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Viking Magians in Arabic Sources from Al-Andalus: Revisiting the Use of Al-Majūs in Muslim Spain

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Viking Magians in Arabic Sources from Al-Andalus: Revisiting the Use of Al-Majūs in Muslim Spain Viking Magians in Arabic Sources from al-Andalus: Revisiting the use of al-majūs in Muslim Spain Karl Farrugia Master's thesis in Viking and Medieval Studies VMS4190 (60 credits) Spring 2020 Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies (ILN), University of Oslo ii iii Summary The Arabic word majūs, while initially used as an exonym for Zoroastrians in the Middle East, was used in al-Andalus, medieval Muslim Spain, for a variety of people. It became best known, however, as the appellation used by Andalusi for the Viking parties attacking the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries. Previous attempts at explaining the use of majūs for Scandinavians produced varied conclusions. Mikel de Epalza deems it to be legal jargon, while Omeljan Pritsak touted a Celtic origin for the word. The theory that has garnered most recognition is Arne Melvinger’s, who suggests that it was given to Scandinavians due to a perceived similarity between their cremation ceremonies and Zoroastrian cults of fire. The word retained a firm connection to Zoroastrians in the Middle East. Zoroastrians, while accepted as a protected people, ahl al-dhimma, alongside Christians and Jews, and thus allowed to practice their religion within Islamic lands, were still regarded as ‘second-class’ dhimmīs (members of ahl al-dhimma) due to their perceived polytheism, idolatry and lack of holy scripture. The negative view of Zoroastrians gave majūs a negative connotation and was used as a term of abuse against peoples, religions or other Islamic sects, comparing them to Zoroastrians. In al-Andalus, the connection to Zoroastrianism was lost, and majūs underwent a semantic widening to mean ‘pagan.’ Scandinavians, then, were only one of the myriad groups Andalusis called majūs. This pejoration has a parallel in Greek and Latin literature, where mágos/magus underwent a similar process, whereby its use for Persian priests transformed into a variety of sorcerers and magical practitioners. The hybrid culture of al-Andalus, where Arabic-, Latin/Romance- and Hebrew-speaking populations coexisted and exchanged ideas and vocabulary allowed majūs, already carrying connotations of idolatry, to widen its semantic range. The dual meaning of the term has caused some confusion for both medieval authors as well as modern scholars. The attribution of fire-worship and incest Ibn Diḥya gave to Scandinavians in his story of al-Ghazāl, a source Melvinger used to justify his theory on fire-worship, is a case of an erroneous transfer of Zoroastrian tropes to them on the merits of the common term used for both. The Castilian author/s of the Primera Crónica General also struggled with interpreting majūs in the Arabic sources; rendering it as almuiuces, they combined multiple uses of the word. In modern times, Évariste Lévi- Provençal misinterpreted the use of majūs for Zoroastrians in an Andalusi legal manual that forbade the consumption of Zoroastrian-produced cheese, leading to a conclusion that some of the Vikings harrying in Seville settled there and produced cheese. iv Foreword First of all, I would like to thank my supervisors Dr Þórir Jónsson Hraundal (Háskóli Íslands) and Dr Kristen Mills (Universitetet i Oslo) for their incredible help, support and patience throughout the writing of this thesis. I consider myself incredibly lucky to have had two experts in two very different fields who could guide me and help me in this endeavour. I also wish to show my gratitude to the many others who have contributed to this work: Amund Bjørsnes (Norsk filologisk institutt) for supervising my work on al-Ghazāl’s travels to Scandinavia and Constantinople in my first year of the Master's program, laying the groundwork for this thesis. He also very graciously agreed to meet me early on during the process of writing this thesis to provide suggestions and sources that have proven to be indispensable. Dr Ragnhild Johnsrud Zorgati (Universitetet i Oslo) for discussing some of my initial ideas and for her help with Andalusi legal literature. Dr Ann Christys, whose works on Vikings in Spain were a catalyst for my interest in the subject, and who took time to reply to my emails and provide me with additional sources. Daniel Lowe (British Library) for not only encouraging me to pursue this line of study in my time working at the British Library, but for being instrumental in helping me access material from the library’s extensive collection. I would also like to thank my colleagues at The Viking Planet, especially my boss André Gundersen, for tolerating me spending some time working on this thesis while on the job, and for being flexible with my schedules. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank my family who, despite their bafflement when I announced that I would be quitting my safe job to move to the other end of the continent to study Vikings, supported me all the way. Needless to say, any mistakes and inaccuracies in this thesis are purely my own. Karl Farrugia Oslo, 19.06.2020 v Table of Contents Summary .................................................................................................................................. iii Foreword ................................................................................................................................... iv Table of Figures ....................................................................................................................... vii A note on transliterations, translations and dates................................................................... viii 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Interdisciplinary and transcultural approaches ................................................................ 2 1.2 Structure ........................................................................................................................... 6 2. Historical and textual background ..................................................................................... 8 2.1 Al-Andalus ....................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Scandinavian attacks ...................................................................................................... 11 2.2.1 The first attack – 229–230 A.H/ 844 C.E. .............................................................. 11 2.2.2 The second attack – 245 A.H/ 859–861 C.E. .......................................................... 16 2.2.3 The third wave of attacks – 960s and 970s C.E. ..................................................... 19 3. Literature review .............................................................................................................. 23 3.1 Arabic texts on Scandinavians ....................................................................................... 23 3.2 Majūs.............................................................................................................................. 26 3.2.1 Fire-worshippers ..................................................................................................... 26 3.2.2 Alternative provenances.......................................................................................... 28 3.2.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 33 4. The Eastern Muslim World .............................................................................................. 35 4.1 Etymology ...................................................................................................................... 35 4.2 Arabic ............................................................................................................................. 36 4.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 44 vi 5. Al-Andalus – majūs as ‘pagan’ ........................................................................................ 45 5.1 Glossarium Latino-Arabicum ........................................................................................ 46 5.2 Majūs as ‘pagan’ in practice .......................................................................................... 56 5.3 Majūs as Zoroastrians in legal literature ........................................................................ 60 5.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 61 6. Majūs, μάγος & magus: a shared history ......................................................................... 63 6.1 Greek and Latin use of μάγος/magus ............................................................................. 64 6.2 Cultural and linguistic hybridity .................................................................................... 70 6.3 Translating magus .......................................................................................................... 78 6.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 80 7. Interpretations, misinterpretations and reinterpretations ................................................. 82 7.1 Revisiting fire-worship .................................................................................................. 82 7.2 Almuiuces and the majūs in Castillian chronicles .........................................................
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