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The Concept of Entrainment and Its Significance for Ethnomusicology

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The Concept of Entrainment and Its Significance for Ethnomusicology In time with the music: The concept of entrainment and its significance for ethnomusicology Martin Clayton, Rebecca Sager and Udo Will Target article, Commentaries and Authors’ response To appear in: ESEM CounterPoint, Vol.1, 2004 Target article: p.1-45 Comments: p.46-69 Authors’ response: p.70-74 References: p.75-82 Clayton, Sager, and Will: In Time With The Music 1 ____________________________________________________________________ In time with the music: The concept of entrainment and its significance for ethnomusicology Martin Clayton, Rebecca Sager and Udo Will 1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................2 2. Entrainment basics................................................................................................................................2 2.1 Introduction: the concept of entrainment ..........................................................................................2 2.2 A short history of the entrainment concept .......................................................................................3 2.3 Physiological rhythms .....................................................................................................................5 2.4 Circadian rhythms and entrainment to environmental stimuli............................................................6 2.5 Ultradian rhythms and interpersonal entrainment .............................................................................6 2.6 Self-entrainment..............................................................................................................................7 2.7 Entrainment and brain waves...........................................................................................................8 2.8 Degrees and phases of entrainment ..................................................................................................9 3. Further applications of the entrainment concept ................................................................................... 10 3.1 Social psychology ......................................................................................................................... 10 3.2 Interaction and communication...................................................................................................... 11 3.3 Cognitive psychology.................................................................................................................... 14 4. Applications in music research ............................................................................................................ 16 4.1 Musical metre ............................................................................................................................... 16 4.2 Biomusicology .............................................................................................................................. 17 4.3 Music therapy ............................................................................................................................... 18 5. Entrainment and ethnomusicology....................................................................................................... 19 5.1 Ethnomusicological studies relating to entrainment ........................................................................ 19 5.2 The significance of entrainment for ethnomusicology..................................................................... 20 6 Methods and Methodology................................................................................................................... 22 6.1 Data collection .............................................................................................................................. 23 6.2 Data analysis................................................................................................................................. 25 6.3 Ethnography and interpretation...................................................................................................... 27 7. Case studies of chronometric analysis of rhythm performances ............................................................ 27 Case study 1: Production of one rhythm by one performer ................................................................... 30 Case study 2: Simultaneous production of two rhythmic activities by one performer ............................ 34 Case Study 3: Coordination of rhythms between two performers.......................................................... 38 8. Appendix............................................................................................................................................ 41 A. The autocorrelation function........................................................................................................... 41 B. Sequential and hierarchical timer models ........................................................................................ 42 C. The relative phase of two event series ............................................................................................. 44 Notes on the authors ............................................................................................................................... 45 Abstract Entrainment, broadly defined, is a phenomenon in which two or more independent rhythmic processes synchronize with each other. To illuminate the significance of entrainment for various directions of music research and promote a nuanced understanding of the concept among ethnomusicologists, this publication opens with an exposition of entrainment research in various disciplines, from physics to linguistics and psychology, while systematically introducing basic concepts that are directly relevant to musical entrainment. Topics covered include consideration of self-synchrony and interpersonal synchrony in musical performance, humans’ innate propensities to entrain, the influence of cultural and personal factors on entrainment, the numerous functions of musical entrainment in individual health, socialization, and cultural identification, and a presentation of methodologies and analytical techniques. Finally, some case studies illustrating one methodological strand, that of chronometric analysis, exemplify how the application of the entrainment concept might lead to an understanding of music making and music perception as an integrated, embodied and interactive process. Clayton, Sager, and Will: In Time With The Music 2 ____________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction The aim of this publication is to stimulate research in ethnomusicology informed by the concept of entrainment, which describes the interaction and consequent synchronization of two or more rhythmic processes or oscillators. Entrainment as a concept has a considerable history - it was first identified by the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens in 1665 and has been applied widely in mathematics and in the physical, biological, and social sciences. It is a process that manifests in many ways, some of which involve human agency or cognition. Strangely though, it has had relatively little impact to date in studies of music, where it might be thought particularly relevant, and is only beginning to be seriously considered within ethnomusicology. This is, to our knowledge, the first publication to address the concept in detail from an ethnomusicological perspective.1 In music research, we have already seen an entrainment perspective adopted in the study of musical metre, particularly in the 1990s. Instead of looking for musical cues transmitted from performer to listener as the sole determinants of time and metre precepts, music psychologists have begun to apply an entrainment model in which rhythmic processes endogenous to the listener entrain to cues in the musical sound (Large and Kolen 1994). Although there is much to be done in this area, the entrainment model seems to reflect the cognitive processes much better than do previous models of metrical perception. Some recent work also points to new perspectives offered by the entrainment concept in the study of proto- musical behaviour in infants, and in the evolution of musical behaviour in the human species (Trevarthen 1999-2000, Merker 2000). We believe that this concept could have a particularly significant impact if applied to ethnomusicological research because it offers a new approach to understanding music making and music perception as an integrated, embodied and interactive process, and can therefore shed light on many issues central to ethnomusicological thought. Entrainment may be central to an ethnomusicological orientation for which performance and listening are the focus of interest. Such a development is likely to be more productive if researchers share an understanding of what the concept implies (as well as what its limitations might be); we offer this contribution to colleagues in that spirit. In later sections we discuss the relationship between entrainment and ethnomusicological research, and offer some suggestions regarding methods for investigation. Before that, however, it is important to establish what entrainment means and how other disciplines have characterised its main features. What follows comprises a summary overview of the concept of entrainment and its application in other fields, particularly the biological and social sciences (sections 2 and 3); some consideration of applications to date in music studies
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