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The Hopi People and Drought

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The Hopi People and Drought THE HOPI PEOPLE AND DROUGHT: OBSERVATIONS, ADAPTATIONS, AND STEWARDSHIP IN A SACRED LAND by Elizabeth Kennedy Rhoades A dissertation submitted to Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Baltimore, MD September 2013 © 2013 Elizabeth Kennedy Rhoades All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT Background: The American Southwest is experiencing a prolonged drought, which climate projections indicate will worsen in severity in the upcoming decades. Native communities in the region, including the Hopi Tribe, are particularly hard-hit by drought, as their cultural practices and traditional food sources are tied to the land. Yet the same factors that contribute to disparate impacts on Native communities are also the reason why these communities are often more aware of ecological change than those living in urban environments. The Hopi practice dry farming of corn, a method that relies exclusively on precipitation and runoff rather than irrigation. However, farming and other aspects of traditional Hopi life have been endangered by drought. Purpose: In partnership with the Tribe, this research sought to understand Hopi tribal members’ explanations for the causes of drought, to catalog Hopi people’s observations of drought, to describe the negative impacts of drought, and to document current and proposed adaptation strategies for lessening those impacts. This study is the first to explore climate-related public health impacts among an American Indian population in the Southwest. Method: Over nine weeks, I conducted 35 in-depth interviews with Hopi elders, government employees, farmers, gardeners, ranchers and others on the topic of drought. Interviews were supplemented with site visits, observations of community meetings, and collection of relevant documents. An iterative process of analysis identified key themes regarding climate observations, impacts, and adaptation strategies. ii Findings: Participants readily provided their observations of drought conditions, including diminishing rainfall and snowfall, drying springs, and a decline in vegetation quality. Such conditions have been negatively affecting many aspects of traditional Hopi life, most notably farming, gardening, and foraging for edible plants. However, rather than being passive in the face of such challenges, many participants were implementing individual-level adaptation strategies in order to adjust to adverse conditions. Likewise, participants proposed adaptation strategies that could be implemented at the community-, organizational-, or governmental-level in order to alleviate drought-related stresses on cultural activities. Most participants named both physical and spiritual reasons for current drought conditions, conveying an ecological worldview that emphasizes the connection between humans and the natural environment. Doctoral Advisor: Katherine Clegg Smith, Ph.D. Readers: Peter Winch, M.D., M.P.H. (Chair) Janice Bowie, Ph.D., M.P.H. Benjamin Zaitchik, Ph.D. Alternates: Margaret Ensminger, Ph.D. Jon Vernick, J.D., M.P.H. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Throughout the course of this research I have traveled to a new place that has become like my second home, met people who have become great friends, and learned a great deal—about my research topic; about life, from my wise participants; and about myself. I hope that these acknowledgments can convey my deep gratitude to the people whose time, emotional and logistical support, and confidence in me enabled me to complete this research. This research would not have been possible without the collaboration of the Hopi Tribe. In particular, the Hopi Department of Natural Resources and the Hopi Cultural Preservation Office were instrumental in shaping the research proposal and in supervising the project as it was carried out. Clayton Honyumptewa, Director of the Hopi Department of Natural Resources, kindly provided oversight. I am also especially indebted to Leigh Kuwanwisiwma, Director of the Hopi Cultural Preservation Office, whose guidance and involvement in the project was invaluable, and who moreover made me feel very welcome and included during my stays in Hopiland. Some of my favorite memories from Hopiland (hopefully to be repeated!) are of line dancing to music played by Leigh’s excellent band, Sunfire. Additionally, I would like to thank Cultural Preservation Office staff Lee Wayne Lomayestewa, Sue Kuyvaya, and Stewart Koyiyumptewa for treating me as an old friend even when I was a new one, and Terry Morgart for his thoughtful review of my research proposal. I am also grateful to Max Taylor and Matt Livingston for the insight they provided in phone conversations during the development of my proposal, and to the Cultural Resources Advisory Task Team (CRATT) for the wisdom shared with iv me at the onset of the project. Most importantly, I would like to express my profound gratitude to all of the participants, who took the time to share their stories, their hopes, their concerns, and their considerable knowledge. It has always been my goal that this final product be worthy of the exceptional insight that they shared with me. This research began to take shape after a meeting with Mike Crimmins, Dan Ferguson, and Alison Meadow, all of the University of Arizona, whose own important work with the Hopi Tribe inspired me. Their enthusiasm, energy, and guidance helped me solidify my research aims and continued to bolster me throughout the project. Their trust in me moved this project from a dream into reality, and for that I am deeply grateful. Living in Hopiland during my research was crucial to the quality of the final product; therefore, I would like to extend sincere thanks to Julia Powers, Kathleen Norton, and Jane Oski for their assistance in finding a place for me to stay, and to Vanessa Medina and Maria Portillo who very generously opened their respective homes. I couldn’t have asked for better housemates. Back in Baltimore, I would like to acknowledge the hard work, patience, and encouragement of my advisor, Kate Smith. Her intellectual and logistical input was critical at every stage of this process. She supported me when I proposed a project that pushed the boundaries of public health, was always available for questions and discussion, and carefully read draft after draft of these chapters. Kate’s commitment to advising has helped me achieve my goal, and I have learned so much from her. I would v also like to thank my committee chair, Peter Winch, for his early interest in my project topic and for his contribution to its theoretical underpinnings. His questions and suggestions have always challenged me to think about the topic and my findings in new ways. Janice Bowie has been an important resource for responsible research in partnership with communities, and always a buoying presence. Benjamin Zaitchik’s expertise in climate change has ensured that I retained a strong grounding in the causal factors underlying the ecological change that is being witnessed in the Southwest. Thanks are also due to my committee alternates, Margaret Ensminger and Jon Vernick, as well as to the indefatigable Barbara Diehl, whose patient assistance with the logistics of being a graduate student ensured that I always filled out the right forms and managed never to miss a programmatic deadline. My sincere appreciation also goes to Deana Wagner and Danielle Tsingine for their early advice on this project and for contributing to my education about Native issues through events organized by the student group Native Circle at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Support from the Sommer Scholars Program, Doctoral Distinguished Research Awards from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Department of Health, Behavior and Society, and a Dissertation Enhancement Award from the Center for Qualitative Studies in Health and Medicine made this research possible. Wonderful friends helped me through this process: Katrina Berg, Lisa Lagassé, Erin Mead, Morgan Philbin, Melissa Poulsen, Rachana Sikka, Namrita Singh, Rupali Limaye- Slusher, Amber Summers, Christina Sun, and Ciara Zachary. Study dates, study breaks, vi encouragement, and lots of laughter with these lovely people lifted my spirits and motivated me. I would also like to thank my dear friends who have provided support across the miles, most especially Michelle Meehan, Neal Mhaskar, Lauren Raab, and Regina Rossi. In addition, I would like to convey my gratitude to Jean Armbruster at the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health. She was my first real boss after college, and working for her solidified my conviction that public health was to be my career path. Her mentorship was a guiding light for me then and has continued to be ever since. Finally, I would like to thank my family. My grandparents have always believed in me and provided moral support. My sister, Olivia, has always been my dearest friend and co- conspirator. Her energy, enthusiasm, and intellectual curiosity motivate me—as I told our high school principal, she’s really the smart one in the family! I hope that I am as supportive of her as she has been of me as she completes her PhD in marine ecology. Above all, I would like to thank my parents, Janet and Gary, who have always encouraged me to challenge myself and whose confidence in me bolsters me wherever I go. I have been lucky in many areas of my life, but undoubtedly my greatest stroke of luck was being born to two such loving, intellectually curious, and compassionate people whose commitment to each other is matched only by their commitment to Olivia and me. Through them I gained an appreciation for new places, different cultures, and people whose lives were different from and yet also similar to mine. With unconditional love, support, advice, and countless pep talks, they helped me through this challenging process. They have always reminded me that the only real failure is failing to try. In every stage of vii this project I tried my best, and it has been one of the most rewarding experiences of my life.
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