© Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. Geschichte derGeschichtsschreibung Storia dellaStoriografi International ReviewInternational Zeitschrift ·Internationale Rivista internazionale ·RevueRivista internazionale internationale Histoire del’Historiographie Fabrizio Serra editore,Fabrizio Pisa·Roma Serra of of History 69 ·1/20 1 6 a © Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. print, internet (included personal andinstitutionalwebsites,print, internet academia.edu,etc.), electronic, digital, (included offprints, etc.), inany (included proofs, form etc.), originalorderived, or by any means (comprese bozze, ecc.), originale o derivata, e con qualsiasi mezzo a stampa o internet oderivata, astampaointernet econqualsiasimezzo originale (comprese ecc.), bozze, (compresi sitiweb elettronico, eistituzionali,academia.edu,ecc.), personali digitale, Uffici diRoma o tramitecartadicredito( (compresi estratti, ecc.), di questa pubblicazione in qualsiasi forma eversione diquestapubblicazione ecc.), inqualsiasiforma (compresi estratti, I pagamentipossonoessereeffettuatitramiteversamentosu c.c.p.n.17154550 mechanical, including photocopy, pdf, microfilm, film,scanneror any othermedium, A norma delcodicecivile italiano,A norma èvietatalariproduzione,totaleoparziale Gruppo editorialeinternazionale Edizioni dell’Ateneo meccanico, difotocopie, permezzo pdf,microfilm,film,scanneroaltro, Under Italiancivil law thispublication cannotbereproduced, wholly orin part I prezziufficialidiabbonamentocartaceoe Fabrizio Serraeditore Uffici diPisa Autorizzazione delTribunalediMilanon.31026/07/1982 presso ilsitoInternetdellacasaeditricewww.libraweb.net tel. +39050542332,fax574888,[email protected] © Copyright2016by

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: Via SantaBibbiana28,I56127Pisa, [email protected] Proprietà riservata·Allrightsreserved at Publisher’sweb-sitewww.libraweb.net , Fabrizio Serraeditore Stampato inItalia·PrintedItaly Amministrazione eabbonamenti issn elettronico American Express,CartaSi,Eurocard,Mastercard,Visa incorporates theImprints Fabrizio Serraeditore www.libraweb.net and issn Fabrizio Serraeditore 0392-8926 Istituti editorialiepoligraficiinternazionali * * *

: EdoardoTortarolo , Giardini editoriestampatoriinPisa 2281-1141 Online ® ® Accademia editoriale , Pisa·Roma. sono consultabili ,

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: © Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. Antoon DeBaets, Stefan BergerandAntoonDeBaets, N Georg G.Iggers, Xin Fan, Marek Tamm, Volodymyr Kravchenko, Pablo Buchbinder, Edoardo Tortarolo, Joseba Agirreazkuenaga, Ragnar Björk, Peter Burke, otes onContributors inExile(1940s-1960s) World War Romero inUruguay(1948-1954) tives andAgendas(1936-1977) Scandinavia, 1933-1945 Historical Writing(1945-2015) The AngerofPing-TiHo Silver Lining Re-Embedding theHistorian Displaced History An Afterword Argentine HistoriansinExile Plutarch’s Thesis Salvemini WRITING HISTORYINEXILE UkrainianHistoricalWritinginCanadaaftertheSecond

: onSomeIntellectualBenefitsofExile Reinterpreting the Basque Past in Exile

: anItalianHistorianasPoliticalRefugee

: theChineseNationalismofaDoubleExile ? ANew“RegimeofHistoricity”amongtheBaltic Contents

: theContributionofRefugeeHistoriansto Reflections onExileHistoriography

: German-LanguageRefugeeScholarsin

: EmilioRavignaniandJoséLuis

: Scholars, Narra- 129 101 147 165 161 111 49 27 65 39 83 11 © Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. © Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. 571 (523C-612B). de Lacy and B. Einarson (London and Cambridge, MA Exile (DeExilio)”[originallyafter 96 CE],in 177-189. Plutarch’stext,almostaneulogy ofexile,waswrittentocomfortanexiledfriendfromSardis historisch perspectief guise? RefugeeHistoriansintheTwentieth Century]”in in 2001Dutch and L.Wintour(London of RefugeeHistorianstoHistoricalWriting(1945-2010)”,in say Ishallattempttotestit. I shallcallthethesisthatexileisablessingindisguisePlutarch’s thesisandinthises W Historians, UnemploymentofHistorians. Countries, InstitutionBuildingbyHistorians,PersecutionofPlutarch,Refugee Historians, HistoricalComparison,HistoriographicalAcculturation,HomeCountries,Host Keywords unintended ways. the historicalprofession.Plutarch’sthesispassestest,thoughonlypartiallyandmostlyin countries whenthelatter succumbed totyranny.Thiswastherealblessing in disguise for with whichtheykeptalivethealternativeversionsofhistoricalwritingtheirhome balance, Isuggestthattheuniquesignificanceofrefugeehistoriansislocatedincourage general conclusion.Inaddition,institutionalinnovationsbyrefugeeswereimpressive.On tries, domainsandevenrefugeepersonalities,however,constitutedstrongexceptionstothis refugees, however precious, generally did not appear to be of vital importance. Some coun the host countries. Regarding specific contributions of content, theory or method, the part of losses forhistoricalwritinginthehomecountrieswereequalledbycorrespondinggains to historicalwriting,basedon764casesin63countries.Iarguethatitisunlikelythe test Plutarch’sthesisherebydrawingupabalanceofthecontributionsrefugeehistorians ally, exile was a ‘blessing in disguise’, a form of beneficial historiographical acculturation. I macro-level ofhistoricalwriting,theproblemisdifferent.Plutarchmaintainedthat,gener twentieth andtwenty-firstcenturiesconstitutedatragedyoftencareerbreach.Atthe At themicro-levelofindividual,forceddepartureexileandrefugeehistoriansin Placement ofAcademicRefugees,1933-1980s 1

This isanupdatedversionofarticlepreviouslypublishedas“Plutarch’s Thesis The GreekmoralessayistPlutarch,andothersafterhim, arguedthatitcan. ithout

: BalanceofExile,BenefitsandLosses,Counterfactuals,Dictatorship,Exile the Contribution of Refugee Historians Contribution ofthe Refugee

: “Eenvermomdezegen?Gevluchtehistoriciindetwintigsteeeuw [ABlessinginDis ,

mockingitstragicnature,canexilebeseenasablessing indisguise? eds A.Huussen,J.deJongandG. Prince(Groningen doi to Historical Writing (1945-2015)

: OxfordUniversityPress,BritishAcademy,2011),211-224.Imadeafirst attempt 10.19272/201611501002 · Plutarch’s Thesis Plutarch’s

: ProceedingsoftheBritishAcademy169 Antoon De Baets De Antoon I. TheThesis Plutarch’s MoraliainSixteenVolumes Abstract Storia dellaStoriografia

: Harvard University Press, 1959, reprint 1968), 511- Cultuurcontacten In DefenceofLearning-ThePlight,Persecutionand

:

, 69 ·1/2016, 69

: ontmoetingentussenculturenin : StichtingRuggespraak,2001), , edsS.Marks,P.Weindling , volume7,translationP.

: TheContribution

: “On

1 - - - -

© Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. 1953), 94. Achievement ofRefugeeScholars.The StoryofDisplacedScholarsandScientists1933-1952 Siebeck, 1991),153-155. Second Chance.TwoCenturiesofGerman-SpeakingJewsintheUnitedKingdom fifteenth century”. fertilize scholarshipassignificantlythemigration of Greekscholars[did]inthe example, writingin1935 the OfficeofHighCommissionerforRefugees oftheLeagueNations,for dus oftheGreekelitetoItalyafterfallConstantinoplein1453. the onebetweenexodusofscholarsfromNazi-occupiedEuropeandexo efits ofexile,itisinstructivetopausefirstreconsiderawell-knowncomparison, Before assessingsomeofthedifficultiesinvolvedinbalancinglossesandben historians tohistoricalwritingafter1945. Plutarch’s thesisunderpinsthereflectionsthatfollowoncontributionsofrefugee emigration mayfunctionascatalystsforinnovativehistoriography. ability tocompare,allofwhichpositivelyinfluencehistory-writing.Inthissense,exileand and cultures,maysetfreeproductiveforces,likenewperspectives,unusualmethods,the causes abreakintherefugee’sbiography.This,andtheirencounterwithforeigncountries Plutarch’s thesismayhaveakerneloftruth Still, thehistorianChristhardHoffmannisrighttoassertthat polemical andrancorous,muchofitcouldhavebeenwrittenintheirnativeland. were notwrittenbyexiles.Nordoallexileswritecompellingly.Often,theirworkis the particularismof their exileandensuingperegrinations.Theseexperiencesenabledthemtotranscend ography emergedwithHerodotusandThucydides,heattachedgreatimportanceto example, theFrenchhistorianCharles-OlivierCarbonellaskedwhyWesternhistori identity, confersacognitiveprivilege Kołakowski maintainedthatthepositionofoutsider,withitsuncertainstatusand be advantageous. The exiled Polish philosopher and of philosophy Leszek scholarly freedom.Inaddition,thechangeofperspectivethataccompaniesexilecan in relativepeace,unfetteredbydictatorialcensorshipandacountrythatrespects fects on historical writing, especially if the exiled historians find themselves working Machiavelli, and Francesco Guicciardini. their masterworksinexile,asdidlaterhistorianssuchPolybius,Josephus,Niccolò 28 Other) ComingfromGermany,1935), 7. man 1987,Amherst 7 6 5 4 3 2

There is,ofcourse,anothersidetothequestion.Manymasterworkshistory Founders ofWesternhistoriographysuchasThucydidesandXenophonwrote

Hoffmann, “Contribution”, 154. This was also A. Toynbee’s opinion C.-O. Carbonell, L. Kołakowski,“InPraiseofExile”, C. Hoffmann,“TheContributionofGerman-SpeakingJewishImmigrants toBritishHistoriography”, A CrisisintheUniversityWorld C. D.Krohn, Intellectuals inExile

: UniversityofMassachusettsPress, 1993),ix,11. L’Historiographie

7 Thisthesisabouttheeffectsof1453exodus,first developed polis

: “[Therefugeescholars’]presenceinothercountriescould II. AHistoricalComparison (London , and

: RefugeeScholarsandtheNewSchool forSocialResearch (originally1981,Paris Times LiterarySupplement antoon debaets

greatly enlargedtheirhorizons.

: OfficeoftheHighCommissioner forRefugees(Jewishand

: creativityarisesfrominsecurity.

; theexperienceofpersecutionandexileusually

2 Undeniably, exile can have beneficial ef

: PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,1991),12-13. (11October1985)

; see , ed. W. Mosse (Tübingen

: N. Bentwich,

:

5

4

: 1133. (TheHague

6 Accordingto (originallyGer

3 The Rescueand When,for

: Nijhoff,

: Mohr - - - - - © Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. 2 (June2006) and Acculturation Britain tute German-Speaking RefugeeHistoriansintheUnitedStatesafter1933 76-77 (fall1987-winter1988),69 University ofChicagoPress,1968),358 1972 historique belgedeRome,1995),49 in WesternEuropeanCities(Sixteenth-TwentiethCenturies) of thatcountry. nationality andisunableor,owingtosuchfear,unwilling to availhimselfoftheprotection ity, membershipofaparticularsocialgrouporpoliticalopinion,isoutsidethecountryhis who, owingtowell-foundedfearofbeingpersecutedforreasonsrace,religion,national us tocompareexileexperiencescautiously. gest), exilecanacceleratecross-fertilization. (as theexamplesofSaloBaron’sorAloïsSchumpeter’svoluntaryemigrationsug national andinterculturalgo-betweens. en their hosts’ knowledge about their home countries. Thus exiles can becomeinter comparative perspective.Inaddition,bycorrectingclichés,refugeesmayalsobroad them sobadly. compelled toask–sometimesthepointofself-castigationwhyhistorytreated historical reflectionorevenaffordthemselvestoforgetthepast,defeatedfeel ing. Whereasvictorscanimposetheirversionofthefactsandthereforeneedlittle that thehistoricalawarenessofpeoplessharplyincreasesafterdefeatanduproot such acruelturn.Thispenchantforreflectionfitswiththemoregeneraltheory ed questionsaboutthehistoryoftheirhomecountryandwhyeventstherehadtaken by refugeescholars,andoftenledtoashiftintheirmodesofthought.Exileprompt factors. Undeniably,repressionandexilecouldprofoundlyaffectthehistorywritten of classicallearning Exile wasonlyone,andnotnecessarilythemostimportant,reasonforthisrevival a demandwhichalreadyexisted. after 1933. They stimulated Greek studies. However, their importance was that they satisfied learning, notunlikethatofscholarsfromcentralEurope[…]ontheEnglishspeakingworld These immigrants[bothbeforeandafter1453]hadanimportanteffectontheItalianworldof Intriguingly, headds ing inItalybeganthefourteenthcentury,andperhapsasearlytwelfth. full ofByzantineprofessors”, able. AsStevenRuncimanremarked,“Italyhadformorethanagenerationbeen in thesixteenthcenturyandrepeatedforcenturies,is,however,onlypartlyten 12 11 10 I definea‘refugeehistorian’oran‘exileasone The self-knowledgeoftherefugeehistoriansisalsofrequentlydeepenedbyanew 9 8

; Cambridge

Epstein, ; Cambridge P. Burke,“HostsandGuests.AGeneralViewofMinoritiesintheCultural LifeofEurope”, S. Runciman, L. Fermi, For a discussion of definitions about refugee historiansand related concepts, seeA. De Baets, “Exile ,

ed. P.Alter(London,NewYork

: 319-322,andtheintroductiontothis SpecialIssue. Past Renewed Illustrious Immigrants

: CambridgeUniversityPress,1993), 17

: PolityPress,1987),232.

12

: RefugeeHistorianssincetheSecond WorldWar”, The FallofConstantinople,1453

; voluntaryimmigrationandareceptiveenvironmentwereother

: , 12.

; Hoffmann,“Contribution”,171-173

; P.Burke,

: TheIntellectualMigrationfromEurope,1930-1941

9 8

whilePeterBurkeshowedthattherevivaloflearn ; R.Gray,“SpanishDiaspora.ACultureinExile”,

: I.B.Tauris plutarch The ItalianRenaissance.CultureandSocietyinItaly (Cambridge

10 Althoughthismaytakeplacewithoutexile

; London ’

; s thesis , edsH.SolyandA.Thijs(Brussels,Rome Out of the Third Reich

11 Alltheseobservationsshouldinduce

(Washington,D.C. : CambridgeUniversityPress,1965),188.

: GermanHistoricalInstitute,1998), xix,xxi.

; C.Epstein, International HistoryReview

: Refugee Historians in Post-War A PastRenewed

: GermanHistoricalInsti (ChicagoandLondon Salmagundi

: ACatalogof (originally Minorities

: Institut , 28,no. , nos. 29 ------

- - : © Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. vol. 5, 19-20, andA.DeBaets,“Censorship andHistory(1945-present)”, see A. De Baets, Gray, “SpanishDiaspora”,68 Deutschland. Traditionelle Positionen und gegenwärtige Aufgaben (Munich ternational BiographicalDictionaryofCentralEuropeanÉmigrés,1933-1945 disturb thegeneralpatternsfoundfor1945-2004. cases scatteredacrosstheentireperiod1945-2016.Again,myimpression isthattheyconfirmratherthan universe studiedinthisessay,myconclusionsremainunaltered.During 2010-2016,Icollectedsomenew (about halfofthemwerefor2004-2009).Giventhatthesenewcasesdisplayed characteristicssimilartothe I havecontinuedsystematicdatacollectionandfoundroughly5%additional casesfortheperiod1945-2009 refugee historianswhowerealiveafter1945asthebasisforanalysis inthepresentessay.In2004-2009, by meansofsystematicdatacollectionworldwidein1989-2004,Iattempted tocompilesuchauniverseof only iftheuniversefromwhichitisdrawnknown.Buthere universe wasnotknown.Therefore, ever, maintainedtheirinternationalnetworks,infusedscholarshipwithideasfrom after thefallofdictatorgenerallyremainedlimited.Mostreturnees,how tively smallnumbersofreturneesonthehistoricalwritingtheirhomecountries came influentialastheeditorsofprimarysources. country wascutandaccesstomanysourceslost,refugeehistoriansfrequentlybe impetus toproduceneweditionsofsources history undertheThirdReichisoftencitedasanexample. ally confinedtospecializedsectorsnotmonitoredbyofficialideology a repressiveregime.Workabletostandthetestoftimeinsuchregimeswasgener the replacement of much critical historical writing by servile propaganda on behalf of research in thehomecountries impoverished because thedepartureofrefugees saw historians whostayedbehindremainedunaffected,theoverallqualityofhistorical been describedasahugelossforthehomecountries.Althoughworkofmany fect consistedinthebraindrainthatcoincidedwithdeparture sojourn abroad, and return – hadtheir effects onthe countries oforigin. Thefirstef toriography oftheirhomecountries.Eachthethreestagesexile–departure, The firstof theseiswhether thestream ofrefugees hasexerted aneffectonthehis to threequestions. (especially GermanandSpanish)exilewaves.Aproperassessmentrequiresanswers torical writing,weareinmanyrespectsdependentondatafromthebetter-studied test ofPlutarch’sthesis. from 63countriesonallcontinents–willserveastheempiricalbasisforfollowing terchangeably. Agroupof764suchrefugeehistorians−aliveafter1945andcoming able Strictly speaking,‘refugeehistorians’are 30 15 For asketchofthepositionexile inthegamutofoptionsopentohistorianslivingunderdictatorship, 14 13

Epstein,

toreturn,butIcombinethesecategoriesinmyanalysisandusebothterms H. Möller, “From Weimar to Bonn The 764refugeehistoriansdonotconstituteasamplebutuniverse. Statistically,asampleisvalid 1945 toPresent

: Saur,1983),lx PastRenewed Censorship ofHistoricalThought.AWorld Guide,1945-2000 ,

eds A.SchneiderandD.Woolf(Oxford

; G.Iggers,“DiedeutschenHistorikerinderEmigration”, , 18-19.

; Epstein,

13 Whendrawingupabalance-sheetoftheirimpactonhis III. HomeCountries Past Renewed

: The Arts and the Humanities in Exile and Return, 1933-1980”, antoon debaets unwilling , 3-4.

: oncetheumbilicalcordwithhome

: OxfordUniversityPress,2011and 2015),52-73. ,

ed. B.Faulenbach(Munich toreturnand‘exilehistorians’

15 Finally,theimpactofrela The OxfordHistoryofHistoricalWriting , partII,edsH.StraussandW.Röder (Westport,CT

14 Asecondeffectwasthe Geschichtswissenschaft in

: ithasinvariably

: Greenwood,2002),

: constitutional

: Beck,1974),111 un In ------

- , ;

© Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. 2001), 317-318. Ke stitute Historians intheUnitedStates and theGermanHistoricalProfessionbetween19501970”, its leadingspokesmen,somestayedintheUSSR,others, likethegeographerPetr gol occupation.Thisschool,however,hadnofixed geographical location.Among either toEuropeorAsiabutconstitutedaseparateunit onaccountofthelongMon émigrés oftheso-calledEurasianschool,whichpostulated thatRussiadidnotbelong schools foundedbyrefugeehistorianswererare.Theexception maybetheRussian litical position,andlocalcircumstances.Thisvarietymeant thatcoherenthistorical were predictablydiverseastheydependedonmethod, concepts,worldview,po them to ask roughly the same historical questions as always, while their responses their hostcountries.Ingeneral,itcanbesaidthatexperiencesasrefugeesled The secondquestioncentersonthemannerinwhichrefugeehistoriansinfluenced dictatorial historiographiesremainedlimited. 1989. many’s historiography, (thelastoneanAustrian)playedimportantrolesincreatingEastGer such asJürgenKuczynski,ErnstEngelberg,AlexanderAbusch,AlfredMeuseland where exilewasperceivedasaweaponinthestruggleagainstFascism.Historians to theSovietoccupationzone,whichbecameGermanDemocraticRepublicand War, severalCommunistrefugeehistorianswhohadfledNaziGermanyreturned into exile in the 1930s on account of their political activities. After the Second World ees onthehistoriographyoftheirhomecountry.Mostthesereturneeshadgone delayed. their impactonthewidercommunitywasinitiallyprobablyindirect,partial,and exchange ideas. in South Africa’s universities. In the exiles’ main hub, London, they met regularly to African studentsstudiedintheUnitedKingdom,andworkwrittenabroadcirculated tellectually permeable.Somewhiteémigréhistorianscouldvisitthecountry,South standing the academic boycott duringmuch of apartheid, South Africaremainedin sons, transformedSouthAfricanhistoriographyduringandafterapartheid.Notwith refugee andémigréhistorians,manyofwhomhadlefttherepublicforpoliticalrea rica andtheGermanDemocraticRepublicdemonstrate.TheworkofSouthAfrican However, exceptions qualify the general rule, as the examples of apartheid South Af tries, usuallyafterlongdelaysandsometimesintranslation. who did not returnhome became known or were rediscoveredintheir home coun abroad, andpromotedscholarlyculturalexchanges. 18 17 16 β The GermanDemocraticRepublicoffersaclearercaseoftheinfluencereturn We seethattheanswertofirstquestionismixed,althoughlossdominates. ler,

Iggers, “DiedeutschenHistoriker”, 108 Möller, “FromWeimar”,lxii S. Marks,personalcommunication toauthor(August2002).

19 ; Cambridge Exilerfahrung inWissenschaftundPolitik. RemigrierteHistorikerinderfrühenDDR Elsewhere,theimpactofrelativelysmallnumbersreturneesonpost-

: CambridgeUniversityPress,1991), 213

17 Asthesescholarsandtheirstudentsweremostlywhite,however, ,

18 eds H.LehmannandJ.Sheehan ofwhichlittlesurvivedthechallengereunificationin

; Hoffmann,“Contribution”,168-171 IV. HostCountries plutarch

; Möller,“FromWeimar”,lxi-lxiii

’ s thesis

; Epstein,

(Washington, D.C. An InterruptedPast.German-SpeakingRefugee Past Renewed

16

; W.Schulze,“RefugeeHistorians 19 Andtheworksofrefugees

De Baets,

; Krohn, , 8.

: GermanHistoricalIn Censorship (Cologne Intellectuals , 223-234.

: Bohlau, ,

3

; M. 31 ------© Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. Nineteenth andTwentiethCenturies”, “Contribution”, 164,173 Hanns Reissner(CentralEuropean). Malagón Barceló,JuanAntonioOrtegayMedina,VicenteLloréns Castillo(Spanish) Quarterly 50 it was the topic of the Spanish influence on American history. it was the history of the Second Republic and the civil war the preferred discipline was thehistoryofSpain the UnitedStatesinterventioninSecondWorldWar1941. ideas. increasingly withinitssocialcontext,thusadvancingthefieldofhistory their emphasisonthehistoryofideas,buttheybegantoplacethisideas merous exilestudents,whomadetheirwaytotheUnitedStates,broughtwiththem notably German and Jewish history, and in Renaissance studies. States andtheUnitedKingdom,theyexcelledinCentralEuropeanhistory,most In manycountries,theydevelopedthegenreofdiasporastudies. the historyofhostcountry. ans specializedinthesubjectthatwouldhavegiventhemmostinfluence,namely psychoanalysis. Athird(debatable)explanationsimplystatesthatfewrefugeehistori disappeared bythe1930s,whilethiswasnotcaseforyoungerdisciplinessuchas between GermanandAnglo-Saxonworksofhistoryinthenineteenthcenturyhad did emigrate. ing disciplineswhosemosteminentfigures(suchasanErwinPanofskyinarthistory) innovation, andcreativityofrefugeehistorianswasapparentlylessthaninneighbor man historians(FriedrichMeinecke,forexample)didnotgointoexile enon differwidely.OnescholarattributesittothefactthatmosteminentGer not onlyontheirowndisciplines but alsoonhistory.Explanationsforthisphenom refugee politicalscientistsandsociologistshadgreaterinfluencethanthehistorians, economic historiansinParis. ronos, whowentabroadbeforethecivilwarof1946-1949,inspiredacircleGreek Paris, forexample,theMarxist-orientedworksofGreekhistorianNikolasSvo eral pictureisoneofscattered,heterogeneous,andindividualizedinfluences. United States,afterastayinPrague. Savitsky, livedinCzechoslovakia,whilethehistorianGeorgeVernadskyleftfor 32 Renewed

; Hoffmann,“Contribution”,172

29 28 27 26 25 24 22 21 20 The situationofSpanishexileswasmoreclear-cut.Amongprofessionalhistorians, Nonetheless, insomespecializedfieldsofresearch,theirimpactwassignificant. Although quiteafewrefugeehistorianswereactiveinstitutionbuilders,thegen See, Epstein, Fermi, Iggers, “DiedeutschenHistoriker”, 106 Iggers, “DiedeutschenHistoriker”,104 A. Kitroeff,“ContinuityandChangeinContemporaryGreekHistoriography”, El exilioespañolenMéxico,1939-1982 P. Walther,“EmigriertedeutscheHistorikerindenUSA”, A. Mazour,

27 , 10 , 19(1989) Finally, interest in comparative and world history increased, especially after e.g.

; Walther,“EmigriertedeutscheHistoriker”, 41-44,50. Illustrious Immigrants , JosephWalk(Jewish) Past Renewed

23 Modern RussianHistoriography

: 271,291. Asecondexplanationmaintainsthatthemarkeddifferenceinquality

; Epstein, , 9. , 353-354. Past Renewed

; Epstein,

; PyotrKovalevsky(Russian)

22 InthecaseofGerman-speakingemigration,

24 (Mexico Interrupted Past antoon debaets Past Renewed

; Walther,“EmigriertedeutscheHistoriker”,49

; E.Schulin,“GermanandAmerican Historiographyinthe

20 , 1,8,11 (PrincetonNJ

: Salvat,Fondodeculturaeconómica, 1982),888.

; , Out oftheThirdReich

27 , 10

; Hoffmann,“Contribution”,163

;

; amongpoliticiansandjournalists, : VanNostrand,1958),236-242. Out oftheThirdReich Berichte zurWissenschaftsgeschichte

; VilémPre 23

Möller, “FromWeimar”,lx-lxi.

; and among both groups, , č

xix. an (Czechoslovakian)

29 In this case, too, the

28 ,

26

xiv.

25 Meinecke’s nu IntheUnited

; HerbertStrauss, European History

: thetalent,

; Epstein,

; Hoffmann, , 7(1984)

; Javier

21 Past In ------

: © Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. ugee historiansrespectively. The historyofideasthrived so muchperhapsbecauseit (Ortega yGasset’sstudent)onscoresofGerman,Chinese,andSpanish-speakingref rich MeineckeandexilephilosophersHuShi(JohnDewey’sstudent)JoséGaos would beafascinatingstudytocomparetheimpactofintellectualhistorianFried Belgium Austria Argentina Origin tion. of historicalinstitutionsandjournals?Table1triestoprovideananswerthisques did countries, oneneedsnotonlytoknowwhatthey Plutarch contended,raisedthequalityoftheirworktotowering heights. far beyondtheUnitedKingdomwheretheyfoundanewhome.Forthem,exile,as States in1952duringtheMcCarthyera.Theyinfluencedstudyofancienthistory duction of Mussolini’s race laws in September 1938, the latter chased from the United dismissal fromtheiracademicpositions,theformerchasedItalyafterintro naldo MomiglianoandMosesFinley,forexample,bothbecamepoliticalexilesafter depended lessheavilyonaccesstothearchives. Nacional paralaculturaylasartes, FondodeCulturaEconomica1995),146-147. ra”, 70-71 pología”, bothin Taurus, 1978),247,281,310,321,324, 328,331,333,336,338 Ortega y Gasset ed Germanphilosophersinto Spanish andintroducedtheworkofhismentor,José who inspiredthemwithhisstudyofideasintheirhistoricalcontext.Gaostranslat Gaos, anexiledphilosopher,socialist,andformerrectorattheUniversityofMadrid, history ofideaswasnotable,owingtotheinfluenceonrefugeehistoriansJosé 30 For acompleteinsightintotheinfluenceofrefugeehistoriansupontheirhost Some individualscreatedarenaissanceincertainfieldsalmostsingle-handedly.Ar . Whichprofessionalactivities did theydeploy, forexample,asfoundersofboards

J. Malagón,“Loshistoriadoresyla historia”, Tab.

; Historiadores deMéxicoenelsigloXX (1884-1956) George Sarton (1899-1972) Wiznitzer Arnold (1886-1954) Emilio Ravignani (1881-1964) Henri Grégoire 1.RefugeeHistoriansAsFoundersofHistoricalInstitutionsandJournals Exilio español en México Historian

; he influenced history departments throughout Latin America. Destination Uruguay Brazil USA plutarch , 237-242 during TheirExile. , eds E. Florescano and R. Pérez Montfort (Mexico

; Exilio español en México El exilioespañolde1939 [1950] 1924 1936 Year 1941 ’ s thesis ?

; J.A.OrtegayMedina,“Historia” and“Antro- New York]. er-president Écolelibre deshautesétudes, (1924), toNew York (1941-1946) [Alsofound des étudesbyzantines, Transfer of Culture and Learning Science, of andontheHistory of Osiris ScienceSociety. of History histórica. depesquisa Instituto judaicobrasileiro Montevideo. Facultad de humanidades, Universidad de Instituto deinvestigaciones históricas, thought

: Studies on the History and Philosophy: Studies on the History (companionto Historical institution/journal or ,

, 775-776 volume 5, Byzantion wrote

; Gray,“SpanishDiaspo butalsowhatthey Arteyciencia co-founded by him

: Revue internationale internationale : Revue Isis, 1913-).

: Consejo (Madrid

30 It 33 ------

- : -

© Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. Poland Egypt slovakia Czecho- China Origin 34

Various exiles from Germany Jews Council of (1907-1996) Stephan Kuttner (1897-1971) Albrecht Goetze (1892-1980) Posner Ernst (1882-1960) George Urdang (1901-1975) George Hallgarten (1889-1985) Guido Kisch and others (1890-1948), Fritz Saxl (?1914-) Ahmad Shalabi (1913-2001) Joseph Kirschbaum (1901-1985) Zhang Qiyun (1896-1950) Fu Sinian Historian Destination Canada Taiwan France Sudan USA UK antoon debaets [1965] 1962- 1992 1948 1947 1954 Year 1938 1945 1955 1955 1941 1933 ? tural Research)tural toLondon thek Warburg (Warburg for Cul Library KulturwissenschaftlicheBiblio Transfer of [founder]. lization, andIslamicCivi History of Department Ottawa (heldby MarkStolarík). versity of Chair inSlovak Culture andHistory, Uni [Also re-established three universities]. National HistoricalMuseum[founder]. Mu, LuoJialun,LiJi,DongZuobin). Qian (withhelpof andPhilology History AcademiaSinicaInstituteof Transfer of times inminiature versions. ies illegally introducedinPoland, some history contemporary blank spotsof Published about Paris, Instytut Literacki. Zeszyty historyczne WeltschRobert [1891-1982], andothers). Moses [1887-1974], editorof theboard of [1873-1956], chairman London, ).(President Jewry (New York German-speaking andCulture of History the Leo BaeckInstitutefor theStudyof Medieval CanonLaw). of from 1996calledStephanKuttnerInstitute ington, Yale, Berkeley, from 1991Munich Medieval Canon Law (WashInstitute of tal Research) [co-founder]. Orien American Schools of dad School of ancient MesopotamiaandAnatolia Studies Cuneiform of Journal HistoricSites, 1949-1950). tion of Records Management,1954- 1961 cation (onArchive 1945- Administration, inarchival summercourses Organized edu macy, MadisonWI[co-founder]. Phar of theHistory American Instituteof uments) [co-founder]. War Doc tion Committeefor theStudyof ments (later American Committee To Study War Docu des étudesjuives theJews of History History, Especially intheLegal andEconomic Historia Judaica

; on Genealogical Research,; onGenealogical 1950- Historical institution/journal Islamic University of Omdurman Omdurman Islamic University of

: AmericanHistoricalAssocia ).

ora fStudiesinJewish of : Journal (from 1962 part of of (from1962 part

; branches inJerusalem, ; branches (Historical Notebooks), (HistoricalNotebooks), Year Book (journal about (journal

; onInterpreta

: LeoBaeck

: Siegfried (1956-)

; Bagh

; cop Revue Revue

; in

------; :

© Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. The institutional and editorial activities of refugee historians were substantial but, The tablecouldbeentitled‘Plutarch’s dream’andcitedascorroborationofhisthesis. torian butapoetandtranslator. USSR Spain Origin Source (3) Ravignaniisnotarefugeehistorianbut‘commuting’ (2) Germany,Poland,USSR (1) Belgium,China,Germany Notes

:

: Author’s owndatabase. (1936-) Gorbanevskaya Natalya (1881-1957) Lev Bagrow émigrés Various and exiles (1917-1997) de Lara Manuel Tuñón (1891-1974) Gimpera Pedro Bosch (1889-1948) y Calvo Juan MaríaAguilar (1893-1984)Albornoz Claudio Sánchez (1917-1980) VichÁngel Palerm i Vergés (1904-1964) José MaríaMiquel Camps (1900-1979) Juan Comas (1877-1947) Francisco Barnés Historian

: itisunknownwhetherthecollectiveactors(initalics)includedhistorians.

: threeimportanttransfersareincluded. El Salvador Czechoslo Guatemala Destination Argentina Germany Panamá Mexico France France vakia plutarch - 1979-1983 [1947] [1939] [1923] [1945] 1970 1940 1944 Year 1973 1941 1941 1935 ’ s thesis ? periores en antropología social)[co-founder]. periores en antropología 1980 ehistoria(from to nacionaldeantropología Centro deinvestigaciones superiores, Institu México [co-founder]. de Centro deestudioshistóricos, Colegio Mexico, 1973]. University of NationalAutonomousnes antropológicas, Instituto de investigacio [Also founder of [co-founder]. ehistoria Escuela nacionaldeantropología Mexico D.F. Museo nacional de historia, Chapúltepec, lished as pub ‘temporarily’ Historical Anthology), Pamyat Edited volumes 2-6of Cartography. of History Imago Mundi (archivesPrague confiscatedin1946). and Russian Foreign HistoricalArchive, Russian and Historical Museum Cultural hispánicas, Pau University (1970-1980). Centro de investigaciones Conferences of Similar activities asinGuatemala. [co-founder]. curriculum San Carlos, includingitshistory Facultad de humanidades, Universidad de Panamá. sal andAmericanhistory, Universidad de for univer academiccurriculum Organized dehistoria deEspaña. Los cuadernos de BuenosAires. Instituto dehistoriaEspaña,Universidad (1967-1980)]. cias socialesatUniversidad Iberoamericana and Institutodecien Social Anthropology of Department [Also founder-director of

: Centrodeinvestigaciones yestudiossu

: Istoricheskii sbornik Historical institution/journal

; USSR tamizdat

: International Journal for Journal the : International

: Gorbanevskayaisnotahis in Paris. samizdat (Memory journal journal

: An 35 ------© Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. Note macro-approach. Nevertheless,thequantitativeresultsaremeaningful. show perhapsthatmicro-researchisbettersuitedtostudyingcareerchangethana plex. ThefollowingfiguresinTable2areonlymeanttogiveanimpression.They tion that American scholarship benefited fromwhat theGermanscholarshiplost”. Epstein messbarer Verlust’).Inaddition,careerchangecomplicatestheanswer.ForCatherine country (‘sicherlicheinGewinn’),butemphasizesthehugelossforGermany(‘nicht historians intheUnitedStates,PeterWaltherspeaksofbenefitforreceiving responding benefittothehostcountry.PonderingthisquestionforGermanrefugee The finalandmostdifficultquestioniswhetherlossforthehomecountrywasofcor historians donotrealizecritical,large-scaleorenduringbreakthroughsintheirfields. refugee historians,isapplicabletoallexiledornot However, thisfindingshouldbequalifiedonitsturn.Indeed,whatIallegeabout importance nordiditmakeacrucialdifferencetoscholarshipintheirhostcountries. from exile.Evenso,thetablereflectsonlypartofexiles’ realperformance. add themanyrefugeehistorianswhofoundedinstitutionsorjournals institutions unrelated to history altogether during their exile. And to these, one could founded institutionswhichencompassedhistorybutwerelarger, countries. InadditiontothehistoricalactivitiesmentionedinTable1,tenhistorians naturally, farfromcoveringtheentireinstitutionalandeditoriallandscapeinhost 36 component. 5. 4. 3. 1. Universe (totalpopulation)

Career changeisanintriguingfactorandquantitativeanalysisofthiscom On the whole, the contribution of refugees, however precious, was not of cardinal

: The‘historicallyminded’ 2. before andduringexile. which Of

: “Thefactthatsomanyrefugeeschangedcareerschallengesthecommonno fwhich Of - before and/orduringexile - duringexile - before exile Source Tab 31 fwhich Of

Walther, “EmigriertedeutscheHistoriker”, 50

:

: . 2.RefugeeHistoriansandCareerChangeduringTheirExile. Author’s owndatabase. cases where occupational data are known both

:

the ‘historically minded’ fwhich Of

: - before andduringexile - mutations orcareer changes

: thosewhoseeducationoroccupation containedanimportanthistorical

: - before but notduringexile - duringbut notbefore exile antoon debaets V. OnBalance

; Epstein, Past Renewed

: many,ifnotmost, 468 439 544 764 653 105

363 181 76 N and ninefounded , 4. after returning 14,0 66,7 19,3 100 33,3 %

31 - - - © Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. ently urgedmanyofthemtoreflectonhistory.Hence,therewere181relevantca cally minded’beforetheirexilebecamesoduring unrelated tohistory.Ontheother,105personswhowerenotparticularly‘histori two directions.Onetheonehand,76of‘historicallyminded’didjobsduringexile slightly from 439 before exile to 468 during exile. Career changes, however, went in whose educationoroccupationcontainedanimportanthistoricalcomponent)rose exile (653of764cases),the‘historicallyminded’(ashortformulatoindicatethose were also persecuted by their home countries again hadtoacceptmorejuniorpositions.Inaddition,notafewrefugeesandexiles rians wereunemployedforshortorlongperiods,andontakinguptheirprofession tory, inwhichnationaldifferencesweremorepronounced. internationalized fieldsofancient,medieval,andorientalhistorythaninmodernhis refugees andoftenledthemtoprivatestudy.Itwaseasiersucceedinthemore and poormasteryoflanguage,forexample,limitedthecareeropportunitiesolder invisible inTable2)andgenerallyworkedworseconditionsthanbeforeexile.Age dismissal andunemployment either beforeor duringexile(experienceswhichare thesis appealingandpuzzling. change. Thus,careerchangeremainsanintriguingphenomenon−andPlutarch’s reer mutations Engaged Intellectuals possibly, AliShariati(Iran).Seealso A.DeBaets,“PoliticalMurdersofHistorians(1945-2014)”, sassinated individual refugeesconstitutestrongpositiveexceptions. and moreindirectly.Ofcourse,somecountries,subdisciplines ofhistory,oreven probably havehappenedanywayinanincreasinglyglobalized world,ifmoreslowly tional cross-fertilization embodied in,oremanatingfrom,refugeehistorianswould Although counterfactualscannotbeproved,itisplausible toassumethattheinterna loss for the homecountry was not generally equalled by gain for the host country. rable. At themacro-level of historical writing, our analysis strongly indicates that level oftheindividualrefugeeandoftencareerbreaches wereonlylaboriouslyrepa exile be called wholly positive. Usually, forced departure was a tragedyatthemicro- Only ifviewedfromtheparticularangleofinstitutional innovation, cantheeffectof benefits forthehostcountry. the whole, the balance shows that loss for the home countryprobably outweighs to politicalactivities,thelesstheirimpactgenerallywasonprofessionitself.On the morepoliticalreasonsforexilewere,andtimerefugeesdedicated out theirauthorizationorevenunder another name. right toteachwasrevoked,theywerespiedupon,ortheirworkpublishedwith Of thosewhoseeducationand/oroccupationwereknown 33 32 This isnotthewholestory.Manywhodidchangetheircareersexperienced

Hoffmann, “Contribution”,161-163 Some committedsuicide

: IoanCulianu(Romania),Jesúsde Galíndez(Spain),SabarotnamSabalingham(SriLanka)and,

: anestimated , ed.S.Berger(NewYork,Oxford

: TheodorMommsen(Germany), RamónIglesia(Spain).Otherswereas one-third plutarch

; Out oftheThirdReich VI. Conclusion oftheexilesexperienced(fundamental)career

: Berghahn,forthcoming[2016]). ’ s thesis after , xv. they left

33

: theexperienceofexileappar Toallthis,onecouldadd that

: their citizenship, title, or

32 both

Many youngerhisto beforeandduring Historians as 37 ------© Copyright by Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa · Roma. MacMillan, 2013),389-390. Transnational ChallengestoNationalHistoryWriting test, thoughonlypartiallyandmostlyinunintendedways. in theirunrelentingsearchforhistoricaltruth.Plutarch’sthesis,therefore,passesthe able, withfrozenhorizonsbutlivelymemories,tocreatesmallmarginsoffreedom and lived,sometimesfordecades,undertheseverestofdictatorshipsstillwere this would be to underestimate the integrity of those historians who stayed home certainly nottheonlycustodiansofsoundmethodandinterpretation.Tomaintain symbolic value. in outputandevenmoreprinciples,thoughtsactivities lies. ing oftheirhomecountrieswhenthelattersuccumbedtotyranny,falsification,and sions –andoftenthecriticalprinciplesoflogicevidencehistoricalwrit courage withwhichtheykeptalive,inunenviablecircumstances,thealternativever where, althoughthisisrarelymentionedbyexileresearchers.Itlocatedinthe 38 34

Even so,withtheirfrozenmemoriesandnewhorizons,refugeehistorianswere The uniquecontributionofrefugeehistoriansmay,Isuggest,belocatedelse

34 See alsoE.Tortarolo,“HistoriansintheStorm

This wastherealblessingindisguiseforhistoricalprofession,embodied antoon debaets , eds M. Middell and L. Roura (Basingstoke

: ÉmigréHistoriographyintheTwentiethCentury”, University ofGroningen

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