Ganga is ‘Disappearing’: Women, Development, and Contentious Practice on the Ganges River Georgina Drew A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology Chapel Hill 2011 Approved by: Dr. Dorothy Holland (Chair), Dr. Carole Crumley, Dr. Arturo Escobar, Dr. David Gilmartin, Dr. Charles Price © 2011 Georgina Drew ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Georgina Drew Ganga is ‘Disappearing’: Women, Development, and Contentious Practice on the Ganges River (Under the direction of Dr. Dorothy Holland) This dissertation explores conflict over development and ecological change along the upper stretch of the Ganga River in the Garhwal Himalayas, India. I focus on the circulation of competing discourses about change on the sacred Hindu river, the emergence of actors and movements that address the Ganga’s management, and the transformation of actor subjectivities. I especially emphasize the meanings that people produce about a river that some fear could ‘disappear’ due to the projected impacts of hydroelectric development and upstream glacial melt. My framing of these issues employs social practice theory to situate the past and enduring struggles that inform the conflict. In using this theoretical lens and especially its dialogic approach, I present a variety of views and discourses to elucidate the cultural or figured worlds that inform the debates about the river’s management. Through the exploration of “river dialogues”, I demonstrate how the conflict is charged with varied understandings of the Ganga’s utility, the agency of its Hindu Goddess, and the continuity of the cultural-religious practices linked with its flow. Since a number of mountain women participated in debates about the Ganga’s management, my dissertation highlights their discourses and actions. I do this while drawing from feminist political ecology to show the significance of gendered practice. I also establish how some women employ particular cultural forms and genres of expression, such as devotional song, to evoke the figured worlds in which the sanctity of the river’s grace-providing flow is paramount. I then indicate how the performance of these songs enable women’s participation in movement activities and the influence they have on subjectivities. These points of inquiry illuminate the entanglement of cultural, religious, and gendered concerns in environmental conflict along the Ganga. The dissertation contributes to critical development studies by showing the mixed desires for, and ideas about, development; it adds to our understanding of the relationship between gendered practice in daily life and movement activity in the Himalayas; it shows how movement involvement influences actor subjectivities; and it demonstrates the meaning-making practices that people produce to interpret transformations on a river that is revered as a living Goddess. iv To: Mom, Jason, Grandma & Grandpa Special Thanks: Chad and Fern v Acknowledgments This dissertation is the product of numerous collaborations, the guidance of several key individuals, and countless acts of kindness. The journey I took to explore the themes in this dissertation began when, back in 2004, I first started working in India in affiliation with an environmental organization run by Dr. Vandana Shiva. Worried as I was about water scarcity and livelihood struggles in the region, I was also taken by the sociocultural practices of reverence for water resources in general and the Ganga in particular. Could the devotion that people feel for the Ganga translate into sustainable interactions with it? This thought was a seed that inspired me to pursue a PhD so that I could dedicate myself to the full-time exploration of human responses to shifting water availability along the Ganga and the conflicts that ensue over multiply interpreted bodies of water. I find this work especially important in the context of growing water stress. At the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), I’ve been extremely fortunate to be a part of an outstanding anthropology department whose colleagues exhibit a delicate academic balance between compassion and brilliance. Since I arrived at UNC-CH, Dr. Dorothy Holland has been a primary guide and academic mentor. Always supportive, Dr. Holland nurtured my intellectual development and offered countless hours of consultation and guidance that greatly improved this dissertation. She also encouraged me to apply my research to real life problems and to strive for engaged scholarship. Dr. Holland’s work through Models of Engaged Scholarship (MES) and Collaborations for Integrating Research and Action (CIRA) are vi exemplars of the applied scholarship that I aspire to pursue in the future. Dr. Holland was and is, in short, an outstanding academic advisor and role model. Her friendship and good humor have put wind in my sails through the highs and the lows of my graduate school and dissertation writing experiences. Dr. Holland, I am extremely grateful for all that you have done and continue to do. Several other faculty members at UNC-CH have helped to shape my academic research and intellectual growth. I am especially grateful for the guidance and support of my committee members: Dr. Carole Crumley, Dr. Arturo Escobar, Dr. David Gilmartin, and Dr. Charles Price. Together with Dr. Holland, they asked me the hard questions that I needed to explore, gave suggestions for ways to improve my work, and supported me through the dissertation process. This dissertation incorporates elements—be they topical or theoretical—of each committee member’s work. I was exceptionally fortunate to receive their collective insight and collegiality. Additional faculty members and graduate students were critical to my academic development at UNC-CH. Dr. Renee Alexander-Craft, Dr. Chris Nelson, Dr. James Peacock, Dr. Karla Slocum, and Dr. Wendy Wolford gave great feedback on my project and also helped support various grant applications. The students and faculty involved with the Social Movements Working Group (SMWG) at UNC-CH were also critical sources of inspiration. I thank everyone that has been a part of SMWG’s ongoing events and conversations. I am especially grateful for the intellectual camaraderie of Brenda Balletic, Ashley Carse, Srinath Jayaram, Michal Osterweil, Dana E. Powell, Sara Safransky, Alice Brooke Wilson, Joe Wiltberger, Elena Yehia, and others. I am also thankful for the feedback of my writing group and cohort members: Meg Kassabaum, vii Courtney Lewis, Rachana Rao, and Malena Rousseau. Other intellectual guides from outside of UNC-CH include Dr. Kelly Alley, Dr. Kiran Asher, Dr. Luis Calero, Dr. Julie Cruikshank, Dr. Barbara Rose Johnston, Dr. Lisa Kealhofer, and Dr. George Westermark. My research in India would not have been possible without the help of several people and organizations. I would first and foremost like to thank the participants of the Clean the Ganga Campaign and Ganga Ahvaan with whom I worked. Many of the people affiliated with these networks invited me into their homes, treated me like their daughter, and volunteered some of the most intimate details of their lives. I was and am deeply honored by the trust and respect they showed me. I also appreciated their patience with my ignorance and seemingly endless queries. I would also like to thank my Fulbright- affiliated academic advisor in Uttarkashi, Dr. Harshwanti Bisht, with whom I spent many long hours in conversation and whose suggestions I found invaluable. While in Uttarkashi, two families took extra good care of me and helped make my time in the mountains especially enjoyable. I would like to thank the Banuni family— Kiran, Piyush, Sheila, and Panditji—for their constant compassion and assistance. Sheila fretted over me like a mother and nourished me in countless ways. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the Rawat family— Ria, Rishi, Harsha, and Suman. I lived with the Rawats on the banks of the Ganga just 2 miles outside of Uttarkashi for the longest duration of my research. They treated me like family and through them I was able to experience the everyday rituals, special occasions, and Hindu ceremonies that helped me better understand life in the Garhwal Himalayas. Their house, away from the noise and bustle of downtown Uttarkashi, was a refuge and a space for rejuvenation. I could not have chosen a more picturesque place to live or a nicer family to spend my time with. viii Several other people in Uttarkashi provided support and guidance. Swami Janardananda was a valued mentor who provided practical and spiritual counsel. His insight into the issues I studied was sharp and he was able to help me see the contestations over development and ecological change along the Ganga from a myriad of perspectives. I am also grateful for the help and friendship of Deepender Panwar of Monal Tourist Home. Deepender, a person full of energy and optimism, was one of my dearest friends in Uttarkashi. In a series of unfortunate events in 2010, Deepender lost his brother, his nephew, his father, and several close friends. I remember each of these people fondly. I mourn their loss with Deepender and I take inspiration from the courage he has demonstrated since their passing. Numerous assistants helped me with the logistical and data processing tasks that were critical for my research. In Uttarkashi, Kirshna Bijlwan, Lokendra Mamgain, and Harsh Vardan helped with the transcription of key interviews. Krishna also served as a research assistant and Garhwali/Hindi translator in the early stages of my research. I am also grateful for Kiran Banuni’s help as a research aide. It was with Kiran’s Garhwali translation assistance that I was first able to make friends with many of the women in the movements I studied. Anil Bhattarai and Rajesh Kumar also helped with translations. I received support for my studies and research from several organizations.