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Jews in Leipzig: Nationality and Community in the 20 Century

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Jews in Leipzig: Nationality and Community in the 20 Century The Dissertation Committee for Robert Allen Willingham II certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Jews in Leipzig: Nationality and Community in the 20 th Century Committee: ______________ David Crew, Supervisor ______________ Judith Coffin ______________ Lothar Mertens ______________ Charters Wynn ______________ Robert Abzug Jews in Leipzig: Nationality and Community in the 20 th Century by Robert Allen Willingham II, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presen ted to the Faculty of the Graduate School the University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May, 2005 To Nancy Acknowledgment This dissertation would not have been possible without the support of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), which provided a year -long dissertation grant. Support was also provided through the History Department at the University of Texas through its Sheffield grant for European studies. The author is also grateful for the assistance of archivists at the Leipzig City Archive, the Archive of the Israelitische Religionsgemieinde zu Leipzig , the Archive for Parties and Mass Organizations in the GDR at the Federal archive in Berlin, the “Centrum Judaica” Archive at the Stiftung Neue Synagoge, also in Berlin, and especially at the Saxon State Archive in Leipzig. Indispensable editorial advice came from the members of the dissertation committee, and especially from Professor David Crew, whose advice and friendship have been central to the work from beginning to end. Any errors are solely those of the author. iv Jews in Leipzig: Nationality and Community in the 20th Century Publication No. _________ Robert Allen Willingham II, PhD. The Universi ty of Texas at Austin, 2005 Supervisor: David Crew The thesis is a study of the Jewish community of Leipzig, Germany over the course of the 20th century. It begins with an overview of the Jews of the city until the rise to power of Adolf Hitler, emphasizing divisions with the Jewish community over the ideology of Zionism and between German -born and foreign -born Jews. It goes on to describe the lives of Jews as the Nazis come to state authority, the riots of November, 1938, and the gradual exclusion of Jews from professional and pubic life in the city. Jewish responses in education, politics and culture are examined, as are the decisions of many local people to emigrate. After the 1938 riots, exclusion began to shift to extermination, and the Jewish community found itself subject to deportation to camps in Eastern Europe. Most of those deported were murdered. Those who lived were able to do so because of good fortune, canny survival skills, or marriage to non-Jews. Jewish life, which had been an imp ortant part of the city, was systematically destroyed. After 1945, those few who survived in the city were joined by another handful of Jewish Leipzigers who survived the camps, and by some non-Leipzig Jews, to reform the Jewish community. A tiny percentage of the old Jewish world of Leipzig was left to v rebuild. They did so, reestablishing institutions, reclaiming property, and beginning negotiations with the new authorities, the Soviet occupation and then the German Democratic Republic. The Jews of Lei pzig continued some of their old concerns in this new world, negotiating with the government and among themselves the nature of their identities as Jews and as Germans. These negotiations were brought to a halt by a series of anti -Semitic purges in 1952 a nd 1953. The leadership of the Jewish community fled, as did many of their fellow-Jews. The behavior of the East German state at this point showed some surprising commonality with their Nazi predecessors. After the purges were over, those who remained b egan another process of rebuilding, this time in constant tension with a government that wanted to use them for propaganda purposes during the Cold War. With the fall of the communist regime in 1989-90, the Jewish community of Leipzig was able to chart it s destiny again. The old issues of identity and community —among themselves and between Jews and their German neighbors —continue in a very different context. vi Table of Contents: Introduction: Pg. 1 Chapter 1: “No Uniform Community”: Jewish Life in Leipzig through the Weimar Republic: Pg. 16 Chapter 2: “What would the Führer, Adolf Hitler, say?”: Jewish life under the Nazis, 1933-38: Pg. 37 Chapter 3: “Regarded by the German Government as Undesirable”: exclusion, deportation and murder, 1938-1945: Pg. 97 Chapter 4: A Phoenix in Saxony: the Revival of Jewish life in Leipzig after the Second World War: Pg. 133 Chapter 5: The New Terror: the purge of 1952-53: Pg. 159 Chapter 6: Construction Will Commence: after the purge, normalcy, and the Wende: Pg. 200 Conclusion: Pg. 235 Bibliography: Pg. 241 Vita: Pg. 248 vii Introduction Richard Frank was a manufacturer of textiles. He was born in the city of Halle in 1870, the year before the foundation of the German Empire. He moved to the city of Leipzig at the age of five, and enjoyed a fairly typical upper -class existence. He went to the classical Gymnasium, served in the army, even reaching lower officer rank. He attended the University of Leipzig, opened his own factory, had a family. He seemed not especially handicapped by the fact of being a Jew. After the collapse of the German Empire, Frank’s professional career blossomed even more. The Weimar Republic was explicitly devoted to the equality of its citizen s, and Frank’s private success now took on a public character as a result. From 1920 to 1933, he served as a trade judge at the regional court. But in 1933, of course, the German state changed its form and its intent toward its Jewish citizens. The eff ect on Frank’s life was sudden and stark. He was ejected from his official position, and saw his entire life —both professional and personal —constricted. By 1937, his enterprises had begun to disappear, the result of Nazi “trusteeship” and then in 1939 under straight-forward “Aryanization.” He was eventually required to wear a yellow star on his clothing, to move from his home with his wife into a so -called “Judenhaus”, an over -crowded collective house, a sort of miniature ghetto. He was only spared from deportation and death by being in a mixed marriage with a Lutheran woman, and just barely at that. After the war ended, Frank’s life changed again. Under the Soviet occupation and then the German Democratic Republic, he was the first Chair of the re -founded Jewish religious community, the Gemeinde. He occupied an official role with the Trade and 1 Industry Chamber, not very unlike his old position as a trade judge. He was recognized by the new regime as an official victim of the Nazis, no insignificant distinction, coming as it did with a pension. He served as the Chair of the Gemeinde until Spring of 1953, when, after a purge of the Gemeinde by Communist authorities, he resigned. He was allowed to stay as Honorary Chair for a year, and then was expelled from the Gemeinde. He fled the country in 1955, and the government revoked his standing as a victim of the Nazis a year later. Frank’s story begins to display to us the relationship between the radically different states in Germany in the 20th century an d their implications for Jews. Frank went from being a respected businessman and public official, to a despised and endangered enemy of the state, to a civic leader with the respect and assistance of the state, to its enemy, obliged ultimately to leave his home in his eighth decade of life. It is obvious that it was bad for Jews to live under the Nazis. What is less obvious is the way German and Jewish life change along with the different visions of the German state. This study will suggest some startin g points for an understanding of the German -Jewish experience that reflects this longer view, and that offers us in the process a clearer appreciation of the patterns and discontinuities within and between the different historical versions of the German st ate in the twentieth century. Before doing so, it is appropriate to consider a few aspects of the existing literature, and where this work fits. 1. A “special path” for Germany? The enduring debate about the nature of the German state is centered on the concept of a Sonderweg , a special path that Germany has taken, departing from an ostensibly “normal” European development. As developed by Hans-Ulrich Wehler, in 2 The German Empire, 1871 -1918, this thesis emphasizes the distinctive nature of German unification in 1871, its alleged close ties to the conservative land-holding class personified by Prince Otto von Bismarck. According to this interpretation, liberal middle classes failed to plant the seeds of representative government and progress and the course of the Hohenzollern Empire was negatively affected as a result, leading in part to German involvement in the First World War. Wehler’s image of the Empire is an inherently un- modern model, leaving the Germans more vulnerable to fascism when the time came. When a Republic finally arrived, it represented a revolutionary change and suffered as a result. This outlook has been challenged over time, notably by Geoff Eley and David Blackbourn. Eley and Blackbourn take exception to the notion of a “normal” Europea n development, from which Germany presumably strayed. They reject the image of the German bourgeoisie as marginalized and ineffective, and argue that German middle classes got most of what they wanted with German unification in 1871, and that indeed, the Bismarckian revolution should be thought of as a “progressive” one, taking more into account than just a narrow focus on representative government.
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