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UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I LIBRARY "FOR GOD, HOME, AND COUNTRY": THE WOMAN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION AND REFORM EFFORTS IN MEllI JAPAN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'IIN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY MAY 2003 By Elizabeth A. Dom Dissertation Committee: Sharon A. Minichiello, Chairperson Cedric B. Cowing Albert Craig Harry J. Lamley Patricia G. Steinhoff Paul Varley © Copyright by Elizabeth A. Dom 2003 iii To my parents, Jacob and Carole Dom, and my husband, Keith Lublin, for their love, support, and beliefin my abilities as a historian IV ABSTRACT This dissertation focuses on the organizational development ofthe Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in Meiji Japan and on the activities its middle-class members undertook to achieve moral and social reform. It argues that the women who joined the society felt a great sense of duty as Japanese to promote national progress and that they considered widespread acceptance oftheir reform agenda and the Christian faith essential to Japan's advancement. These mutually reinforcing motivations informed their activism and led them to assume a dynamic role in trying to define social problems and guide public and private behavior. In developing this argument, this dissertation reveals that the members of the WCTU did not compromise their beliefs and principles to accommodate the govern­ ment's imperialistic ambitions and program to mold a loyal and patriotic citizenry. Instead, they attempted to harness the power ofthe state and the imperial institution to further their alms. This dissertation makes extensive use ofWCTU publications and writings by members to support this argument. It first proceeds chronologically with a three-chapter history of the WCTU's establishment and growth during the Meiji period. Particular foci in this over­ view include the impact ofWorld WCTU missionaries onthe formation ofan organizational structure, conflicts among Japanese women over the agenda to be pursued, and activities members undertook to expand the union and arouse interest in their reform principles. The remaining three chapters follow topical lines ofanalysis. Chapters four and five provide, v respectively, detailed discussions ofselect components ofthe WCTU's anti-prostitution and temperance campaigns. Chapter six addresses the nature of members' reverence for the imperial institution and outreach during the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. Blending description of specific activities with analysis, these chapters illustrate how intertwined members' patriotism and sense of national duty were with their religious and reform fervor. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract. v Introduction 1 Chapter 1: The Founding ofthe WCTU in Japan .15 The Early Decades ofProtestant Christianity in Japan .15 American Women's Temperance Activism and the Origins ofthe WWCTU 19 Mary Clement Leavitt and the Introduction ofthe WCTU to Japan 27 Iwamoto Yoshiharu and the Organization ofthe Tokyo WCTU .35 Chapter 2: The Tumultuous Early Years ofthe Tokyo WCTU: 1886-1892 .46 WomenReformers 46 The Initial Flourish ofActivity .51 The Fight for Ideological Control Between Yajima Kajiko and Sasaki Toyoju 60 Escalating Tensions and Rising Criticism 74 The Tokyo WCTU: Divided and Weakened 79 Chapter 3: The Organization and Development ofthe JWCTU: 1892-1912 89 Mary Allen West and the Establishment ofthe JWCTU 89 The Rise and Then Ebb ofthe JWCTU inthe Mid-1890s 99 Efforts to Strengthen the JWCTU with the Help ofResident Missionary Women 110 Clara Parrish andthe Rejuvenation ofthe WCTU inJapan 115 The JWCTUinthe Last Decade ofthe Meiji Period 125 Chapter4: The FightAgainstProstitution 129 An Overview ofLicensed Prostitution in Japan and "ModermzatlOn . ".IIIEarly MeIJI... .. 129 Calls for the Regulation ofJapanese Prostitutes Overseas 135 Oppositionto the LicensedQuarters 141 Rescuing the Poorandthe Fallen 152 Chapter 5: Agitating for a Sober Society 165 A BriefHistoryofAlcohol Productionand ConsumptioninJapan 165 The Origins ofthe Temperance Movement 172 Arguments in FavorofTemperance 177 Outreachto Youth 179 Temperance Workatthe FifthNational Industrial Exposition 188 vii Chapter 6: Imperial Loyalty and Patriotic Service JWCTU-Style 197 Reform and Reverence for the Imperial Family Combined 197 The Promotion ofPeaceandJust War 202 The Sino-Japanese War andJWCTUOutreach 208 Providing Comfort and Promoting Reform during the Russo-Japanese War 211 The ControversyOverSending Bibles to Those in Uniform 218 Epilogue .225 Bibliography 232 viii INTRODUCTION In early 1902, the Japan Woman's Christian Temperance Union (JWCTU) initiated a petition campaign to abolish the age-old custom ofrewarding meritorious deeds with gold, silver, or wooden sake cups.' The petition was sent to members ofthe House ofPeers along with a chart that showed a direct correlation in Japan between increases in sake production and a greater incidence ofbankruptcy, child abandonment, suicide, and roadside starvation. The petition's author referred to this empirical evidence as proofthat drinking "[dissipated] the energy ofthe people and [squandered] national resources.'" She continued that it is human nature to be sure to use an imperial gift as is the intent behind the emperor's giving ofa present. With a sake cup, the recipient will accept it and, in order to publicize the gift, will certainly invite friends and family, throw a grand banquet, and express thanks with the cup itself. 3 'With this petition, the JWCTU followed the example ofthe male Tokyo Temperance Society, which had submitted a far lengthier appeal four years earlier. Japan Evangelist 6, no. 3 (March 1899): 84-86. '''Shohai haishi no seigan" [The petition to ban prize cups], Fujin shimpo[Woman's herald], no. 58 (25 February 1902): 4. The JWCTU often relied on Christian politicians in the Meiji Diet to submit its petitions. Who interceded with the appeal regarding ceremonial cups is unclear. So is the reason why the union chose the House ofPeers. Its greater power vis-a-vis the House ofRepresentatives may have influenced that decision. ~Ibid., 5. The entire petition is reprinted in Nihon Kirisutokyo Fujin Kyofiikai, ed., Nihon Kirisutokyo Fujin KyiifiJlwi hyakunenshi [A one hundred-year history ofthe Japan Woman's Christian Temperance Union] (Tokyo: Domesu Shuppan, 1986), 193-95. Here­ after referred to as the Hyakunenshi. 1 That drunkenness and harm to individuals and, by extension, society should result from a gift, ostensibly bestowed to recognize service performed for the sake ofpublic welfare and the nation, struck the authoras "absurd." She urged the petition's readers to arrange for more "appropriate" awards, although she stopped short ofidentifYing what she deemed suitable. This 1902 campaign was merely one component ofthe JWCTU's wide-ranging program to reform public and private behavior during the Meiji period. The organization's statement ofpurpose in 1899 alludes to just how broad the objectives ofthat program were. It reads: "This society aims to expand work to end drinking and smoking, to reform social customs, morals, education, health, and general evils, and to promote the welfare and happiness ofall ofsociety.'>4 In pursuit ofthese multifarious goals, members urged church leaders to use only unfermented wine for Holy Communion, supported a bill to ban underage smoking, opposed the participation of geisha in state ceremonies and public festivals, and operated several homes where former prostitutes and destitute women could learn an "honorable" means of self-support. They also distributed flowers and Scripture cards to hospitals, offered mothers childcare instruction, and annually submitted a petition to the Diet calling for revision of specific clauses in the civil and criminal codes that discriminated against women and contravened the principle ofmonogamy. Focusing on the WCTU in Japan, this dissertation examines the activities ofthe society's middle-class members as agents for moral and social reform during the Meiji period. The above-mentioned appeal to the House ofPeers typified this reform activism and serves as a good stepping stone for introducing one ofthe central questions thatguides this examination. 4Pujin shimpo, no. 25 (20 May 1899): 29. 2 Namely, what motivated the JWCTU's members to advocate a ban on the giving of ceremonial sake cups? Or, to rephrase this question more broadly, why did Japanese women become involved inthe WCTU in the Meiji period, why did they pursue the reforms they did, and what did they hope to accomplish? The petition's reference to drink as depleting people's energies and wasting the nation's resources provides a clue to the answers. JWCTU members felt a keen sense ofduty as Japanese to further the country's progress, as did most oftheir countrymen and women, Christian or otherwise. Japan's 1853 opening by Commodore Matthew Perry and the country's subsequent subjugation by unequal treaties with the United States, Holland, Russia, England, and France had awakened Japan to the tremendous military and economic superiority ofthe West. The desire to achieve a position ofequality with these powers engendered national projects epitomized in the 1870s by the slogans "fukoku kyOhei" ["rich country and strong army"] and "bunmei kaika" ["civilization and enlightenment"]. At the heart ofthese catch phrases lay the beliefthat the West stood atthe apex ofcivilization and thatonly by modernizing, i.e., Westernizing, couldJapanattain the economic prosperity
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