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Music Psychology of the Piano-Playing Hands in Historical Music Psychology of the Piano-Playing Hands in Historical Discourse Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/jm/article-pdf/38/1/32/456047/jm.2021.38.1.32.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 YOUN KIM The hand has long been considered a powerful indicator of the human mind. Immanuel Kant, for example, supposedly called the hand “an outer brain of man.”1 Cognitive psychology, mean- while, has regarded hand movements as a window into human percep- tual and cognitive processes. Recent studies in evolutionary history and neurophysiology confirm the close interrelationship between hand and brain: bipedality freed the hands for grasping and made tool use possi- 32 ble. The hand thus plays a crucial role in constituting human nature, as the distinctively human “tool-using” capacity shapes “creative, teleologi- cal, and manipulative” intelligence.2 This research was supported by the General Research Fund of the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (Project No. 17609517). 1 Merleau-Ponty ascribed this statement to Kant, noting that it was “quoted without reference” in David Katz’s Der Aufbau der Tastwelt (1925). See Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, trans. Colin Smith (New York: Routledge, 2002), 368–69. See also Dermot Moran, “Between Vision and Touch: From Husserl to Merleau-Ponty,” in Carnal Hermeneutics, ed. Richard Kearney and Brian Treanor (New York: Fordham Uni- versity Press, 2015), 214–34, at 363n110. 2 Colin McGinn, Prehension: The Hand and the Emergence of Humanity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015), 68. See also Michael Spivey, Daniel Richardson, and Rick Dale, “The Movement of Eye and Hand as a Window into Language and Cognition,” in Oxford Handbook of Human Action, ed. Ezequiel Morsella, John A. Bargh, and Peter M. Gollwitzer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 225–49; Frank R. Wilson, The Hand: How Its Use Shapes the Brain, Language, and Human Culture (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998); Alan M. Wing, Patrick Haggard, and J. Randall Flanagan, eds., Hand and Brain: The Neurophysiology and Psychology of Hand Movements (San Diego: Academic Press, 1996); and Go¨ran Lundborg, The Hand and the Brain: From Lucy’s Thumb to the Thought-Controlled Robotic Hand (New York: Springer, 2013). Some animals, particularly some primates, are known to make and use tools. See Crickette M. Sanz, Josep Call, and Christophe Boesch, eds., Tool Use in Animals: Cognition and Ecology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013). The Journal of Musicology, Vol. 38, Issue 1, pp. 32–66, ISSN 0277-9269, electronic ISSN 1533-8347. © 2021 by The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Please direct all requests for permission to photocopy or reproduce article content through the University of California Press’s Reprints and Permis- sions web page, www.ucpress.edu/journals/reprints-permissions. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/ JM.2021.38.01.32 kim In discussions of the hands, music-making hands have featured prominently, from bone-flute-playing hands in paleoanthropology to conducting hands in biomechanical motion-capture studies. Scholars have been drawn in particular to piano-playing hands, enticed by the bimanual coordination required for piano playing, together with the instrument’s easy accessibility and controllability.3 However, pianists’ artistic and practical approaches to piano playing have been documen- ted rather independently from such scientific investigations.4 As Robert Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/jm/article-pdf/38/1/32/456047/jm.2021.38.1.32.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 Winter notes, “much of the lore surrounding the history of piano playing belongs more properly to the realm of anecdote or even myth than to scholarship; much work in this area remains to be done.”5 Yet already in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, theories of piano ped- agogy were evolving in response not only to changing musical styles but also to scientific conceptualizations of the human body. This era was characterized by developments in human biology and the rise of ma- chines. Accordingly, the piano was often construed as a “mechanistic” device, with piano-playing hands constituting “the human/machine in- terface.” This formulation prompts two intricate questions that form the basis of this article: How were piano-playing hands conceptualized within this multidisciplinary body discourse? How can piano pedagogy as prac- 33 tical theory be properly understood in the scientific and ideological contexts of the period? Just as the fluctuating notion of the human body in the modern era has affected practical piano pedagogy, conversely, the piano-playing hand has played an illuminating role in the understanding of the body. This article analyzes the historical discourse of the body in piano theories through the conceptual lens of recent cognitive science. In line with current interest in the intersection between instruments and the human body,6 the article interprets piano-playing hands as a platform for human-machine interaction and takes stock of the hitherto scattered, 3 Robert J. Zatorre, Joyce L. Chen, and Virginia B. Penhune, “When the Brain Plays Music: Auditory–Motor Interactions in Music Perception and Production,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 8 (2007): 547–58; and Shinichi Furuya and Eckart Altenmu¨ller, “Flexibility of Movement Organization in Piano Performance,” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7 (2013) https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00173. For a recent review of biomechanical studies on piano performance, see Werner Goebl, “Movement and Touch in Piano Performance,” in Handbook of Human Motion, ed. Bertram Mu¨ller and Sebastian I. Wolf (Cham, Switz.: Springer International, 2018), 1821–38. 4 For comprehensive reviews of artistic approaches to piano playing, see Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007); and Heinrich Neuhaus, The Art of Piano Playing (London: Kahn & Averill, 2016). 5 Robert Winter, “Pianoforte: II. Piano Playing,” Grove Music Online, accessed March 5, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.21631. 6 Jonathan De Souza, Music at Hand: Instruments, Bodies, and Cognition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017); and Roger Moseley, Keys to Play: Music as a Ludic Medium from Apollo to Nintendo (Oakland: University of California Press, 2016). the journal of musicology insufficiently discussed meanings of the music-making body in historical piano pedagogy. In doing so, it demonstrates that piano pedagogy in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries served not only as a mode of didactic instruction; it also comprised theories of embodied, situated, and distributed music cognition. Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/jm/article-pdf/38/1/32/456047/jm.2021.38.1.32.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 The Hands in the Nineteenth Century In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the disciplines of human physiology and psychology underwent a revolution, and the human body was completely reconceptualized. The period was also characterized by radical developments in technology and newly invented machines, and is hence often dubbed the “machine age.” The hand presented a complex problem in this rapidly changing landscape. As human labor was gradually being replaced by machines, questions were raised about human limits, in particular of the hand, which appeared inefficient in the face of machines. It is noteworthy that the most comprehensive anatomical and phys- iological study of the human hand was published as a rejoinder to such 34 questions.7 Anatomist-neurologist Charles Bell, a contemporary of Charles Darwin and Franz Liszt, published The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design in 1833.8 It was one of the Bridgewater Treatises, commissioned by The Right Honorable and Reverend Francis Henry, Earl of Bridgewater, to explore “the Power, Wisdom, and Good- ness of God, as manifested in the Creation.”9 His book includes a discus- sion of the “machinery of the animal body”:10 “the bones are levers, with their heads most curiously carved and articulated; and joined to the intricate relations of the muscles and tendons, they present on the whole a piece of perfect mechanism.”11 Therefore, the working of the human body striking with a hammer (see fig. 1) is explained in terms of weight, velocity, and force: “In what respect does the mechanism of the arm differ from the engine with which the printer throws off his 7 See Peter J. Capuano, Changing Hands: Industry, Evolution, and the Reconfiguration of the Victorian Body (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015). 8 Charles Bell, The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design (London: William Pickering, 1833). For a discussion of the connection between Liszt’s pianism and this treatise, see J. Q. Davies, Romantic Anatomies of Performance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 162–65. 9 Bell, The Hand, i. 10 Bell, The Hand, 112. 11 Charles Bell, The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design,5th ed. (London: John Murray, 1852), 286. The fifth edition, which appeared posthumously, was substantially expanded by incorporating Bell’s notes on the eighteenth-century cler- gyman William Paley’s Natural Theology and extracts from his own writing on animal mechanics. kim figure 1. The working of the human body striking with a hammer; illustration in Charles Bell, The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design, 5th ed. (London: John Murray, 1852), 129. Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/jm/article-pdf/38/1/32/456047/jm.2021.38.1.32.pdf by guest on 27 September 2021 35 sheet?”12 Nevertheless, this does not mean that Bell simply reduced the body to a mechanism. In comparing the machinery of an engine to that of an animal body, he says, “we may comprehend what is most truly admirable in the latter [i.e., living body].”13 After a detailed descrip- tion of comparative anatomy on the “hands” of various species, Bell moved to the discussion of the human hand.
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