 were visitors was conducted by nearly retained for post‐Games use over 100,000 law enforcement staff and above the increased CCTV drawn from local police prevalence at other sites such as (~40,000) and armed forces airports and major highway (~30,000) with the balance corridors that were prompted by consisting of paid and unpaid the Games (Samatas 2007). civilian security guards/ volunteers. In the surrounding These investments in technology, cities a 300,000‐strong in conjunction with other skills‐ contingent of ‘community building opportunities, were an security volunteers’ informed

local authorities of anything purchasing a ticket. This use of suspicious (Thompson 2008). RFID technology obviously enabled anyone with an The surveillance technologies appropriate reading device to deployed in China were equally engage in surreptitious close‐ grand, though specifics are not as range identification of any readily available as for Athens person possessing a ticket, due to the fact that the 2008 irrespective of whether they Games are relatively recent and were close to an Olympic venue China’s closed government or not. Technology watchers makes learning the specifics have hailed this use of RFID exceedingly difficult. That said, technology as the first major test we know that 300,000 CCTV of this kind of adaptation of the cameras, some of which pilot technology that, if successful, will tested new facial recognition be a significant boost for the software, were reportedly wider use of RFID‐enabled installed in Beijing in time for the tickets and identity documents. Games in what has been described as the largest, most Some of the other notable comprehensive CCTV network surveillance‐related ever (Wong & Bradsher 2008). developments introduced in Like in Athens, devices were Beijing in the context of the used to scan vehicles entering Olympics include fitting taxis certain zones of the city for with listening devices integrated chemical, biological, radiological, with GPS locating systems that or nuclear substances. could be monitored from central command centres in the name of The estimated 15 million tickets ‘driver safety.’ Hotels popular sold for the Chinese Olympic with foreign visitors were also events were embedded with suspected of being bugged by RFID chips, ostensibly to prevent audio and video feeds to such an ticket counterfeiting. The tickets extent that the US State themselves were said not to Department issued a statement carry any personal information that ‘all visitors [to China] should aside from an identifying serial be aware that they have no number. However, a ticket’s reasonable expectation of serial number was connected to privacy in public or private databases detailing information locations’ (Oster & Fairclough about the ticket holder including 2008). The need for this warning their name, address, passport was accentuated later in 2008 number, telephone, and email when a Danish soccer team address; information that competing in a FIFA match in individuals had to provide when China discovered that two men

in an adjoining hotel room were are required to carry residency monitoring their team meetings cards that include digital records through a one‐way glass of their name, address, work (Maginer 2008). history, educational background, religion, ethnicity, police record, Beijing’s surveillance blanket medical insurance status, was also wrapped in a broader landlord’s phone number, and modernization process under the possibly personal reproductive banner of Golden Shield, a series history (in order to enforce of ‘golden’ projects initiated in China’s one child policy). Plans 1998 to upgrade and expand are being studied to add to these China’s national digital cards details of a person’s credit information and history, subway travel payments telecommunications and small purchases they infrastructure (Walton 2001).9 charged to the card. All migrants Most media attention has to Shenzhen who do not have focused on China’s efforts to permanent residency cards are shape and block internet traffic required to carry such ID cards; a inside the country, efforts that population which amounts to have been nicknamed the ‘Great 10.5 of Shenzhen’s 12.4 million Firewall of China.’ Golden Shield inhabitants (Bradsher 2007b). also includes, according to a Beijing’s Olympic security efforts prominent report on the project, were nested in a similar Safe ‘a nationwide digital surveillance Cities project named the Grand network, linking national, Beijing Safeguard Sphere, a $6.5 regional and local security billion USD investment into agencies within a panoptic web Beijing’s surveillance of surveillance’ (Walton 2001: infrastructure which human 16). rights advocates have denounced as providing a legacy of invasive China’s Safe City project surveillance with manifold advances this goal by developing possibilities for misuse (China the surveillance infrastructure of Rights Forum 2006). 660 cities. In Shenzhen, for example, where police officers The integration of surveillance already carry GPS units technologies is also at play in integrated with central London’s preparations for 2012. command mapping systems and Unlike Athens and Beijing, 20,000 CCTV cameras have London already has a highly recently been installed, migrants advanced public safety infrastructure. This shifts the 9 Including Golden Bridge, Golden Gate, emphasis from building Golden Car, Golden Sea, and Golden Macro, integrated networks from amongst others (Walton 2001: 17).

scratch to leveraging existing cameras. EADS is also contracted systems and capabilities into to build a central command cohesive networks. London is centre in London where this can home to the greatest all be monitored (O'Connor & concentration of CCTV cameras Sherman 2008). EADS, in turn, in the world (although Beijing hopes to move beyond CCTV may now claim this title), but the integration to provide system‐ London cameras are a patchwork wide integration services for the of systems operated by private Olympic Security Directorate and networks and various other stakeholder agencies governmental authorities that, as before and beyond 2012 (Baker yet, do not resemble an all‐ 2009). The British Transport inclusive network. The London Police (BTP) is planning similar Metropolitan Police has forms of systems integration. announced it plans to explore These plans revolve around how ‘the current capabilities of developing a geographic various CCTV networks might be information system (GIS) that harnessed and integrated in will consolidate geospatial London within the current information spread across legislative framework to deliver various sources including the greater effect in mitigating BTP’s own files and open‐source specific threats as part of the information, and will be able to Olympic security effort,’ sort this information according according to Tarique Ghaffer, to relevance to defined locations, former Assistant Commissioner and display that information and chief of the Olympic Security through a map‐based Directorate (BBC 2008). visualization tool.

The Met has turned to EADS, a Face and hand‐scanning UK aerospace and defence technology is being used to contractor to develop and identify construction workers implement the technical entering and exiting the requirements that will allow the Docklands Olympic Met to tap into CCTV systems constructions site and, if deemed that are beyond its own network, successful, may be used to such as those operated by identify ticketholders entering Transport for London, private Olympic venues in 2012. Another businesses, and traffic surveillance measure that is monitoring cameras, and being justified in the contexts of incorporate them as extensions the London Olympics is a to their own CCTV capabilities. proposal to expand the national This would effectively boost the DNA database by allowing Met’s CCTV network to 500,000

familial DNA identification the Games, but also due to the (O'Connor & Sherman 2008). fact that the CDSS had to process and shuttle massive amounts of All of these developments data that may have been simply provide a sense of the emergence beyond the capacity of the of a totally integrated and software to manage (Samatas seamless surveillance web. That 2007). Rapid advances in is certainly the ambition of many computational power make it authorities, and things are foreseeable that this problem undeniably moving in that will be significantly reduced in direction (Haggerty & Ericson the future. It is also equally 2000). Nonetheless, the dream of foreseeable that the amount of total system integration at this data to be processed will also point remains the stuff of increase at an equal or greater Hollywood fiction. A number of rate, again outpacing the ability factors complicate the for intelligence to be effectively effectiveness of these efforts and integrated into security systems raise their own risks. (van Creveld 1991).

The technical logistics of system A different sort of technical integration can still be beyond obstacle is illustrated by the the grasp of current London 2012 preparations. computational capabilities. The Leveraging existing surveillance C4I system in Athens, for capabilities is obviously example, did not work to preferable for authorities on a expectations during the 2004 budget than building entirely Olympics. The Command new and expensive networks, yet Decision Support System (CDSS) integrating these capabilities at the heart of the C4I network, faces challenges related to and which was the actual engine interoperability. Systems simply of integration, performed poorly cannot be integrated if and was reportedly full of proprietary specifications do not technical glitches that severely allow them to be programmed to limited its functional capacity. ‘speak’ to one another. While this Most of the network’s has been a recurring obstacle in subsystems worked as intended, trying to join‐up systems, in the but ‘the controlling hub of the future it might be overcome as C4I network was absent’ more surveillance systems are (Samatas 2007: 229). This was built as commercial off‐the‐shelf partly due to the fact that many (COTS) applications that comply venues were not completed on with industry‐wide standards time, leaving less time to fit up rather than proprietary the network before the start of standards, thus allowing a

theoretically infinite daisy chain tend to increase a system’s of integrated, interoperable complexity, not reduce it, and systems. The geospatial system therefore contribute to rather being developed for the BTP than minimize the problem. outlined above, for example, Ultimately, the only solution to complies with the standards of the problem of system the Open Geospatial Consortium complexity is modularity; and International Organization breaking down complex systems for Standardization (OGC/ISO) into manageable, firewalled rather than proprietary parts, thereby reducing the standards, raising the prospect complexity of the whole (Perrow that this system could be 2008). Modularity is the exact integrated with others using the opposite of where contemporary same standard. technologically‐driven security solutions are going. While solutions to the above‐ noted problems are foreseeable, Such concerns have not system integration raises the dampened official enthusiasm more fundamental problem of for high‐technology Olympic system complexity (Perrow security. Indeed, Chicago’s Mayor 1999). The integration of Daley, looking ahead at the individual systems makes the prospect of landing the 2016 complexity of the system as a Olympics, recently issued what whole greater than the sum of its some might see as the parts. As system complexity simultaneously reassuring and increases, so do the chances of disconcerting claim that ‘security producing unexpected, nonlinear and terrorism won’t be an issue interactions and, consequently, if his Olympic dreams come true system failure. Such failures can because, by 2016, there will be a be difficult to diagnose as they surveillance camera on every rarely have a single source but street corner in Chicago’ are, as noted, the outcome of (Spielman 2009). unintended interactions. Additionally, tightly coupled While it is beyond the purview of subcomponents ensure that any our report to evaluate the likely failure is passed on to other successes of such surveillance linked systems, further techno‐solutions to the problems obfuscating diagnosis while of Olympic security, it is worth at raising the possibility of system‐ least mentioning the issue of wide failure. Technological displacement as it pertains to the solutions to the problem of prospect of an ongoing physical complexity may be sought, but expansion of surveillance such solutions paradoxically measures. In criminology,

displacement refers for the ‘soft’ targets and to then increase tendency for anti‐crime efforts to the security and surveillance simply move a crime problem to measures at those sites. In dong another location. There is a sense so, however, planners also in which terrorist displacement introduce an expansionist could be one unintended dynamic to surveillance practices consequence of intensive where ever more locations and Olympic security measures. sites are seen to be in need of Security can certainly reduce security and surveillance (but not eliminate) the prospect measures because they are not that a terrorist will successfully as secure as other more high attack one of the premier profile targets. The issue here is Olympic attractions. And while that it is ultimately impossible to terrorists would ostensibly secure all of the potential ‘soft’ prefer to target a symbolically targets, and that attempting to loaded event such as the opening do so introduces an amplifying ceremonies, if heightened spiral of security and security makes that impossible, surveillance measures that risks then there is the real prospect surrendering the very freedoms that they could simply attack that officials hope to preserve. other proximate targets that are less secure – what is generally Direct comparison between referred to as a ‘soft target’ Canada’s security, safety and approach. The massive media surveillance preparations for the presence at the Olympics 2010 Winter Games and any ensures that their actions will other site would be misleading. reach a global audience Most obviously, legal regimes irrespective of the target. This is differ widely amongst these not an argument against security countries; the efforts undertaken measures, but it does point to an in Beijing are not an indicator of irresolvable tactical dilemma what will unfold in Vancouver. when trying to deal with As well, the Athens and Beijing dedicated terrorist groups. Olympic surveillance efforts were embedded within large‐ Something of this sort occurred scale improvements to their law in Atlanta when Eric Rudolph enforcement and public safety chose to detonate a bomb at the infrastructures. Highly‐placed Centennial Olympic Park during security planners we spoke with the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, a site about these preparations which was considerably less described Greece and Athens as secure than the main Olympic ‘greenfield sites,’ a phrase meant venues. One implicit strategy has to underline the twofold point been to try and identify such that each country was starting

from a low initial baseline of infrastructure. One can get a public safety capabilities and glimpse of this process in that many venues for the Games operation from a revealing were newly constructed, thus statement contained in a allowing surveillance to be government memo entitled ‘No. literally built into the venues, 10 Policy Working Group on thereby lending them much Security, Crime and Justice, more permanence. Technological Advances’ which deals with on the expansion of Canada, in contrast, already has a the DNA database in the UK. In highly developed public safety contemplating introducing this infrastructure, and many of the possibly controversial measure, events for the 2010 Games are the authors concluded that being held in existing venues, ‘Increasing [public] support meaning that security could be possible through the technologies will be retrofitted, piloting of certain approaches in making it less likely that they high‐profile ways such as the will become permanent. London Olympics’ (Hennessy & Nonetheless, it seems clear that Leapman 2007). Here, then, is a as a general rule the assorted straightforward example of challenges, risks and anxieties officials strategically using the prompted by hosting the Olympics to legitimate Olympics trigger a ‘surveillance surveillance measures which are surge,’ where surveillance ultimately being sought for other technologies are adopted with purposes. less public debate than would usually be the case because such The RCMP Vancouver 2010 measures are perceived to be Integrated Security Unit has warranted responses to a set of released few details about exceptional circumstances security preparations for the (Wood, Konvitz, & Ball 2003: Vancouver Winter Games but 141). Indeed, authorities some statements and reports recognize that the Olympics can indicate directions that are provide a pretext to introduce broadly in line with how security forms of surveillance that they was managed at previous events. have long sought for various Regarding questions pertaining purposes, as the Games provide a to airspace closures, the V2010‐ context in which citizens appear ISU has stated that a ‘scalable more willing to accept the need airspace management and for enhanced surveillance protection plan built on existing measures, some of which remain infrastructure is under as permanent additions to the development and will be in place existing surveillance during Games time.’ This air

coverage is being supplemented possibility that such overhead by a contract tendered by the monitoring could be augmented federal government to develop a by the use of Predator system to detect small, low surveillance drones on loan from altitude aircraft in the lower the American government – and mainland/Vancouver Island manned by American military region. The contract ‘reflects the personnel. These drones are desire to evaluate the current again most familiar from their state of commercial systems for combat role in Afghanistan and rapid implementation into the Iraq, but are now also being used field for events such as the 2010 to monitor the Canadian/ Olympics’ and is currently under American border in the region development by Lockhead from Maine to Washington with Martin and Thales Canada (Lee the aid of infrared and high 2008b). definition images. The prospect of using these drones at the The Department of Defence is Vancouver Olympics was raised retrofitting 19 CH‐146 Griffon by Juan Munoz‐Torres, who is helicopters with electro‐optical/ the spokesman for US Customs infrared (EO/IR) sensor systems and Border Protection, who under Project INGRESS effectively offered them to (Interoperable Griffon Canadian authorities: ‘If the Reconnaissance Escort RCMP or Canadian government Surveillance System). These believes they can make use of the helicopters are being used for aircraft for support during the combat operations in Olympics we will be more than Afghanistan but can be made willing to provide it’ (White available for 2010 duty if 2009) – an offer that the requested by the V2010‐ISU. American authorities do not High‐resolution satellite regularly extend in relation to photographs of the Vancouver their high‐tech surveillance region are scheduled to be taken equipment. between March 1 and April 30th 2009 in order to provide The V2010‐ISU is also reportedly ‘seamless and consistent air‐ in the process of purchasing photo coverage’ for ‘all agencies Safesite, a multi‐threat detection involved in emergency system capable of identifying, management and public safety according to the product related to 2010 Olympics and all specifications, chemical warfare future emergency and public agents, gamma radiation, and safety events,’ according to the toxic atmosphere signals. contract documents (Inwood Safesite is currently employed at 2008b). There is also the the White House, Super Bowls,

and was used at the 2004 Athens Games has been the subject of Games (Lee 2008b). much speculation in the Canadian media. The V2010‐ISU Acquisition of a $1.3 million CAD has released a statement in geospatial software system (with response to this question $600,000 of annual maintenance indicating that ‘disposal of the costs) was under review by the security equipment after the Major Events Division in Ottawa Games will comply with the in 2007, but few specifics Memorandum of Agreement regarding the system’s between the Province of British capabilities nor whether it was Columbia and the Government of finally purchased were released. Canada, ’10 the terms of which do CCTV cameras will undoubtedly not seem to preclude their be used around venues, the remaining in place or being athlete’s village, Olympic‐ implemented in other domestic sanctioned gathering places, and contexts. One option available to along the Sea‐to‐Sky highway the RCMP is to roll any from North Vancouver to equipment it may acquire into Whistler. This could amount to the department’s Major Events over 100 sites, though few Inventory, a stockpile of precise details are available on equipment for the management how many will be used. of major events, until needed at a later date. This option seems less VANOC has signed an agreement likely for technologically with Olympic sponsor Garrett sophisticated equipment whose Metal Detectors to supply 550 shelf life is limited by the pace of walk through metal detectors technological advancement. In and 1,100 hand‐held metal cases where obsolescence is a detector wands to be used at concern, there will likely be Olympic venues despite advice pressures for the immediate and from a Turin Olympic organizing continued use of the equipment, committee executive to ‘throw either in place in the Vancouver away the mag‐and‐bag’ (airport‐ region or by distributing it style checks) as they provide only ‘illusory security’ and are ‘completely useless’ when it 10 The V2010‐ISU statement cites Section comes to detecting non‐metallic 3.03 of the 2006 Memorandum of Understanding between the federal materials that could be used to government and B.C., which states: ‘The make explosive devices (Lee parties agree that assets acquired for 2008c). policing and security operations and services that are funded under this Agreement will be divided on an equal basis Whether or not these measures between them in accordance with the plan will stay in place after the 2010 established by the Security Committee.’

across the department for other develop the capability to uses. pinpoint the location of 911 calls made from mobile phones. The Emergency management during concern that is prompting this the 2010 Games will be upgrade is that the large coordinated from the existing E‐ numbers of Olympics tourists Comm centre in East Vancouver. unfamiliar with their This centre, and the wider surroundings, particularly US emergency management system visitors who are accustomed to that it coordinates, are already emergency systems that have highly developed but such locational capabilities, may improvements are being made in result in many more calls from anticipation of 2010. The individuals unaware of their Director of Emergency location and, as a consequence, Management at the E‐Comm the poor deployment of centre indicated to us that the emergency services (Robertson centre would be undergoing a 2009). gap analysis in 10 key areas in order to identify potential In this regard, Vancouver weaknesses. Consistent with the represents the leading edge of notion that the Olympics the wider use of mobile phone provides a broad catalyst for locational technologies. The public safety improvement, he Canadian Radio‐Television and also indicated that this reflexive Telecommunications analysis was to be conducted Commission (CRTC) has recently anyways but has been motivated announced that all mobile phone at this time by the coming 2010 providers will be required to Games. As well, the Director enable mobile phone locational indicated that some of these capabilities for 911 use across improvements will be supported Canada by February 2010 (CBC by an extensive information 2009). A new computer‐aided management network that Bell dispatch system that will allow Canada is building for the 2010 for quicker deployment of fire Olympics. response vehicles has also recently been installed. The Recently announced system uses GPS devices to show improvements to the E‐Comm the dispatcher which emergency system may indicate what those vehicles are closest to a given technological gaps may be. location, thus minimizing the According to media reports, the amount of time a dispatcher may E‐Comm centre is working in spend on the radio determining conjunction with the location of vehicles. GPS units telecommunications providers to have been installed on 115 fire

trucks across 7 municipalities in nation‐wide spending programs the greater Vancouver region but have been accelerated in (Bellett 2008). Vancouver is also Vancouver in time for the Games. ahead of the national curve when The federal Transport minister in comes to communications regards the maritime interoperability between transportation security program emergency response providers. as an ‘extra benefit [...] that will Vancouver‐area fire, police, and be in place in time for the 2010 ambulance responders recently Olympic Games and Paralympic made the switch to a common Games.’ communications standard (P25) that will allow them to The possibility that CCTV communicate directly with one cameras installed specifically for another, a shift that other the Olympics will remain in place jurisdictions in Canada are after the Games are over has watching as more agencies been raised a number of times in conform to that standard the Canadian media and by civil (MacLeod 2008). rights observers in the Vancouver area. Recent Olympics Federal spending in certain areas suggest that this is a distinct of transportation infrastructure possibility; approximately 400 of security may also be accelerated the 1,500 ‘temporary’ CCTV to meet the Games. Transport cameras used during the 2004 Canada recently announced that Athens Games were retained it will spend $5.6 million CAN to afterwards over and above the improve security on BC’s ferry proliferation of cameras system, including the implemented elsewhere under introduction of surveillance the broader rubric of Olympics cameras, fences and other security at locations such as the barriers, training for security new airport, public guards and new onboard and transportation hubs, and public ship‐to‐shore communications highways. Our discussion with equipment. Through its Transit one security official involved in Secure Program, Transport the 2006 Turin Games confirmed Canada is also spending over $7 that similar CCTV retention million CAN for access control occurred at the conclusion of measures, communications those Games. equipment, a security command centre, security training for That said, given that many of the personnel, and risk assessments venues for the 2010 Games are for the Vancouver region’s public already constructed, many of the transit network. Both security CCTV cameras used for venue efforts are components of security will be retrofitted onto

existing buildings and, hence, are disorder and civil unrest. The more likely to be removed once 1994 Stanley Cup riot and 2002 the Games are over. Where the Guns & Roses riot are frequently numbers of CCTV cameras are singled out as instances where more likely to increase on a CCTV could have helped to lasting basis as a result of the maintain public order. More Games are in the transportation recently, ‘counter terrorism sectors that are related to federal issues’ and the upcoming need spending in securing those for ‘heightened security around networks, as noted above, and Olympic domain which would be along the Sea to Sky Corridor. imperative for Olympic security’ (VPB 2006: 3) have been cited as An additional area where CCTV is reasons to support the use of likely to expand after the Games CCTV in the downtown core. A is in the Granville Entertainment full business case was due before District in Vancouver. The the Vancouver Police Board in Vancouver Police Department May of 2007 for planned has been actively exploring the budgetary approval in October possibility of using CCTV to 2007 and an implementation of monitor public space in ‘Phase One’ targeted for early Vancouver over the past decade. 2008. However, none of these The first concerted attempt at deadlines were met, and it seems launching a CCTV program was that the VPD has dropped this in 1999, an initiative that initiative as well, though the targeted Vancouver’s Downtown reasons for doing so are Eastside. The initial proposal unknown. was to install 16 CCTV cameras in the neighbourhood in order to In the same year as this proposal monitor the drug trade. The was initially formulated (2006) project was shelved by the VPD Vancouver City Hall initiated after they encountered vehement Project Civil City, a wide‐ranging community opposition major initiative designed to curb (Haggerty, Huey, & Ericson disorder in Vancouver by 2010 2008). The second attempt, and after. CCTV is proposed as launched in 2006, aimed to one component of this initiative install cameras along the to ‘deter public disorder and Granville Entertainment District, support our police in the a two‐block strip of Granville capturing of individuals breaking Street between Smithe and the law’ (City of Vancouver Helmcken. Unlike the previous 2006c: 11). Project Civil City attempt that concentrated on the appears to have reanimated the problem of drug use, this plan VPD actions on CCTV use as the accentuated problems related to March 2007 Project Civil City

Progress Update indicates that a longer exist. In the case of VPD CCTV project is currently Vancouver some of these side underway (City of Vancouver projects include upgrades to the 2007: 25‐26). The same report lower mainland’s emergency indicates that ‘there is opposition communications centre, federal to this type of program by both spending in transportation the provincial and federal infrastructure security, and CCTV Privacy Commissioners’ and that use in downtown public space. ‘works [sic] needs to be done to garner their approval’ (City of Beyond the prospect that Vancouver 2007: 25‐26). More Olympic surveillance technology recently the BC Ministry of will remain in place after the Public Safety and Solicitor Games, there is the related issue General and the BC Ministry of that the Olympics provides an Attorney General have opportunity to introduce and announced plans to grant $1 field test surveillance million (CAN) of initial funds to technologies that business logics Vancouver, Surrey and Kelowna suggest are ultimately designed to conduct projects measuring to move into wider society after the effectiveness of CCTV in the Games. An example of this monitoring high‐crime areas (BC occurred at the 2001 Super Bowl 2008). in Tampa Bay where, for the first time, security officials deployed a While past history suggests that large‐scale assemblage of at least some of the CCTV cameras, biometric software and cameras implemented for the terrorist databases to Games will remain after they surreptitiously scan and record conclude, previous Olympics also the facial image of every indicate that a large component spectator at that event. After the of the technological legacies of Super Bowl the cameras were the Games come from side quickly relocated to a nearby projects ‘piggybacked’ on the Tampa Bay neighbourhood, Games. These side projects may where the technology was used have more lasting power as their to monitor the public streets needs are related to long‐term without the knowledge or issues that, as is commonly consent of local citizens (Gips claimed, would have required a 2001). This transfer ultimately solution at some point anyways, failed for technological reasons in contrast to the extraordinary (Stanley & Steinhardt 2002) but measures related to Olympic‐ it underlines how business and specific needs that are more security officials can see major difficult to rationalize once those events as a real‐world mock‐up extraordinary conditions no of security initiatives that can

ultimately be employed in more Olympics are high profile prosaic situations. political events that are repeatedly overlaid with national More prominent examples of this interests and interpreted dynamic include the counter‐ through a lens of geopolitical terrorist networks being built in animosities. The fact that the New York City and Chicago. New political interests of other York’s Lower Manhattan Security nations extends to, at a Initiative and Chicago’s Virtual minimum, the security of their Shield each involve extensive visiting athletes, citizens and CCTV networks monitored from dignitaries, means secret service a central command station and agents from assorted nations s which combine facial recognition are also keenly attuned to the software, licence plate detecting minutia of how the Games are cameras, integrated law organized and secured; concerns enforcement databases, and fully which extend to the political interoperable communications situation of the host country. networks. While not inspired directly by the Olympics (the Such an international security Lower Manhattan Security focus can translate into different Initiative is reportedly inspired forms of surveillance which by London’s ‘ring of steel’), both more resemble espionage than projects rely on IBM’s Smart the types of routine monitoring Surveillance System (or S3), a we have detailed above. Given software suite ostensibly capable that such efforts are wrapped in of detecting abnormal patterns a cloak of national secrecy it is of movement, such as if a person difficult to ascertain the precise were to remain standing on a scope or nature of such subway platform after a number intelligence gathering. The of trains pass by. IBM first Athens Games did, however, developed this software for the provide at least a glimpse of the 2008 Beijing Games and is now types of national security in the process of integrating this monitoring that the Olympics can system into the New York and prompt. Chicago security initiatives (Gardner 2007; McMillan 2008; In February 2006 the Greek Shachtman 2008). government announced that during the 2004 Olympics, and In concluding this section on the for at least a year subsequent, technological surveillance unknown individuals had tapped capacities that are deployed in the cell phone of Prime Minister relation to the Games, it is worth Kostas Karamanlis, as well as briefly accentuating that the those of the ministers of foreign

affairs, defence, public order, Athens Games (Kiesling 2006; justice, and approximately 100 Samatas forthcoming). It would other top government, military, be naïve to believe that above and security officials (including and beyond the increased local the President’s wife). While the monitoring initiated by the culprits of this highly Games, that the presence of the sophisticated cell phone tapping Olympics on Canadian soil does have never been caught, it is not also translate into increased widely speculated that it was surreptitious scrutiny of undertaken by American secret Canadian processes, practices service agents concerned about and people by an international the security dynamics of the cohort of secret service agencies.

Legislative and Policy Legacies: Homelessness, Commercial Rights, and Dissent

Above and beyond the Olympics can culminate in efforts surveillance‐related to ‘police the poor,’ ‘police organizational and technological commercial rights,’ and ‘police dynamics that the Games tend to dissent.’ These issues have initiate, they also typically repeatedly arisen in hosting the prompt changes to legislative Games and in the context of provisions that address other Vancouver involve a series of populations. Here we address surveillance dimensions. these in terms of how the

Policing the Poor

Poverty and homelessness sit preceding the Games 9,000 uneasily with the commercial arrest citations were issued aspects of the Games, and using these ordinances, almost 4 particularly with the efforts by times more than in previous the City of Vancouver to comparable periods (COHRE showcase itself to a global 2007: 119). audience. An exhaustive report examining two decades of For the 2000 Sydney Games, Olympic host cities concludes New South Wales passed the that the Olympics are almost Homebush Bay Operations always preceded by large‐scale Regulations in 1999 granting ‘cleanup’ campaigns aimed at powers to the Olympic sweeping the homeless out of Coordination Authority to certain parts of the host city remove any person from the (COHRE 2007). For example, Olympic grounds, using numerous ‘Quality of Life’ reasonable force if necessary, if ordinances were passed in they contravened a list of Georgia the year after Atlanta inappropriate behaviours that won the bid for the 1996 were extremely broad and often Olympics that prohibited people highly subjective such as ‘causing from sleeping in derelict an annoyance or disturbance,’ buildings, begging, or walking using ‘indecent, obscene, through parking lots if they did insulting, or threatening not own a car. In the 12 months language,’ or behaving in an

‘offensive/indecent manner.’ existing city services such that a These regulations remained in wide range of city employees are effect to 2002 and joined the expected to serve as the police’s existing Darling Harbour ‘new eyes and ears on the street,’ Authority Act of 1984 that increasing the lighting in crime‐ prevented loitering, assembly, prone parts of the city, and unauthorized/unlicensed encouraging the Vancouver commercial activity from the Police Department to enforce small cluster of high‐end B.C.’s Safe Streets Act, and, as restaurants, wine bars, theatres, noted above, exploring the and other entertainment venues possible use of CCTV in public that comprise the Darling space. As should be apparent, Harbour district. Critics argued many of these measures involve that these laws, along with the new surveillance practices and New South Wales Police formalize a surveillance function Department’s strategic for city employees. commitment to zero tolerance policing, were used almost Perhaps the most contentious exclusively against the homeless component of Project Civil City (Lenskyj 2002). has been the expansion of the Ambassador Program, an Vancouver has followed a similar initiative of the Downtown legislative pattern in adopting Vancouver Business Project Civil City (PCC), a wide‐ Improvement Association ranging major city initiative that (DVBIA) to put private security aims to reduce street disorder by guards on the public streets of 2010 (City of Vancouver 2006c). DVBIA territory. The PCC is explicitly about using the Ambassadors have no legal Olympics as a ‘catalyst’ to standing to enforce criminal law address disorder in the city. beyond the normal powers of Three specific forms of street citizen’s arrest. They do, disorder – aggressive however, enforce property rights panhandling, the open trade and and trespass law on behalf of use of drugs, and homelessness – their client, the DVBIA, and are targeted for 50% reductions collect information on chronic while non‐specific reductions for offenders to be shared with the a host of other ‘quality of life’ VPD. The program has been issues are also sought. Some of expanded to other BIAs in the the proposed measures to downtown Vancouver peninsula achieve these goals include through contractual cracking down on the scavenger arrangements between those economy by removing or locking BIAs and the DVBIA, who hold a back alley dumpsters, realigning

trademark on the Ambassador to cut in order to free up some name and their distinctive attire. much‐needed money. City Hall has also cancelled pending Until recently the Ambassador contracts worth $500,000 CAN to program was funded entirely by expand the Ambassadors beyond BIAs but in November 2007 the downtown peninsula into 15 Vancouver City Hall provided other business improvement close to $800,000 CAN to expand districts across the city (Howell it in two ways; to have the 2009b; Rolfsen 2009). Ambassadors operate 24 hours a day in the DVBIA and to conduct Despite it’s apparent imminent a pilot program intended to demise, several attributes of extend the Ambassadors to other Project Civil City may live on in BIAs outside of the downtown other ways. PCC was never core. The VPD objected to this intended to be a vehicle for the support on the grounds that they direct delivery of services but, believe that any public money according to the PCC spent on public safety ought to Commissioner, to ‘help those be allotted to the police, not a who have direct responsibility private entity. Advocates for the for services and programs to do homeless also charged that the their job more effectively [...] by project prioritizes security for bridging jurisdictional the few over social justice for the boundaries, engaging directly many (Montgomery 2008; Pivot and collaboratively with 2008). community stakeholders, advocating for new approaches Project Civil City is currently where appropriate, and teetering on the brink after the monitoring progress’ (Plant Non‐Partisan Party, the 2007: 2). One policing approach municipal political party championed by PCC is based on responsible for creating and the assumption that urban decay implementing PCC and which begins with small acts of included the mayor, was disorder that, if left unchecked, defeated in the recent municipal can escalate, and can ultimately election and replaced by lead to the destruction of councillors who, during the neighbourhoods (Wilson & election campaign, declared that Kelling 1982). The upshot of this they intended to scrap the approach for authorities is that it project. The first casualty justifies policing and regulatory appears to be the office of the efforts aimed at even the Project Civil City Commissioner, a smallest of incivilities, acts that $300,000 CAN per year position are often performed by an area’s that the new city councillors plan most vulnerable populations.

profile police presence in the The 2009 Vancouver Police Downtown Eastside by Department (VPD) Business increasing the number of officers Plan, the document that outlines assigned to the Beat the department’s strategic Enforcement Team (BET). direction, embraces this Having such officers generously philosophy. One of the main use bylaw infraction tickets also goals of the plan is to ‘improve appears to be part of the strategy liveability by reducing street in the DTES. The number of disorder’ by increased tickets issued by the BET has application of the province’s Safe increased to 439 in 2008 from Streets Act and Trespass Act. The 247 in the previous year. While Plan states that ‘members will few of these fines are ever paid, continue to receive training to the VPD insists payment is not use this existing legislation to the ultimate motivation for specifically combat behavior and issuing such tickets. As one activities that contribute to officer explained in the media, urban decay, including ticketing is simply a way to aggressive panhandling, ‘change behavior – to get people squeegeeing, graffiti, public to stop doing certain things’ fighting, open‐air drug markets, (Howell 2009a). Ticketing is also unlicensed street vending, the a mechanism to collect scavenger economy, and information that can be sleeping/camping in city parks subsequently used to forbid and other public spaces’ (VPD individuals from accessing 2009: 13). From a policing specified public locations. Police perspective, one of the officers can ‘red zone’ or ban an advantages of attending to such individual from designated areas low‐level incivilities is that it also based on repetitive behaviours provides a surveillance which are logged each time a opportunity, as officers can use ticket is issued to a particular such encounters as grounds to person. So, any Olympics‐related run an individual’s name through push to use such tickets also police databases to search for culminates in there being more outstanding warrants. citizens on police databases because they have engaged in The VPD Business Plan also low‐level incivilities. seeks to establish a higher‐

Policing Commercial Rights instance on establishing different Protecting the commercial monitoring regimes to identify interests of Olympic sponsors is such violations. Indeed, in a key component of hosting the anticipation of any Olympics Olympic Games. Sponsors who Games the host city is subjected pay large sums to the to a form of IOC commercial International Olympic scrutiny and cleansing designed Committee seek assurances that to find and eliminate any their exclusive marketing and unlicensed uses of Olympics distribution rights will be images or phrases. During the protected from non‐licensed Games this attention to ‘ambush’ marketers who profit commercial rights can often from generating an appearance result in security officials who that they are associated with the work at sporting venues Games. Protecting this scrutinizing citizens in exclusivity begins with Bylaw 51 considerable detail for signs of of the Olympic Charter (IOC unlicensed products and 2007) that precludes the unwelcome slogans. expression of commercial publicity11 not expressly The wide regulatory purview of authorized by the IOC inside and the Olympic marketing within the immediate vicinity of provisions has generated Olympic venues. numerous accounts of patrons being unable to purchase Critics have singled out such merchandise because they carry provisions on the grounds that a MasterCard and not a Visa or of they amount to a form of people being required to remove censorship in the service of hats bearing non‐licensed logos. commercial interests. It is also A journalist at the Sydney Games the case that any censoring of reported how Coca‐Cola, a tier products or regulations of one Olympic sponsor, pressured signage in the context of the event organizers to preserve Games depends in the first their exclusive marketing rights within the Olympic domain,

11 Section 2 of Bylaw 51 of the International something that resulted in Olympic Committee’s Olympic Charter security guards at venue states: [2] No form of advertising or other entrances checking for ‘knives, publicity shall be allowed in and above the stadia, venues and other competition areas weapons, or cans of Pepsi’ which are considered as part of the Olympic (Chaudhary 2000). An example sites. Commercial installations and from a 2006 FIFA World Cup advertising signs shall not be allowed in the stadia, venues or other sports grounds. match in Germany underlines the

lengths to which protecting indefinitely (apparently with an exclusive marketing rights can eye to the possibility of future go. Match organizers refused to Games in Canada) while the allow individuals wearing an schedule two and three orange pair of lederhosen that restrictions will expire at the end had become popular amongst of 2010. Dutch fans from entering the venue because the clothing Businesses using any of the carried a non‐licensed beer logo. restricted phrases under Hundreds of Dutch fans decided trademark or license prior to to abandon their pants and March 2nd 2007 are exempted watch the match in their from the legislation, provided underwear rather than miss the their use is consistent with event entirely (Harding & Cuff previous use (Kitching & Pigeon 2006). 2007). This exception may have been prompted by the case of Canada, like previous host Olympia Pizza, a family‐owned countries, has passed additional business in Vancouver that was legislation to protect pressured by the IOC and VANOC sponsorship rights. While to change its name and remove existing trademark infringement its signage before 2010. Bill C‐47 legislation may sufficiently allows the restaurant to keep its protect these commercial rights, name but also allows VANOC to ‘the sheer volume of possible press the restaurant to stop violations, within a short displaying the Olympics’ 5‐ring window of time, are presumed to symbol. It is unclear how VANOC be the justification for the will proceed in this particular enhanced protection’ (Kitching & instance as they may wish to Pigeon 2007: 8). Bill C‐47, The avoid the widespread public Olympic and Paralympic Marks condemnation garnered by their Act, passed by the federal initial attempt to censor the government in 2007, provides pizzeria. The City of Vancouver this enhanced protection. has also requested additional Schedule One specifies general powers from the province to words, phrases, and symbols regulate signage and other common to all Olympics Games displays on public or private (such as ‘Faster, Higher, property during the Games. Stronger’ and ‘Olympia’) that are While the city already has some restricted, while Schedule Two legislative ability to do so, the and Three specify those unique new powers would allow to 2010 (Such as ‘Vancouver, authorities to act more quickly 2010,’ and ‘21st’). The Schedule than current regulations allow One restrictions will remain and possibly without notifying

the property owner (Montomery public space. In those contexts 2009). decisions about whether someone is included and Critics argue that while these excluded are often determined provisions aim to protect by conformity to the exclusivity rights there is instrumental rules of a private potential for them to be used to entity, not necessarily by stifle free speech (IOCC 2007). adherence to legal or Bylaw 51 of the Olympic Charter constitutional norms and is written largely in terms standards (Shearing & Stenning regarding commercial trademark 1983; Rigakos & Greener 2000). infringement, but subsection In such contexts, ticket holders three of Bylaw 51 specifically not only pay for the privilege of prohibits political statements entering an Olympic venue but and protest.12 It was in the spirit also open themselves up to a of this clause that two black potentially much higher American athletes, Tommie standard of scrutiny than would Smith and John Carlos, were be tolerated between private expelled from further Olympic citizens and the state, such as competition for raising a gloved random searches, having to fist on the medal podium at the provide extensive personal 1968 Mexico City Games, a information, or, as noted, gesture widely interpreted as a refraining from non‐sanctioned statement voicing protest about attire. treatment of black people in the United States. This provision also Provisions have been built into applies to fans as well; while Bill C‐47 to exempt the use of national flags are permitted, restricted phrases if they are anyone unfurling a ‘Free Tibet’ used for criticism, media flag, for example, would almost reporting, and artistic certainly be expelled from the representations, so long as they event whether they were at the are not bought and sold for Beijing or Vancouver Games. profit. This is being presented as a safeguard against any attempt While the Olympic Charter does to use the law to target not carry the force of law, it does dissenting opinions and acts slip into the ambiguous realm of (Kitching & Pigeon 2007). the private policing of quasi‐ Similar legislation at the 2000 Sydney Games13 however was criticised for being used in just 12 Subsection 3 of Bylaw 51 of the Olympic Charter states: “No kind of demonstration or that manner; as a tool to crack political, religious or racial propaganda is permitted in any Olympic sites, venues or other areas. 13 The Olympic Arrangements Act (2000).

down on buskers, political and Olympic leaflets were (wrongly) religious demonstrations, removed under the provisions of individuals wearing anti‐ Bill C‐47. That said, the corporate logos, and determination of the legality of panhandlers (Lenskyj 2002: 59). such exclusions would likely Direct comparison between occur long after the Games were Sydney and Vancouver would be over, thus rendering any remedy misleading as there are, as noted, or penalty largely symbolic as exceptions contained in Bill C‐47 the critical window of to protect dissenting speech and opportunity for individuals to acts. However, there is still room communicate their message for abuse if, for example, anti‐ would have already passed.

Policing Dissent movements and draw protestors The Olympics have become a from afar. While the IOC forbids lightning rod for dissent, something that has grown in the expression of political recent years. The Olympics messages within official Olympic inevitably attract protestors, venues, the Olympic Charter some of whom are opposed the does not carry the force of law Olympics directly and others outside such venues. who seek to use the Games as a platform to publicise other In terms of surveillance, the issues. Protests can also sit prospect that groups will engage uneasily with attempts by the in legal protest at a major host to showcase the city or event—something that the county, particularly if those authorities always fear will protests draw attention to culminate in acts violent civil domestic inequalities or if they disobedience—has typically target visiting heads of state. In motivated security officials such this context protests can be as CSIS to prospectively place particularly embarrassing for the organizations and individuals host country. who they see as potentially disruptive under increased Managing protest is an integral covert interpersonal and part of public order policing. This electronic surveillance. While task is magnified at the Olympics secrecy protocols mean that we because, as noted, the Games are obviously speculating that often become a focal point for this will be the case in dissent that can unify disparate Vancouver, the existence and increased use of such scrutiny in

the context of the Olympics from the JIG and ITAC rate would be in keeping with threats against the 2010 everything that is known about Olympics as generally low but the operation of secret service have directed surveillance efforts agencies and is something that towards a number of specified many civil libertarians who areas. stand to be subjected to such monitoring believe is already There are valid and necessary occurring (Garr 2009). reasons for these surveillance efforts that we would not An institutional structure of dispute. The problem arises high‐level intelligence and risk when the exceptional character assessments has been of the Olympics fosters a ‘state of established to identify such exception’ mentality wherein potential threats to the Olympic more and more citizens are Games. The Joint Information drawn into the widely cast state Group (JIG), an RCMP‐lead surveillance apparatus geared intelligence group dedicated to towards protecting the Games the 2010 Olympics consisting of from terrorism and civil unrest. CSIS, the RCMP, and other Terrorism is a famously elastic relevant agencies, is responsible term that can be defined in for assessing threats against the widely different ways and has Olympics. The JIG interacts with proved to be capable of being Canada’s Integrated Threat advanced as a pretext to monitor Assessment Centre (ITAC), a a wide range of ‘dangerous’ or federal‐level intelligence group simply unpalatable populations. formed after 9/11 to integrate This was clearly the case in intelligence and facilitate relation to the Beijing Games information sharing within where the Chinese authorities Canada and with its international engaged in intensive surveillance partners. Representatives from and policing of Tibetan monks, thirteen Canadian agencies staff the Uyghur ethnic minority in the ITAC.14 Intelligence reports western China, and revolutionary‐prone students 14 The Canadian agencies represented on whom they deemed a ‘terrorist’ the ITAC are Public Safety Canada, Canadian threat. Border Services Agency, Canadian Security Intelligence Service, Communications Security Establishment, Department of Even without the deliberate use National Defence, Foreign Affairs and of terrorism as a pretext to International Trade Canada, Privy Council advance a political agenda, the Office, Transport Canada, Correctional Service Canada, Financial Transactions and wide‐ranging nature of anti‐ Reports Analysis Centre of Canada, Royal terrorism legislation post‐9/11 Canadian Mounted Police, Ontario can be abused as those powers Provincial Police, and Surete du Quebec.

devolve into general tools to up in an anti‐terrorism dragnet. gather intelligence for Interviews with the Maryland investigations that have little or state troopers responsible for nothing to do with terrorism. their ‘anti‐terrorism’ Recently released documents investigations revealed that they obtained from the Maryland did not contemplate the State Police Department, for ramifications of compiling and example, show how state sharing the names of their troopers had for at least three ‘terrorists’ with other years invoked anti‐terrorism government agencies. This was legislation to spy upon Catholic particularly unfortunate as such nuns, human rights data sharing effectively cast organizations, church groups, these ‘suspects’ into the shadowy and, in one case, a group realm of government watch lists advocating for bicycle lanes. and perpetual suspicion from Amnesty International was which it can be extremely included on this list for the crime difficult to remove oneself. The of ‘human rights.’ State police assurances of the Maryland acknowledge that they had used troopers that their paper files these laws to compile dossiers had been destroyed may be small on 53 individuals, which is an comfort to those who had undoubtedly conservative inadvertently been investigated estimate. Interviews with state using these terrorist provisions, troopers revealed that many as their names had already been officers did not view the targets uploaded to federal databases of their operations as terrorists that are routinely recombined, but simply used whatever legal matched with new and old data, tools were available to them to and linked in a process of gather as much information as continual analysis. Being possible about groups in which mistakenly or carelessly included they had an interest (McDonald in these databases can have wide 2008). Such practices are in ranging effects for work and keeping with the general personal life. Air travel can be orientation of many police and restricted, employment security organizations to collect opportunities lost, and families masses of information on a ‘just separated forever across political in case’ basis, storing this data on borders. Guilt or innocence may the grounds that it might prove matter little if suspicion is useful at some point in the future enough to be forever registered (Ericson & Haggerty 1997). on no‐fly lists and countless other government databases. As Such practices can have serious ‘need to know’ gives way to ‘need consequences for those caught to share,’ such instances are a

reminder of some of the marches (Lenskyj 2002: 55‐56). unintended consequences of This legislation was paired with state surveillance conducted in the NSWs police department’s the name of fighting terrorism. philosophical adherence to a ‘zero tolerance’ approach to There are, however, a host of protests that departed from the more formal examples of how allowances legislated in the dissent has been policed in the Foreshore Authority act. Peter context of previous Games. The Ryan, Commissioner of the New province of New South Wales, for South Wales Police Department example, passed new legislation at the time, and lead policing to deal with political protests for authority for the 2000 Games, the 2000 Sydney Games. The expressed this stance prior to the Sydney Harbour Foreshore start of the 2000 Games in what Authority of 1999 required all can be regarded as a public public assemblies taking place on warning to protestors: ‘Australia the Sydney harbour area, a has always been tolerant of complex of parks and open people wanting to express spaces that has traditionally alternative views, politically or been the starting and/or end otherwise. But we will not point for public rallies and tolerate this city being closed protests in Sydney, to be down. We will not tolerate any registered with the Sydney disruption to the Olympic Games. Harbour Foreshore Authority. We are not going to have The Authority was vested with Australia embarrassed’ the power to restrict the time, (Chaudhary 2000). place, and size of any protest or reject or cancel any gathering Concerns regarding the without notice nor recourse for possibility of mass protests at organizers. the 2000 Games where heightened in part because of the It is notable that these provisions protests that occurred the year could be applied up to 10 before at the World Trade kilometres inland from the Organization (WTO) summit waterfront and remained meetings in Seattle. The WTO applicable until 2004, which protests appeared to announce some critics attribute to a the arrival of a transnational political agenda to more movement against corporate‐ aggressively manage annual driven globalization with which Australia Day protests by the Olympics seemed to be aboriginal groups who dub the aligned, if not directly then at holiday ‘Invasion Day’ and mark least as a vehicle that advances it with demonstrations and the corporate agenda. The ‘Battle

of Seattle’ also contributed suspects, and towards that end significantly to a swing towards a have produced ‘video wanted paramilitary approach to public posters,’ from these recordings order policing featuring highly to publicize clips of protests in trained crowd control units, hopes that a citizen might command and control provide a tip as to the identity of organizational structures, a wanted person. The VPD have a paramilitary dress and history of using this technique equipment, elaborate forms of that goes back to their efforts to surveillance, the use of non‐ identify participants in the 1994 lethal weapons, and specialized Stanley Cup riot (Doyle 2006). crowd control techniques. 9/11 furthered this tendency and The V2010‐ISU has expressed its intensified the state surveillance intention to facilitate the lawful that protestors were already expression of dissent at the 2010 subject to in the name of fighting Olympics. A statement released terrorism (Warren 2004; in February 2009 from the Waddington 2008). V2010‐ISU states ‘the V2010 Integrated Security Unit and our Augmenting the police’s law enforcement partners within increasing turn to a paramilitary the police forces of jurisdiction orientation to regulating dissent will continue to protect the has also been an embrace of rights of Canadians to voice their video cameras. Even at peaceful opinions using lawful methods protests police officials routinely and activities, while protecting video record protests, and we the public’s right to attend the can anticipate that such 2010 Olympic and Paralympic recording will occur at any Winter Games in peace and events protesting the Vancouver safety, without disruption’ Olympics. The police see this as a (V2010‐ISU 2009). In the same valuable prospective means to statement the V2010‐ISU rejects gather evidence in case a protest speculation that designated turns violent. Protesters typically protest zones will be used during see such video recording as a the Olympics. The image of form of intimidation, and they, in overzealous police pepper‐ turn, sometimes video record spraying protestors at the APEC police behaviour at summit at the University of demonstrations and picket lines British Columbia in 1997 is not (Hall & de Lint 2003). Police something that the RCMP wants increasingly see the footage they to see repeated (Ericson & Doyle generate as particularly valuable 1999), leading to assurances if they want to subsequently from the V2010‐ISU that identify or arrest unknown ‘generous opportunity will be

afforded for peaceful protests to freedoms of law‐abiding see and be seen in their protest Canadians and visitors may activities by guests to the event.’ result in police investigations At the same time the V2010‐ISU and criminal prosecutions’ and is prepared to deal resolutely will be ‘dealt with quickly,’ with protests if needed, stating according to the Chief of the that ‘violent or criminal acts that V2010‐ISU (Mickleburgh 2009a). interfere with the rights and

Concluding note

Many organizations now see the One of the oft‐noted Olympics as a stimulus for characteristics of the Olympics is change. For policing, security and their exceptional global visibility. safety officials, the Games This report should make clear present a raft of new challenges, that an unprecedented level of and, as we have demonstrated, visibility enabled by surveillance in its many forms sophisticated and unprecedented has become a central way in surveillance initiatives is also which organizations are trying to characteristic of the efforts of address those issues. host governments to maintain the security of the Olympics. This It should be noted, however, that visibility and concomitant nothing in this report should be reduction in social privacy construed to suggest nefarious produces obvious dangers to efforts by Canadian security, civil liberties as Canada and safety or law enforcement other nations continue their agencies to install from above a inexorable drift towards a world durable legacy of intrusive that is ever more transparent. security and surveillance Each new round of surveillance measure. The introduction of all measures that is introduced of these surveillance measures simply stands as a temporary requires no clandestine master launching‐off point for the next builder operating in secret. set of measures which tend to be Instead, the incremental more penetrating and expansive. introduction of surveillance There is little to suggest that this measures is undertaken with the process will be measurably best intentions and accelerated slowed at any point in the near by the intense pressures future. prompted by the Olympics. The expansion of such devices and Beyond the role that the practises into wider society can Olympics play in this overall typically be explained by the process of legitimating the normal operation of a business introduction and use of logic that necessitates that surveillance measures, they also executives try and find new play an important but difficult to markets for their surveillance quantify role in transforming products outside of the public attitudes towards exceptional circumstances of surveillance. The undeniable mega‐events. physical presence of security

devices and routines at the audience. This pedagogy in the Games, combined with personal routines of an advanced spectacular representations of surveillance infrastructure might such processes by a global be one of the most lasting media, helps familiarize legacies of mega‐events due to individuals with the routines of how this, in turn, helps fashion a surveillance‐infused high new common sense about security. The Games help attune surveillance. The undeniable individuals to new security presence of intensive security realities and, in the process, measures at mega‐events normalizes the routines of reinforces the sense to which it personal revelation associated becomes self‐evident that such with demands for documents, measures are required, that they background checks and do not unduly infringe upon expectations that people must personal liberties, that certain reveal themselves and their dangers are pervasive – and bodies though assorted more pressing than other risks ‐ screening practices. The and that the existing proliferating security routines constellation of security interests characteristic of mega‐events is inevitable. This increasingly therefore fosters a security‐ normalized spectacle of security infused pedagogy of acceptable can foster a sense in which such comportment, dress and assumptions become so self‐ documentation, as small lessons evident that they are beyond in security are inflated and critique. played out before a global

Glossary

ACOG: Atlanta Committee for the BTP: British Transport Police. Olympic Games, the organization committee responsible for the C4I: Command, Control, 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games. Communications, Coordination, and Intelligence, a military AWACS: Airborne Early Warning alphanumeric acronym meant to and Control System, an airborne underline the concepts integral radar system that can to total situational awareness. dramatically extend the radar Refers in this report to the and communications capabilities surveillance and of ground, air, and sea crafts by communications network built relaying signals that would by SAIC for the Greek otherwise degrade. government for the 2004 Athens Olympics. BC‐IPSU: British Columbia Integrated Public Safety Unit, the CBSA: Canadian Border Services unit coordinating provincial Agency. emergency and public safety provision for the 2010 CCTV: Closed circuit television, Vancouver Olympics. the capture and transmission of visual images amongst a limited BET: Beat Enforcement Team, a number of viewing monitors. unit of the VPD deployed in the DTES. CDSS: Command Decision Support System, a major BIA: Business Improvement component of the C4I system District, a public‐private built for the 2004 Athens partnership wherein businesses Olympics. from a defined geographical zone elect to pay a tax (often based on CIP: Critical Infrastructure square footage of occupied Protection. space) that is used to fund supplemental projects that COTS: Commercial Off The Shelf, enhance that zone and which, it a phrase that refers to any ready‐ is assumed, translates into made system that can be boosted economic activity. Street ‘plugged in’ to other systems beautification or extra sanitary with only minor adaptations. services are two common examples of such projects.

CRTC: Canadian Radio‐Television and displays data that refers or is and Telecommunications relevant to a physical location. Commission, Canada’s federal telecom regulator. GPS: Global Positioning System, a method of determining ground CSIS: Canadian Security and position by triangulating the Intelligence Service. distance and angles between a ground receiver and a network DHS: Department of Homeland of satellites. Security GSG9: Grenzschutzgruppe 9 or DTES: Downtown Eastside, a ‘Border Guard Group 9’, low‐income neighbourhood in Germany’s elite counter‐ downtown Vancouver. terrorism unit.

DVBIA: Downtown Vancouver IMSO: Integrated Marine Business Improvement District, Security Operation, a CAN‐US Vancouver’s largest business agreement to integrate law improvement district that enforcement agents from each encompasses much of the city’s country onto the coast guard central business, hospitality and ships of the other country in entertainment amenities. order to police shared waterways. E‐Comm: Emergency Communication, in this report INSET: Integrated National referring to the emergency Security Enforcement Team. communications center in Created in the wake of 9/11 and Vancouver that coordinates housed within the RCMP, INSETs emergency services for the lower are joint counter‐terrorism/law mainland region of B.C. enforcement units consisting of the RCMP, CSIS, CBSA, other EDL: Enhanced drivers’ license, a federal partners, and local law general term for drivers licenses enforcement agencies. INSET capable of carrying electronic units operate in Vancouver, data regarding its carrier. Ottawa, Toronto, and Montreal.

FBI: Federal Bureau of IOC: International Olympic Investigation. Committee, the international governing body of the Olympic GIS: Geographic Information and Paralympic Games. System, a term that describes software that stores, organizes, ITAC: Integrated Threat Assessment Center, Canada’s

multi‐agency intelligence and public safety planning for gathering, integration, and the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. assessment point. ITAC is housed within CSIS. OSCC: Olympic Security Command Centre, the policing JIG: Joint Information Group, a unit within the New South Wales multi‐agency intelligence group Police Force responsible for tasked with risk assessment for security and public safety the 2010 Games. planning for the 2000 Sydney Organizationally, the JIG is a unit Olympics. of the RCMP. OSD: Olympic Security JTFG: Joint Task Force Games, Directorate, the policing unit the code name for Canadian within the London Metropolitan Forces operations for the 2010 Police Service responsible for Winter Olympics. security and public safety planning for the 2012 London MACC: Multi‐Agency Olympics. Communications Center, a general term for any OSSG: Olympic Security Support communications center that Group, the policing unit initially facilitates the flow of information responsible for security and between public safety, law public safety planning for the enforcement, and intelligence 1996 Atlanta Games. Later agencies. Primarily a US term. replaced by SOLEC.

NSSE: National Special Security PCC: Project Civil City, a major Event, a US designation for high‐ city initiative of the City of profile events with non‐routine Vancouver to reduce street security needs that, when disorder by 2010. invoked, defines the organizational roles and PNWER: Pacific North West responsibilities for federal Economic Region, a public‐ agencies for the event. private partnership devoted to advancing the collective NSW: New South Wales, an economic interests of British Australian province. Columbia, Alberta, the Yukon, Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, OGSD: Olympic Games Security and Washington. Division, the policing unit within the Greek Ministry of Public RCMP: Royal Canadian Mounted Order responsible for security Police, Canada’s federal police

RFID: Radio frequency UOPSC: Utah Olympic Public identification, a technology used Safety Command, the to identify and track items organizational unit responsible (inventory, animals, people, etc.) for security and public safety using radio waves. RFID ‘tags’ operations for the 2002 Salt Lake containing identifying City Winter Olympics. information of varying amounts can be embedded in an object to USSC: United States 2010 be monitored, which can then be Security Committee, a US identified at a distance by a security and public safety unit scanner. formed for the 2010 Winter Games. SAIC: Science Applications International Corporation, a US USSS: United States Secret aerospace and defence Service. engineering corporation based in San Diego, California. V2010‐ISU: Vancouver 2010 Integrated Security Unit, the SOLEC: State Olympic Law policing unit within the RCMP Enforcement Command, the responsible for security and policing unit responsible for public safety operations for the security and public safety 2010 Vancouver Olympic and operations for the 1996 Atlanta Parlympic Winter Games. Olympics. VANOC: Vancouver Organizing SSC: Security and Safety Committee for the Olympic and Committee, the policing unit Paralympic Games. responsible for security and public safety planning for the VPD: Vancouver Police 2006 Turin Winter Games. Department.

TOPOFF: Top Officials, refers to a WTO: World Trade Organization. series of high‐level counter‐ terrorism preparedness exercises staged by the US.

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