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Psychoacoustics of Normal and Impaired with Applications Editor-in-Chief for Audiology Brad A. Stach, PhD Perception of Normal and Impaired Hearing with Audiology Applications

Jennifer J. Lentz, PhD 5521 Ruffin Road San Diego, CA 92123 e-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.pluralpublishing.com

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lentz, Jennifer J., author. Title: Psychoacoustics : perception of normal and impaired hearing with audiology applications / Jennifer J. Lentz. Description: San Diego, CA : Plural Publishing, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018028617| ISBN 9781597569897 (alk. paper) | ISBN 1597569895 (alk. paper) Subjects: | MESH: Auditory Perception — | Psychoacoustics | Hearing Loss, Sensorineural Classification: LCC QP461 | NLM WV 272 | DDC 612.8/5 — dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018028617 Contents

Introduction ix Acknowledgments xii Reviewers xiii

1 History 1 Objectives 1 Introduction 1 Early Investigation of Perception 1 The Origins of Psychoacoustics 3 The Advent of the Telephone 5 Auditory Assessment 7 References 11 2 Estimating Threshold in Quiet 13 Learning Objectives 13 Introduction 13 : Pure Tones and the 14 Physiological Representation of 20 Threshold of Human Hearing: MAP and MAF 25 Measuring the Threshold 31 Signal Detection Theory (SDT) 38 Summary and Take-Home Points 41 Exercises 41 References 43 3 Estimating Thresholds in (Masking) 45 Learning Objectives 45 Introduction 45 Acoustics: Noise and Filters 46 Physiological Factors 50 Introduction to Masking 52 The and the Auditory Filter 56 The Excitation Pattern 61 Psychophysical Tuning Curves and Suppression 65 Masking by Fluctuating 67 Masking and Sensorineural Hearing Loss 69 Clinical Implications of Masking 72 Summary and Take-Home Points 74 Exercises 75 References 76

v vi Psychoacoustics: Perception of Normal and Impaired Hearing with Audiology Applications

4 and the Perception of Intensity 79 Learning Objectives 79 Introduction 79 Acoustics: Intensity and the Decibel 80 Physiological Representation of Stimulus Level 81 Introduction to Measuring Loudness 83 Loudness and Intensity 84 Loudness and 88 Calculating Loudness 92 Reaction Time as a Measure of Loudness 93 Intensity Discrimination 96 Effects of Sensorineural Hearing Loss on Loudness 101 Summary and Take-Home Points 105 Exercises 105 References 107

5 temporal Processing 109 Learning Objectives 109 Introduction 109 Temporal Resolution: Gap Detection 111 Temporal Resolution: Amplitude Modulation Detection 120 Temporal Masking 124 Comparison of Temporal Processing Measures 126 Temporal Integration 127 Effects of Hearing Loss on Temporal Processing 131 Summary and Take-Home Points 138 Exercises 138 References 140

6 Pitch Perception 141 Learning Objectives 141 Introduction 141 Acoustics: Complex Tones 142 Theories of Pitch Perception 145 Pitch of Pure Tones: Subjective Measures 152 Pitch of Pure Tones: Frequency Discrimination 156 Mechanisms for Coding the Pitch of Pure Tones 158 Pitch of Complex Sounds 160 Importance of Pitch Perception in Everyday Listening 165 Pitch Perception in Listeners with SNHL 167 Summary and Take-Home Points 169 Exercises 169 References 171 Contents vii

7 hearing with Two 173 Learning Objectives 173 Introduction 173 Binaural Advantages to Detection and Discrimination 174 Localization in the Horizontal Plane: Acoustics 175 in the Horizontal Plane: Physiological Basis 180 Sound Localization in the Horizontal Plane: Perception 182 Sound Localization in the Median Plane 185 Lateralization 185 Binaural Unmasking 190 Impact of Hearing Loss on Binaural Hearing 196 Summary and Take-Home Points 199 Exercises 200 References 201

8 clinical Implications 203 Learning Objectives 203 Introduction 203 Consequences of Impaired Perception 204 Effects of Amplification Strategies on Perception 207 Influence of Psychoacoustics on Diagnostic Audiology 212 Summary and Take-Home Points 218 Exercises 218 References 219

Glossary 221 Index 227

Introduction

Notes on This Text presumed cochlear origin, and the term senso- rineural hearing loss will be used throughout I am writing this textbook after teaching psy- the text as such. chological acoustics (commonly referred to as The primary target audience is graduate psychoacoustics) to clinical audiology students students in audiology, who intend a clinical for over 15 years. Each year I have taught this career and need an of both course I have struggled to find a text appro- normal and impaired auditory perception. priate for these students. No doubt, there are Because the field of psychoacoustics has pro- excellent texts available on the topic of psycho- foundly influenced clinical audiology, this acoustics. However, all modern books on the book also discusses history of the two fields and topic cover only normal auditory perception clinical implications and applications of psy- and contain little to no review of perception choacoustics. Students studying experimental by listeners with hearing loss. Yet, I argue that , audio , engineering, these students, and those studying auditory and hearing may also find that this perception more generally, should have some book suits their needs. Notably, this text does exposure to the perceptual deficits imposed not assume that students have a strong back- by sensorineural hearing loss. Not only will ground in either acoustics or auditory physiol- having this information help clinical audi- ogy. However, because understanding both of ologists to better care for their patients, but these fields is important to fully understand studies evaluating perception in listeners with psychoacoustics and the physiological mecha- sensorineural hearing loss also have contrib- nisms responsible for the perception of sound, uted to our understanding of the mechanisms this text provides an overview of the necessary responsible for normal auditory perception. elements of acoustics and physiology, on an Consequently, this textbook provides a broad “as-needed” basis. overview of auditory perception in normal- The structure of the textbook differs hearing listeners, and each chapter includes from the other texts available on this topic. information on the effects that sensorineural Traditionally, texts generally present a chapter hearing loss has on perceptual abilities. on acoustics, one on auditory anatomy and When possible, this book will provide physiology, and sometimes a chapter on meth- mechanistic explanations for the psycho- odology before delving into chapters on indi- acoustical findings in terms of physiology. vidual topics within the realm of psychoacous- We will ask “why?” and “how?” with a goal tics. In contrast, this text takes an approach toward understanding what the auditory sys- similar to a problem-based approach in that tem is able to perceive and how the auditory each chapter presents self-contained infor- system achieves perception. The main focus of mation related to the acoustics, physiology, this text is healthy auditory perception. How- and methodologies as they apply to the spe- ever, as we work toward this goal, we will also cific topic being discussed. Naturally, certain evaluate the perceptual abilities of people with chapters may refer back to previous chapters sensorineural hearing loss. The focus here is for a review of certain information, but the on listeners with sensorineural hearing loss of degree to which this occurs is fairly limited.

ix x Psychoacoustics: Perception of Normal and Impaired Hearing with Audiology Applications

For the most part, each self-contained chapter topics. At the end of each chapter, there is a presents the necessary information for under- of exercises designed to develop critical standing the specific topic. Essentially each thinking about psychoacoustics and to assist chapter includes the following topics: students in learning to apply psychoacoustic information to the more general fields of audi- • Introduction to the topic and its importance ology and auditory perception. Together, these • Relevant acoustics materials should allow students to develop a • Important physiological studies deeper understanding of psychoacoustic top- • Perception by normal-hearing listeners ics and how those topics relate to hearing loss • Perception by listeners who have sensori- and audiological practice. neural hearing loss Finally, this textbook is not intended to provide a comprehensive overview of the large In some chapters, clinical applications are dis- variety of psychoacoustic studies or experi- cussed within the chapter, particularly those ments. Rather, it is intended to give students concepts that directly relate to primary audiol- sufficient information to understand how the ogy practice. However, the final chapter dis- achieves auditory perception, what the capa- cusses the perceptual consequences of sensori- bilities of the ear are, and how hearing loss influ- neural hearing loss and more advanced clinical ences that perception. It also provides students applications of psychoacoustics. with a foundation for further study in the area The self-contained organization allows to apply psychoacoustic principles to diagnostic students and faculty to select the areas of audiology and audiological rehabilitation. the most interest or relevance to the particu- lar course or student, and students have the option of either reviewing the relevant acous- Every Audiologist Is, at Some tics and physiology pertinent to the topic at Level, a Psychoacoustician hand, or not. This way, students do not need to review a full chapter on acoustics or anat- The fields of audiology and psychoacoustics are omy and physiology in order to obtain the intertwined. Audiometric testing originated necessary background for the specific topic. directly from the field of psychoacoustics, It also allows students a better opportunity and early audiologists and otologists worked to integrate material across the various fields closely with the early psychoacousticians in and to quickly determine which acoustic or developing tools for audiological assessment. physiological principles are most relevant for In some sense we can consider every audiolo- the subject being discussed. Because psycho- gist to be a psychoacoustician. Perhaps the acoustics is intimately integrated into clinical most obvious example of this is evident in the audiology, the first and final chapters illustrate — a behavioral assessment of audi- the deep connection between the two fields. tory abilities. The audiogram, which relates This text also emphasizes applied learn- the ability to detect a sound to the frequency ing, as actively engaging with course material of that sound, forms the core of audiological is both more effective and more efficient for assessment. Any audiologist who collects an learning that material. As such, ancillary mate- audiogram is relying on over 100 years of psy- rials, available online, are included for the use choacoustic knowledge and methodological of both instructors and students. These mate- development. In fact, the audiogram remains rials include in-class and laboratory exercises the most reliable and accurate method to to facilitate student engagement with course assess auditory sensitivity today, as physi- Introduction xi ological tests have not advanced enough to cally conducted in quiet) do not describe how adequately replace the audiogram. In fact, this well a patient perceives the acoustic charac- may never happen: Physiological assessment teristics of sound that are important to dif- does not measure hearing, but rather measures ferentiate between sounds or extract it from the representation of sound within the audi- . tory system. As a result, we continue to rely The audiogram is an historical assessment on patients’ reports of their to tool, developed in the early 1900s, originally make both scientific advancements and clini- used because we had limited knowledge of the cal decisions. ear, and we did not have access to technol- Although many audiologists routinely ogy that could easily generate and manipulate collect psychophysical data, the audiologist complex sounds in real time for audiological makes a very limited set of measurements on assessment. The recent century has repeat- perceptual abilities. Primary and common edly demonstrated that the audiogram does assessments include the audiogram, a mea- not reflect our multiple auditory perceptual surement of the recognition threshold abilities. The audiogram is critically important (SRT), and word recognition scores. However, for addressing site of lesion (whether a hearing these measurements do not characterize the loss is conductive, in the outer or middle ear, wide range of perceptual abilities that underlie or sensorineural) and is also widely used to the ability to communicate in everyday envi- guide fitting. However, this text ronments. Successful communication requires will illustrate that the variability in perceptual representation of sound intensity, frequency, deficits experienced by listeners with sensori- temporal characteristics, and information neural hearing loss is quite high and that the from the two ears. Deficits in any one of these audiogram does not provide a measurement of representations can lead to deficits in the abil- any other level of auditory perception besides ity to communicate in the variety of environ- detection. As such, measurement of perceptual ments encountered by humans. Consequently, abilities in conjunction with the audiogram we can easily argue that audiologists should may ultimately provide crucial and important more thoroughly assess various auditory per- information to an audiologist, who can then ceptions. A century of research tells us that the recommend the most appropriate hearing aid audiogram and associated speech tests (typi- algorithms for a specific patient. Acknowledgments

I would like to thank all of the students at my PhD mentor, Virginia Richards, for taking Indiana University who took my course on a chance 25 years ago on an engineering stu- psychoacoustics and taught me as much as I dent who knew nothing about experimental taught them (I hope). Some of those years were psychology and for giving me the foundation harder than others, but there is no doubt that for the content of this text. The contributions working with them over the years showed me of my postdoctoral advisor, Marjorie Leek, how to better communicate psychoacoustics who taught me the value of scholarship and material. I would also like to thank my clinical the impact of hearing loss on auditory percep- colleagues for their years of discussion on the tion, are also evident throughout this book. connection between psychoacoustics and audi- Last, but most definitely not least, I would like ology. Those conversations have allowed me to to thank my family and loved ones for their better apply the principles of psychoacoustics tireless support and patience. to clinical practice. I can only begin to thank

xii Reviewers

Plural Publishing, Inc. and the author would like to thank the following reviewers for taking the time to provide their valuable feedback during the development process:

Inyong Choi, PhD Alyssa R. Needleman, PhD Assistant Professor Clinical Director and Associate Professor Department of Communication Department of Audiology and Disorders Dr. Pallavi Patel College of Health Care University of Iowa Sciences Iowa City, Iowa Nova Southeastern University Fort Lauderdale, Florida Erin M. Ingvalson, PhD Assistant Professor Lauren A. Shaffer, PhD, CCC-A School of Communication Science and Associate Professor, AuD Program Director Disorders Department of Speech Pathology and Florida State University Audiology Tallahassee, Florida Ball State University Muncie, Indiana Bomjun J. Kwon, PhD Associate Professor Department of Hearing, Speech and Gallaudet University Washington, District of Columbia

xiii

1 History

Learning Objectives

Upon completing this chapter, students will be able to:

• List the main pioneers in psychoacoustics • Describe how the history of psychoacoustics has influenced the field of audiology • Explain the history of audiometric threshold measurement

Introduction This chapter reviews the origins of mod- ern psychoacoustics by covering: Knowledge of the association between sound and its perception has been around for many • The roots of psychophysical measurement centuries. However, the primary roots of psy- • The development of psychoacoustics choacoustics date back to the early 1700s, • The role of when the philosophers of the time began to lay • Connecting psychoacoustics, Bell labs, and the foundation for the field of experimental audiology psychology, which studied human behavior. • The history of the audiogram This chapter provides an historical perspec- tive of psychoacoustics by first presenting a history of experimental psychology and then Early Investigation discussing how those developments led to the of Perception fields of psychoacoustics and audiology, which were, in some ways, developed together. For The idea that one could evaluate perception this chapter, I have particularly relied on the using physical stimuli has been around for publications by Boring (1961) on the history centuries. However, it wasn’t until the early of experimental psychology, Schick’s (2004) 1800s when experimental science was suf- and Yost’s (2015) articles on the history of ficiently advanced to produce reliable and psychoacoustics, and Jerger’s (2009) book on systematic assessment of perception and its the history of audiology. relationship to the physical world. Hence, the

1 2 Psychoacoustics: Perception of Normal and Impaired Hearing with Audiology Applications

field of was born. At this time, Our discussion of the origin of psycho- scientists were interested in the sense of hear- logical measurement should begin with Ernst ing, but they also evaluated the senses of Heinrich Weber (pronounced Vay-burr; 1795– touch and vision. Many of the techniques 1878), although he was not the first to con- used to study auditory perception were nect observation of perception with a physi- originally developed for the purposes of cal stimulus. Weber, however, was the first evaluating other sensory modalities. Some to develop a systematic method of inquiry techniques, particularly the scientific instru- evaluating the relationship between the mag- ments but also the measurement methods, nitude of physical stimuli and their associated were designed specifically for the assess- sensation or perception. Although his work ment of hearing. In a reciprocal relationship, was conducted primarily in the areas of touch those other disciplines adopted and modified and vision, in 1834 he discovered what is now the tools that were originally created for the known as Weber’s law (see Chapter 4). He hearing sciences. The purpose of this chapter noticed that, for pressure on the skin, the JND is to give the reader a brief overview of prin- in weight was about 1/30th of the weight. ciples of psychoacoustics from an historic view Further evaluation has demonstrated that this and to illustrate how these discoveries have principle has evidence from many other sen- impacted modern audiology. sory modalities, including hearing and vision. As we travel back in time to the early One of Weber’s students, Gustav Fech- 1800s, we observe the development of the ner (1801–1887), formalized Weber’s work field of psychophysics and more specifically, with . He noted, in particular, psychoacoustics, which involved the evalua- that there was a way to measure the magni- tion of the perception of sound. These early tude of sensation. Fechner’s work was revo- investigators asked questions such as “under lutionary: his claim was that the conscious what parameters can humans: perception of a stimulus is related to size of the stimulus in the physical world and that • detect stimuli?” Measurements in this vein perception and physical stimuli are, in some usually involve manipulating various stimu- sense, interchangeable. This idea formed the lus parameters (like frequency and ampli- foundation for all modern psychophysics tude) and measuring the absolute threshold, and opened the door to the measurement of the lowest stimulus level that evokes a perception. Fechner coined the term “psy- sensation. chophysics” and published his experiments • differentiate between two stimuli?” These on sensory measurements in his 1860 book experiments measure the just noticeable Elements of Psycho­, where he described difference (JND), also known as the dif- psychophysical methods and psychophysical ference limen, defined as the amount a relationships. His book marked the beginning stimulus must be changed on a particular of experimental psychology because it brought dimension before the change is detectable. sensation and perception, otherwise • describe the magnitude of the stimulus or to be unmeasurable, under the requirements the difference between stimuli?” In these of measurement. His three methods of mea- experiments, the loudness, the pitch, or the suring absolute thresholds and differential of sounds is measured. thresholds are still fundamental in modern • recognize sounds?” Here, experiments adopt psychoacoustic measurement. He developed meaningful stimuli, and we measure the abil- the method of limits (which, in modified ity to identify musical instruments, words in form, is the method used to measure an speech, and even environmental sounds. audiogram), the method of adjustment, and 1. History 3 the method of constant stimuli, techniques Georg Ohm (1789–1854), which applied the that are discussed in Chapter 2. In some cases, principles of developed by modifications to these methods have yielded Fourier (1768–1830). This theory stated that efficient measurements of perception. We use the ear conducts a form of Fourier analysis, variants of all of these procedural methodolo- which allows complex sounds to be divided gies in psychoacoustic measurement today. into sinusoidal components. In order to His view that perception and physics are con- test this spectral theory of pitch, Helmholtz nected is a foundation of our current practice: developed the innovative Helmholtz In the fields of psychoacoustics and audiol- (shown in Figure 1–1). By varying the size of ogy, we manipulate sound and measure the the neck opening and the volume of the cav- perceptual consequences. Without his seminal ity, the Helmholtz resonator could produce contributions to the study of perception, diag- sounds of different . nostic audiology and psychoacoustics would Yet, August Seebeck (1805–1849) de- be very different fields. vised a clever experiment using a rotary siren (one of which is illustrated in Figure 1–2) that demonstrated inconsistencies in Helmholtz’s The Origins of Psychoacoustics

Despite the impact that Fechner and Weber have had on the field, neither conducted experiments in hearing. Rather, (1821–1894), made some of the first psychoacoustic observations in the audi- tory modality. His book, , published in 1863, served as the foundational text on auditory perception for decades. This book, along with Fechner’s, allowed the eval- Figure 1–1. A Helmholtz resonator. From uation of hearing to be more than scientific Helmholtz (1863). observation. Rather, experimentation allowed auditory perception to be quantified under systematic evaluation. We could now connect with the perception of the physical dimensions. One important aspect of Helmholtz’s view of sensory systems was the idea that phys- iology was the basis of perception. His views have greatly influenced modern psychoacous- tics, which commonly strives to determine the limits of auditory perception as well as to dis- cern the physiological mechanisms responsi- ble for auditory perception. Helmholtz’s view laid the groundwork for physiological models, some of which were proposed in the mid-1800s. For example, Helmholtz’s theory of pitch Figure 1–2. One of Seebeck’s sirens. From was based on the “acoustic law” developed by Koenig (1889). 4 Psychoacoustics: Perception of Normal and Impaired Hearing with Audiology Applications

spectral theory of pitch. Seebeck’s results posed and earphones had not been developed at substantial problems for Helmholtz’s theories that time. While Fechner developed some and were bitterly disputed at the time (Turner, techniques to measure perception in the mid- 1977). Unfortunately for Seebeck, he passed 1800s, the devices to manipulate and measure away almost a century before his experimental sound levels were not built until the 1920s. results were reconsidered and formalized into Controlling and characterizing the intensity of a theory by J. F. Schouten (1940). Schouten’s a sound was even more difficult than manipu- residue theory suggested pitch perception could lating frequency or spatial location. For exam- also be based on a temporal representation (in ple, changing the length of strings, altering contrast to the spectral representation pro- the properties of materials, or changing size posed by Helmholtz) of sound. Variants of of a tuning fork could manipulate frequency. Helmholtz’s and Schouten’s theories are still A Helmholtz resonator or a siren, similar to discussed today and both form the founda- that developed by Seebeck, could also be used tion of modern models of pitch perception to generate sounds with specific frequencies. (see Chapter 6). On the other hand, techniques at that time Lord Rayleigh (James William Strutt, did not allow manipulation of intensity with- 1843–1919) was strongly influenced by the out varying the frequency of a sound. work of Helmholtz. His book The Theory of Measurements of the auditory percep- Sound also discussed acoustic problems using tion of intensity were therefore somewhat mathematics. This work laid the groundwork restricted and were extremely imprecise. Otol- for future study linking acoustics with per- ogists quantified hearing loss by using tuning ception. Rayleigh was also keenly interested forks and made measurements of how long a in the ability to localize sounds in space. He patient could hear a sound or how far away an proposed that two acoustic cues are used for examiner could be before a patient could not sound localization: intensity differences and hear a sound. Due to the limitations in achiev- time differences across the ears. The intensity ing both accurate and precise intensity levels, differences were produced by the presence of early scientists focused their endeavors more the head in the sound field, which can effec- on pitch and sound localization than other tively block sound transmission. The time acoustic quantities. differences were produced by the differential Yet, one of Helmholtz’s students, Wil- travel times of sound across the ears. This helm Wundt (1832–1920), did not let these theory, called the Duplex Theory of Sound limitations stymie his interest in sound per- Localization, has been validated numerous ception and, in particular, the perception of times (see Chapter 7). sound intensity. Notably, Wundt developed Although the investigations presented many instruments that allowed him to mea- above are not exhaustive, these representative sure the perception of sound in a controlled studies illustrate that the earliest psychoacous- way. His sound pendulum and falling pho- tic work was conducted on the perception of nometer allowed him to alter sound intensity pitch and space. Little evaluation of loudness without changing the frequency characteristics and its relationship to intensity was con- of a sound (Schick, 2004). Examples of these ducted. If we pause to consider the environ- devices are shown in Figures 1–3 and 1–4. ment that these pioneers were working in, we Both of these devices functioned by dropping can gain a better understanding of why the an object that struck a panel. The height of early work was conducted in these primary the object would determine the intensity of areas. Technology such as sound level meters the sound generated when it hit the panel. 1. History 5

work, published in his writings Principles of Physiological Psychology (1873–1874) came to be one of the more important texts in psychol- ogy, and he founded the first formal labora- tory for psychological research in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. Wundt is considered the “father of experimental psychology,” as he treated psychology as separate from biology or philosophy, and was the first to call himself a psychologist. His influence was far reaching and has had an impact on all areas of experi- Figure 1–3. a sound pendulum used by Wundt. mental psychology. From Spindler and Hoyer (1908).

The Advent of the Telephone

Although Wundt was able to control the sound intensity in his experiments, the introduc- tion of telephone receivers and sound level meters made measurements of the perception of sound intensity more feasible. ’s invention formed the basis of the technology that allows us to precisely and accurately control and manipulate sound today. Along with Western Electric, its precur- sor company, Bell Telephone Labs (commonly called Bell Labs), focused on the research and development of telephone-associated equip- ment. The contributions of Bell Labs after its formation in 1925, in particular, have been integral to the fields of psychoacoustics and audiology. Much of their work involved the Figure 1–4. A falling phonometer used by development of technologies that are now Wundt. From Zimmerman (1903). used to assess and to characterize hearing. During this time frame, we also saw the development of the decibel as a unit to He also developed a sound hammer and a describe sound level. The unit, of course, was sound interrupter, which allowed the quanti- named to honor A. G. Bell, who passed away fication of intensity and time, among a variety in 1922. Development of the decibel has had of other devices. a profound impact on our ability to charac- Wundt performed some of the earliest terize hearing, including the use of suffixes quantitative experiments evaluating why we such as dB SPL ( level), dB A are able to hear tones of different levels and (A weighted), and dB HL (hearing level), all of why some combinations of musical notes are which are used to describe the level of sound appealing to the ear and some are not. His in various ways. 6 Psychoacoustics: Perception of Normal and Impaired Hearing with Audiology Applications

Some of the most seminal work in the vey Fletcher, a research engineer at Western field of psychoacoustics originated at Bell Electric and later Bell Labs from 1916 to Labs. Examples include: 1949. Fletcher made some of the greatest con- tributions to both psychoacoustics and audi- • Wegel and Lane (1924), who made the first ology during his tenure there and was also a quantitative measurements on masking, founding member of the Acoustical Society of the process by which one sound influences America, one of the premier organizations in the ability to detect another sound (see support of acoustics. His contributions to the Chapter 3) field were widespread and influential. • Sivian and White (1933) measured some Remarkably, he, along with R. L. Wegel, of the first calibrated auditory detection developed the first commercial audiometer, thresholds and compared measurements the Western Electric Model 1-A audiometer made over with those obtained (Fletcher, 1992), which was the size of a large in the free field (see Chapter 2) cabinet and therefore was not practical. Yet, • Fletcher and Munson (1933), who, along none of the other audiometers in use at the with Steinberg, made the earliest mea- time were practical either. For example, Cor- surements of equal loudness contours (see dia Bunch, a psychologist at the University of Chapter 4) Iowa, built the first audiometer developed in • Steinberg, Montgomery, and Gardner the United States, but he and his colleagues (1940) conducted large-scale measure- were the only ones to use it. Fletcher and ments of auditory detection abilities across Wegel’s audiometer, on the other hand, was a a representative group of people living in commercial audiometer and sold for roughly the United States. $1500, which would be about $25,000 in • Fletcher (1940) formalized theories mask- modern currency. Because of the steep price ing (see Chapter 3). tag and the inability of portability, Fletcher and Wegel developed the first commercial The investigations mentioned here do and portable audiometer, the Western Electric not provide a comprehensive list of the work Model 2-A, soon afterward. conducted at Bell Labs, but they represent Yet, developing the audiometer was some of the more important studies con- only one of Fletcher’s many achievements. As ducted at the time. Their work was innovative, Allen (1996) describes, Fletcher was the first inventive, and impactful. Their investigations to accurately measure auditory threshold, the have proven to be foundational on the topics first to measure the relationship between loud- of threshold, loudness, and masking. Note in ness and intensity and loudness and frequency. particular, however, that the investigations at Further, he developed the model of masking in that time did not involve other auditory per- application still today. His experiments led to cepts, such as pitch and spatial hearing. Such the modern-day audiogram and contributed experiments were not as relevant to the devel- to our knowledge of loudness (discussed in opment of the telephone, where engineers Chapter 4). His two books Speech and Hear- were evaluating the limits of hearing to estab- ing, published in 1929, and Speech and Hear- lish the constraints necessary for telephone ing in Communication, published in 1953, receivers and associated equipment. were considered authoritative at the time and, Although all of the investigators listed in many cases, remain so today. Fletcher also above deserve credit and recognition, it is coined the term “audiogram” and developed worth pointing out the contributions of Har- the unit of dB hearing level, the decibel met- 1. History 7 ric in use today to describe hearing abilities as the maximum audibility) were plotted in (Jerger, 1990). If that were not enough, he also sound pressure units, such as dynes/cm2. It made substantial contributions to our knowl- was fairly straightforward to use a logarithmic edge of and developed a axis at the time, based on the works of Weber tool (originally called the Articulation Index, and Fechner, and was consistent with engineer- now revised to the Speech Intelligibility Index ing tradition. Although the decibel was not in [SII]) that allows one to calculate the amount use yet, plotting auditory thresholds on a loga- of speech information available in different rithmic scale was very similar to the modern frequency bands. The SII is able to robustly practice of plotting thresholds in . predict intelligibility scores for certain speech An illustration of Wegel’s representation materials and acoustic environments (ANSI- is shown in Figure 1–5, which plots both audi- 3.5, 2017) and is now used in industrial appli- tory threshold (minimum audibility) and the cations and to assess the impact of hearing loss threshold of feeling (maximum audibility), on speech perception. measured in more than 40 people. Wegel de- fined the range between the minimum audi- bility and maximum audibility curves as the Auditory Assessment sensation area. Wegel’s sensation area had an elliptical shape because both the minimum During the early-mid 1900s, we saw a revo- and maximum audibility curves were fre- lution in the way that hearing was tested. quency dependent. Today, we would call the Fletcher, along with his colleague Wegel, col- sensation area the dynamic range of hearing. laborated with an otologist, Edmund Prince From Wegel’s data, we see that the dynamic Fowler (1872–1966), and began their work range of hearing was frequency dependent and in measuring hearing thresholds. With regard was the largest in the mid-frequency range to assessing hearing, these scientists evaluated (e.g., about 500–6000 Hz). absolute threshold (the lowest detectable sound At that time, Wegel and Fowler also were level) and quantified the highest level of hearing conducting measurements of hearing in listen- in terms of the threshold of feeling, which they ers with hearing loss. The auditory thresholds called maximum audibility. Along the way, they of a listener with hearing loss, reported by also developed the tools and units with which Wegel (1922), are also plotted in Figure 1–5. to quantify the threshold and developed the We observe that this patient’s thresholds were graphical depictions we use today. higher than the minimum audibility curve Thus, Fowler and Wegel developed what and fell in the middle of the sensation range. we now call the audiogram. At the time, it Using data such as these, Wegel and Fowler was standard to quantify frequency in cycles considered that there might be an easier way per second (note: the unit was not estab- to depict the amount of hearing loss in which lished until 1930), and at the time, Wegel had the dynamic range of hearing was taken into already been plotting frequency in octaves, account. Wegel and Fowler observed that hear- rather than using a linear scale. However, there ing thresholds could be quantified as a percent- was no standard for depicting the level (y) axis, age of the dynamic range at each frequency. and this was a topic hot for discussion. Two They counted the number of logarithmic steps issues were of interest: the units to be used between the minimum and maximum audi- and the scale on which the thresholds should bility curves and then counted the number of be plotted. At the time, auditory thresholds steps between minimum audibility and the (as well as other auditory measurements, such patient’s threshold. Dividing these two values