100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 yFte 55 50 52 My Father 49 Victim andWitnessProtection Victims attheEC Statement onSecurityforWitnessesand 49 Statement ontheCambodian-UNAgreement 27 19 Trial AgreementTakesEffect Rwanda: IsThereaHopeforthatPlace? 24 23 How theECCanLearnfromICTR A LookBacktotheHorriblePast From aSoldiertoPrisoneroftheKhmerRouge 14 Khmer Rouge A Cambodian-VietnameseCoupleunderthe 12 Need toPreserveForensicEvidence 9 Buddhist CremationTraditionsandthe 10 8 2 :TySrin Confession Summary :PoulToeun Confession Summary the VictimsofGenocide Circular onthePreservationofRemains for theKhmerRougeTribunal DC-CAM AppealsfortheReleaseofArchives 6 1 How DidISurvivetheKhmerRouge? Rouge Tribunal Chhang: A RoleforASEANintheForthcomingKhmer Youk from Letters What RemainstobeDone F P L H D E Lee, H.E.SokAn,Prum Samun. D i C n A E D o U i I O -C s G S M C n I B t C T T A r t h L I O i O r U L L b i I i C Y e b R R M u T f u I Y : t A T E D o t A Terith Chy. N L o R r E : r A B T B s A Bunthann Meas. C : A L T I Wynne Cougill,Sorya Sim, SavinaSirik,SocheatNhean,SimonO’Connell, Ah-Jung N T I E O E G N O F E d i C t o r O -i i n N -C E C m T h S E i t a e a N i f f l

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m E d . i o t o r g r - has paid$7millionover thelastdecadetohelp million sharewillbemet. TheUnitedStates-which If theEUcontributiongoes totheUN,itsfull$43 package orthegovernmentofCambodia’spackage. whether themoneywouldgotoUNbudget pledged $1.3million,buthasnotyetconfirmed Belgium andGermany.TheEuropeanUnionhas with thelatestcontributionscomingfromFrance, pledging conferenceheldinNewYorkonMarch28, collected fromtheinternationalcommunitysince Cambodian government.Nearly$42millionhasbeen by donorstotheUNandremainder $56.3 million,$43millionofwhichwillbeshouldered The estimatedbudgetfortheEChasbeensetatUS that noeffortswillbesparedtobegintheECpromptly. Cambodian governmentandUNhaveannounced three-year proceedingshavebeenraised,boththe Kofi AnnanannouncedonApril29,2005. on November16,2004andUNSecretary-General fulfilled, asDeputyPrimeMinisterSokAnannounced requirements forestablishingthetribunalhavebeen (entered intoeffectonApril29,2005)anditsbudget. Sim) andtheUN-Cambodiaagreementontrial on October27,2004byactingheadofstateChea the LawonEstablishmentofEC(promulgated experienced bythegenocide'ssurvivors. and fortheunthinkablehardshiptrauma for thelossofnearlytwomillionCambodianlives, Khmer Rougeleadersandthosemostresponsible Chambers (EC).ThisUN-aidedtribunalistotrysenior towards theestablishmentofExtraordinary must trytofigureoutwhathasalreadybeendone find justiceforthevictimsofKhmerRouge,one E D I T O R I And nowthatenoughfundsforoperatingthe After delaysofnearlysevenyears,thelegal First, oneshouldlookattwolegaldocuments: To understandwhatremainstobedone A A L : W H A T D R OCUMENTATION E M A C NE OF ENTER I N S C AMBODIA to coveritsshortfall.According that CambodiawilluseaspecialfundsetupbyJapan announcement ofForeignMinisterHorNamhong of theECwascrossedonJune21,2005with everyone thoughtwasthelasthurdletocreation pledged thelargestportionofEC'sbudget.What then soughthelpfromJapan,whichhadalready assistance tobridgeits$11.8millionshortfall.It million ofitsexpectedshareandwasseekingbilateral announced lastmonththatitcouldonlypay$1.5 proves tobecredible. expressed itswillingnesstostepinoncethetribunal not madeanypledgestowardstheEC.Butithas the architectsofKhmerRouge'satrocities-has support thecollectionofevidenceneededtoconvict ______that thetrialswillbeginnextyear. optimistic thatthislasthurdlecanbeovercomeand is dealtwith,theECcanbegintofunction.Weremain could provetobeamajorobstacle.Oncethisissue the tribunalsecuredinabankbeforetrialsbegin have beensatisfied,buthavingallthemoneyfor delay. Everyoneagreesthatthelegalrequirements is obviousthattheECmustbegintooperatewithout the survivingKhmerRougeleadersintoaccount,it has appealedforothercountriestohelpaswell. stated thatitwillnotcoverthewholeshortfall,and bank. FollowingHorNamhong’sannouncementJapan the in is and the full$56.3millionhasbeensecured has saidthatthetribunal "money isnolongeranissue," Daily Terith Chy is the co-English editor-in-chief of the of editor-in-chief co-English the is Chy Terith special English edition of Searching for the Truth. the for Searching of edition English special T , onJune22,HorNamhongannounced O However, theCambodiangovernment When willthedelaysend?Takingagesof (DC-C B AM ) E 1 S D EARCHING cannot move O F N OR butthegovernment T E HE T The The RUTH owr until forward Cambodia E DITORIALS that

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S turned onitself,seeingenemies everywherewithin Russia’s KGB,andtheVietnamese. Later,theregime supposed membersor associates oftheUSCIA, die. NextcametheKhmerRouge’sperceivedenemies: with thepreviousLonNolregimewerefirstto cities camethefirstwaveofkillings.Thoseassociated inspired KhmerRouge.Andwiththeemptyingof and movementwereeliminatedbytheMaoist- Freedom ofreligion,press,privateproperty,speech mosques, banksandbusinesseswereforcedtoclose. completely agrariansocietyforDemocraticKampuchea. labor inthefieldsandcarryoutvisionofa forced over3millionpeopleintothecountrysideto Rouge evacuatedCambodia’scitiesandtowns, elation wasshort-lived.Withinafewdays,theKhmer would atlastfindpeacefortheircountry.But citizens welcomedthenewregime,thinkingthey embroiled inacivilwarsince1970,sothecapital’s their takeoverofthecountry.Cambodiahadbeen several years,enteredPhnomPenhandcompleted had controlledmostofCambodia’sruralareasfor L by the Khmer Rouge constitutes the largest death largest the constitutes Rouge Khmer the by PECIAL E toll in percentage terms of all the genocides in modern in genocides the all of terms percentage in toll T history. It has been more than 25 years since the since years 25 than more been has It history. T Khmer Rouge regime was overthrown, yet not a not yet overthrown, was regime Rouge Khmer E single credible trial of its leaders has been held. been has leaders its of trial credible single R the upcoming tribunal – which is anticipated to begin to anticipated is which – tribunal upcoming the S in 2006 –differ widely. It is doubtful that everyone’s that doubtful is It widely. –differ 2006 in All schoolsanduniversities,pagodas On April17,1975theKhmerRouge,which killed population Cambodia’s of quarter The E expectations for justice can be realized, but there but realized, be can justice for expectations F will nevertheless be tangible benefits to holding to benefits tangible be nevertheless will NGLISH R A trials. While ASEAN’s member states have not made not have states member ASEAN’s While trials. O financial contributions to the tribunal, they can still can they tribunal, the to contributions financial play important non-monetary roles. non-monetary important play M Cambodians’ expectations and questions for questions and expectations Cambodians’

Y R O E U DITION K O C H , S H L A A ECOND N E G : F Q K O UARTER H R D M OCUMENTATION 2005 A E S R E R A C NE OF ENTER O N U

G I C N AMBODIA E where villagerstookjusticeintotheirownhands the KhmerRougeinlate1970sandafewcases “show trials”heldbythesuccessorgovernmentto exception ofwhathavebeenwidelyregardedas Rwanda, EastTimor,andelsewhere.Butwiththe have beenheldforatrocitiesintheformerYugoslavia, late 1940s,andmorerecently,internationaltribunals of Hitler’sNaziregimewerebroughttojusticeinthe of itsformerleadershaseverbeenheld.Members of Cambodianhistoryisthatnotasinglecredibletrial a thirdofCambodia’spopulation. responsible forthedeathsofbetweenaquarterand people in1994.Incontrast,theKhmerRougewere occupied, andRwandansbutchered14%oftheir about 6%ofthepeopleinpartsEuropethey by theKhmerRouge.TheNazis,forexample,killed approached thealmostunimaginabletollexacted large numbersoftheirownpeople,butnonehas Throughout history,othergovernmentshavekilled starvation, disease,overwork,andoutrightexecution. for thedeathsofatleast1.7millionCambodiansfrom of Kampucheawasdirectlyorindirectlyresponsible its ownranksandkillingmanyofown. T T H Another distinguishingfeatureofthisperiod Over thenextfouryears,CommunistParty (DC-C R E I P B o AM l

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C AMBODIA Cambodian law,andunderthelawsofotherstates. and warcrimes–aswellforunder law –includinggenocide,crimesagainsthumanity, prosecuted foravarietyofcrimesunderinternational principle, theformerKhmerRougeleaderscanbe and expectationsamongthepublicvarywidely.In prosecuted. budget, onlyadozenorlesspeoplearelikelytobe for Cambodia’strialsissmall.Withsuchamodest Compared tootherinternationaltribunals,thebudget regime’s formerleaderswillbebroughttotrial. for thetrialscouldbesetupinearly2006. Barring otherdelays,theExtraordinaryChambers bank accountitsetupseveralyearsagoforCambodia. permission tousemoniesfromayen-denominated the shortfall,andJapanhasgivengovernment to establishtheKhmerRougeTribunal)makeup to Japan(whichistheco-sponsorofUNresolution that itcouldonlycontribute$1.5million.Itappealed $13 millionincashandkind,butbelatedlystated million. TheCambodiangovernmentwastopay international community’sslatedcontributionof$43 received pledgesforalittleover$41millionofthe tribunal: raisingabudgetof$56million.TheUNhas completed thenextphaseofpreparationsfor senior leadersfinallycamewithinreach. actions, theprospectsforatribunalregime’s No onecanpredictthetribunal’soutcome, No oneknowsforcertainhowmanyofthe Cambodia andtheUnitedNationshavenearly (DC-C AM ) T 3 a

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S Cambodia’s future. the outcome,trials willbeimportantfor work topreventitfromhappeningagain.Whatever happened inCambodiaaliveandinspirepeopleto Thus, tribunalswillhelpkeepthememoryofwhat endured suchhardshipsundertheKhmerRouge. Cambodians simplycan’tbelievethattheirparents generation afterthegenocide,manyyoung their justicesystemtobecome.Andthird,just a legal apparatusworksandaboutwhattheywant a dialogueamongCambodiansonwhethertheir Cambodian justicesystem.Second,theycanstimulate the questionstheyhaveabouttribunalsand form abackdropforhelpingpeopleanswersomeof important benefitsforourcountry.First,theycan expectations forjusticewillbemet. system, itisunlikelythatmostCambodians’ least ofall,thetrackrecordCambodianlegal for severalyears,thelikelihoodofappeals,andnot prosecution, thepossibilitythattrialscoulddragon will beaddressedfortheformerleaders. law. Instead,onlyspecificchargesandcases them willbechargedandbroughtbeforeacourtof budgetary, andotherevidentiaryreasons,notallof jailed fortheircrimes.Butlegal,documentary, to seeallofthe“intellectualauthors”genocide reconciled. Theyareafraidof“rakingupthepast.” at allbecauseCambodianshavealreadybecome politicians –havestatedthattrialsshouldnotbeheld advocate forgiveness.Averysmallnumber–mainly Cambodians takeamorestrictlyBuddhistlineand against thedeathpenaltyfordecades).Afewother the deathpenalty(andUNhasbeenadvocating crimes withtheirlives,butCambodiadoesnothave would liketoseetheformerleaderspayfortheir against themwillbeuptotheprosecutingauthority. The decisiononexactlywhatchargeswillbebrought PECIAL The DocumentationCenter ofCambodia,other Nevertheless, thetrialswillprovidethreevery Given theagesofmanycandidatesfor The vastmajorityofCambodia’speoplewant Some membersoftheCambodianpublic E NGLISH E DITION , S ECOND Q UARTER D OCUMENTATION 2005 C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA role inworldpolitics from ASEANinparticular– elements ofdemocracy.AsAsiancountries–andthose and thatdueprocesstheruleoflawarecritical their beliefthattheserightsareuniversalinnature Asian countrieshaveprogressivelydemonstrated Over thepastfewdecades,however,peopleinmany rights asanissuethatislargelyWesterninorientation. a monetarycontribution totheupcomingKhmer the changesthathavebeen takingplaceinAsia. it iscriticalthattheirconductandperformancereflect of theirgovernmentandtheinternationalcommunity. the trialsandhaveagreaterawarenessofworkings help averageCambodiansparticipateindirectlyin debate andfeedback.Theseothereffortswill shown inothervillagesnationwidetoencourage with others.Themeetingswillbefilmedandthefilms will thenreturnhomeanddiscusstheirexperience to attendaweekofthetribunal’sproceedings.They it willbringvillageleadersfromalloverthecountry For itspart,DC-Camhasanewprojectunderwhich a handbooktoinformthepublicabouttrials. possible. Forexample,thegovernmenthaspublished tribunal andtoobserveexperienceitwhen working tohelpCambodiansbecomeawareofthe and tosomeextent,thegovernmentitself,are legal andhumanrightsnon-governmentorganizations, W h K a h t i

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C AMBODIA only willthishelpaverage citizenstogainaclearer help peoplelearnwhat to expectfromthem.Not before thetrialsbegin,distribute information,and throughout Cambodia,whowillgodoorto group ofnearly200studentvolunteersfrom bringing peopletothecapitalfromcountryside. or smallbuseswouldbeamuch-neededmeansof can beprohibitive.Thus,thedonationoflargevans Phnom Penhtoattendaportionoftrial,thecosts rural Cambodians.Forthosewhowouldtravelto consuming andexpensiveundertakingformost political scienceclasseswouldbeveryvaluable. administrative stafforforuniversityhistoryand kind. Donationsofnewcomputersforthetribunal’s Cambodia’s contributiontothetribunalscanbein- counseling tobothformervictimsandperpetrators. assistance totheCambodiancommunitybyproviding counselors fromASEANcouldbeofinvaluable have aninnateunderstandingoftheAsianpsyche, accepted oreffectiveinCambodia.Becausethey this syndrome,suchasgrouptherapy,arenotwell found thatthetraditionalWesternwaysoftreating other debilitatingsymptomsofPTSD.Wehavealso those whoareexperiencinganger,insomnia,and medication, cangoalongwaytowardhelping treatments, suchasbreathingexercisesorsleeping Organization, DC-Camhasfoundthatsimple 6 5 4 (DC-C I . . . e n V T H g r o

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S learn differentapproachestoproblemsolving. their knowledgeofregionalhistoryandpolitics, throughout ASEAN,whowillhelpthembroaden benefit fromtheirassociationwithstudents in theircommunities.TheCambodianstudentswould building afuturecoreofcitizenswhoareinvolved understanding ofthetrials,butitwillalsoassistin few villagershaveaccesstonewspapersortelevision. where theaverageincomeisaboutadollarday, very importantdonation,itiscritical.Inacountry me. Buttheroadwasblocked andonApril18th,the the daybefore,tellingme theywouldcomebackfor another familymemberhad leftforasaferlocation Phnom Penh,Iwashomealone;mymotherand under theKhmerRouge. becoming independenthelpedpreparemeforlife newspaper) andtobebymyself.Insomeways, to doalotformyself(likemakingmyownkitesfrom every week.Asaresultofallthesethings,Ilearned protecting them.Andmyschoolcloseddownalmost my sisters,anddevotedmuchoftheirattentionto constantly worriedthatbadthingswouldhappento was rationedinourhome.Myparentswerealso in thecountryside.Everybanana,everygrainofrice into ourhouseinPhnomPenhtoavoidthefighting small salary.Plus,manyofourrelativeshadmoved every dayandwehadtobecarefulwithmyfather’s people duringtheearly1970s,pricesweregoingup Nol Army.Althoughwewerebetteroffthanmany was anarchitectandlaterdraftedintotheLon approaches. anniversary oftheKhmerRougetakeoverCambodia been thinkingalotabouttheansweras30th asked methisquestionmorethananyother.Ihave Documentation CenterofCambodia,reportershave PECIAL 7 In thetenyearsthatI’vebeenworkingat When theKhmerRougebeganevacuating On April17,1975,Iwasaboyof14.Myfather E . NGLISH R a d i E o DITION s H . While thisdoesnotseemlikea O , S W ECOND D Q UARTER I D D OCUMENTATION 2005 I

S U R V C NE OF ENTER I V E C T AMBODIA H assistance fortheKhmerRougetribunal. human rightsinAsiabyprovidingmuch-needed of theASEANcommunitywillshowtheirsupportfor in thetribunal. in helpingCambodiansstayabreastofdevelopments or usedtransistorotherradioswouldbeinvaluable listen anddiscussthenews.Thus,donationsofnew old carbattery,withvillagersgatheringaroundto use forlearning;theyoftenhookuparadiotoan However, radioisthemainmediumCambodians dreamed aboutallkindsof foodallthetime.Itwould to findedibleleavesinthe jungle. food, howtokillandeatsnakesrats, in thefloodedricefields.AndIlearnedhowtosteal could divedownandcutthesweetsugarcanegrowing taught myselfhowtoswim,forexample,sothat I but hungercanmakeyoulearnalotofthings. I more andmore,grewlonelythanever. later ourunitbeganworkingtoofaraway.Iwasalone able tosneakhomeatnightvisitmyfamily,but mobile unittodigcanals.Foraboutayear,Iwas I wasseparatedfromthemandputinateenagers’ province next.Afterwewerethereforafewmonths, later, shetoo,cametohervillageandwewerereunited. into Vietnam,butwasblocked.Aboutfourmonths the meantime,mymotherhadtriedtocrossborder After someweeksofwalkingIarrivedatthevillage.In for some,andtheygavemeroundpalmsugarcakes. no foodwithme,IaskedtheKhmerRougesoldiers to mymother’shomeinTakeoprovince.BecauseIhad were goingtotheirhomevillages,soIdecidedgo walking. Alongtheway,Iheardpeoplesaying neighborhood wascompletelydeserted.SoI but Ihadnoideaofwheretogobecauseour Khmer RougetoldmethatIhadtoleave.wentoutside, E It isCambodians’hopethatothermembers Food becamemygodduring theregime.I As acitykid,Ididn’thavemanysurvivalskills, My familywasevacuatedtoBattambang (DC-C K H AM M ) E 6 R R O U G E ? started they may havepreventedme frommeetingthefateof wife. AndIwastoldnot to escape.Iagreed,which brother-in-law turnedback becausehemissedhis left alittlelater.Afterhewalkedforfewdays,my certainly bekilledifhestayed.Mybrother-in-law for theNationalBankofCambodiaandwouldbe should runawaytoThailandbecausehehadworked base persontoldmyuncleatthattimehe began stealingandtakingmanyotherchances. A 12 survivedDemocraticKampuchea),andpeople (Trapeang Vengoncehad1,200families,butonly Cambodia aboutthelargenumbersofpeopledying ordered Auntosendmeawaywiththemobileunit. The scissorssavedmeforafewdaysuntilAngkar her youngestbrother,butshesacrificedthemforme. these scissorsbecausetheyhadbeenagiftfrom scissors fromChinaasafavor.Mymothertreasured out tothefieldswork,andgaveAunhershiny 12 yearsold.Mymotherbeggedhernottosendme Zone; hernamewasComradeAunandsheonly in Battambang,hadachiefwhocamefromtheWest food whenweneededitmost. another basepersonnamedToukgaveourfamily enemy areasandhasnotbeenseenagain.And This manwaslateraccusedofhavingrelativesin released. Twoweekslater,Iwasletoutofthisprison. I wasstillveryyoungandbegginghimtohaveme village wenttothesubdistrictchief,tellinghimthat tortured. Amanwhohadgrownupinmymother’s subdistrict securityoffice,whereIwasbeatenand kindness. OncetheKhmerRougeputmein being killedbymanypeopleandtheirsmallactsof with thevillageandunitchiefs.ButIwassavedfrom I seemyselfintheirhungryfaces. now thatwenolongerliveundertheKhmerRouge. me. Iwonderwhytheycannothaveenoughtoeat when Iseehungrychildreninthestreets,itupsets to returnthefieldsworkeachday.Eventoday, help mefallasleepandgavethestrengthIneeded At theendof1978,rumorsstartedflyingaround Trapeang Veng,thevillagewherewestayed I wasangry,too,andthisgotmeintotrouble D OCUMENTATION C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA where I’vebeenand I’mgoingnow. same flowerstodayatDC-Cam.Theyremindmeof fingernail, andwinterTuesdayplants.Igrowthe house whenIwasyoung:orchids,andthunderstorm, my friendsandlovedonesalive.Igrewflowersat education asachild,anditkeepsthememoriesof been acomforttome;itrenewsthehopesIhadfor for revenge.VisitingthehomewhereIgrewuphas and otherquestions,Inolongerhaveastrongdesire I wantedrevenge,too. could nothelpmewhenIwasbeingtortured.And who waspregnantandstarving,whymymother when Itriedtofindvegetablesforoneofmysisters sister wasmurdered,whyIjailedandtortured Democratic Kampuchea.Iwantedtoknowwhymy the regimebroughtmetomyprofessionofresearching pain andlostsomanymembersofmyfamilyduring The needtofindanswerswhyIenduredsomuch to fightforlife. This hopewasalwayswithmeandencouraged have agoodnight’ssleepandenoughtoeatoneday. Democratic Kampuchea.Instead,Ihopedthatwould would survive,anditgavemehope. looking faraway.ShesaidthiswasasignthatI though. IwassittingontheBuddha’sEyeMountain, the regimetoday.Mymotherhadadreamaboutme, was alivingnightmare,butIdonotdreamabout any nightmaresabouttheKhmerRouge.Mylifethen a reasontohope. a timewhenitwasdifficulttodoso.Theygaveme life anddidtheirbesttoasserthumanityduring one time.Thesewerepeoplewhosawthevalueof total strangersmayhavesavedmylifemorethan never seenagain.Isuspectthathesteppedonamine. my uncle.HecontinuedwalkingtoThailand,butwas Although Iamstillseekinganswerstothese The KhmerRougechangedmylifeforever. So Ineverthoughtofdying,evenonce,during Reporters andothersalsoaskmeifIstillhave These actsbymembersofmyfamilyandeven (DC-C AM ) 7 E S d EARCHING i t o r -i i n -C C F OR h i e T f HE

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S this period.Wehopetheywilldeclassifythesematerials historical accountingofthecrimescommittedduring that mightbeusefulinestablishingafulllegaland (including signalsintelligence)archivesformaterials will searchtheirdiplomatic,militaryandintelligence Vietnam orLaos.Wehopethatallthesegovernments followed eventsfromembassiesinThailand,China, bodia duringDemocraticKampuchea,whileothers vastly enlargingthetribunal'sknowledgebase. contribution totruthandjusticeforCambodiansby This bodyofinformationwouldmakeavaluable film footagetakenduringtheKhmerRougeregime. In addition,weareseekingthereturnofimportant from theperiodApril17,1975toJanuary6,1979. materials (suchasphotographsandaudiorecordings) materials includedocuments,testimony,andother be setuptotryformerKhmerRougeleaders.These regime totheExtraordinaryChambers,whichwill justice byprovidingmaterialstheypossessonthe organizations, andindividualshelpourcountryattain Cambodia (DC-Cam)asksthatgovernments, still awaitingjustice.TheDocumentationCenterof Rouge's risetopower,theCambodianpeopleare to 7:45p.m. Sophal Ly([email protected]), orcontactusatP.O.Box1110,Phnom Penhor023211875. repetition ofsucharegime. contribute totheenlargementofpeople'sunderstanding onKhmerRougehistoryandthepreventionof and otherbookspublishedbyDC-Cam.Ourprogram canbeheardon: PECIAL D For commentsorquestions onourprogramming,pleasecontactFarinaSo ([email protected])or Soon DC-Camwillalsoextenditsradioprogram toSiemRiep.Weanticipatethattheprogramwill DC-Cam hasproducedaradioprogramfocusedonreadingsfromitsmagazineSearchingfortheTruth Several governmentshadembassiesinCam- Today, onthethirtiethanniversaryofKhmer E C FM 103.25MHz,Battambang,dailyfrom9:00to9:30 a.m.and3:00to3:30p.m. FM 99MHz,PreahVihear,dailyfrom7:00to7:30 a.m.and6:30to7:00p.m. FM 93.25MHz,Kampot,dailyfrom7:00to7:30a.m. and7:00to7:30p.m. FM 102MHzoftheWomen’sMediaCenter,Phnom Penh,everyWednesdayandThursdayfrom7:30 NGLISH - C E A DITION M K , S H A ECOND M P E P T R Q H E UARTER A R E L D O S OCUMENTATION 2005 K U H F G O M E R E H R C T NE OF ENTER I S H R T E O O R C R U AMBODIA Y Rouge tribunalisafair materials candotheir is established.Bydoingso,those documents nowsotheywillbereadywhenthetribunal should begintogatheranddeclassifyrelevant can alwaysbefoundtosuchproblems. of certainsources.Butwebelievethatviablesolutions legitimate concernsaboutprotectingtheconfidentiality follow theirlead. anticipation ofthetribunal.Wehopeotherswill providing uswiththeirKhmerRouge- DavidHawkfor Nations CentreforHumanRights Officer inChargeoftheCambodia Steve HederoftheUniversity Cambodian public.DC-CamwouldliketothankDr. will makethemeasilyaccessibletothecourtand individuals whomaybeholdingrelevantmaterials Chambers, andmakethempublic. when necessary,transmitthemtotheExtraordinary G E L A E E V Time isoftheessence.Governmentsinparticular DC-Cam recognizesthatpeoplewillhave We alsohopethatjournalists,scholarsandother (DC-C A T A S R I L E AM I A B ) B O U D L 8 F o N E c u A A m att nuethattheKhmer part to ensure O and thorough L e R N n t C a t i i A H o Y n o I I

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R i i 2 r e b b 0 c o 0 t d d o 5 i i r a No.13 S.R.N.N Royal GovernmentofCambodia authorities shallimplementiteffectively. overthrow ofDemocraticKampuchea.Onreceiving this directive,allrelevantministriesandinstitutionslocal communes, inaccordancewiththeregulationsof MinistryofLandManagement,ConstructionandUrbanization. on thishistoricregionwithoutgovernmentpermission, exceptforconstructionofhousingresidentsvillagesand subdivide landinananarchicmanner,ortoundertake anyformofconstructioninAnlongVengthathasanimpact to transformAnlongVengintoanationalregionofhistoricaltourism.Itisabsolutelyprohibitedencroach onor to establishahistoricalmuseum,andsearchforsourcesofgrantsinorderpreserveallevidence and the DocumentationCenterofCambodiatoeradicatemines,prepareasoundmasterplan,researchdocuments, of LandManagement,Construction,andUrbanization,MilitaryRegion4,theCambodianMineActionCenter and to cooperatewiththelocalauthoritiesandallrelevantministriesinstitutions,especially Ministry Pot's KhmerRouge,theMinistryofTourismshallcontinuetomakeefforts,aspreviouslydirectedbygovernment, which wasofhistoricimportanceinthefinalstagepoliticallifeleadersandmilitaryorganization ofPol technical guidelines,andshallappointexpertofficialstoworktogetherwiththelocalauthoritiesonthis issue. for bothcitizensandtourists;theMinistryofCultureFineArtsTourismshallissue further grave sites,sothatallsuchplacesmaybetransformedintomemorials,withfences,treesandinformative plaques their areastoexamine,restoreandmaintainexistingmemorials,examineresearchother remaining the followingdirectives: region tobecomeahistoricalmuseumfornationalandinternationaltouristsinthefuture,government issues period 1975-1978,lasting3years,8monthsand20days,especiallytopreservepreparetheAnlong Veng brought aboutbytheDemocraticKampuchearegimeagainstpeopleandterritoryofCambodiaduring education bytheCambodianpeopleasawhole,especiallyfuturegenerations,ofpainfulandterriblehistory government hasobservedthatsincetimethesememorialshavenotbeenproperlymaintained. and topreservethemcarefully,someinstupas,otherformsofappropriatememorials.However,the genocidal PolPotregime.Rightaway,theauthoritiesandcitizensmadeeffortstotakeremainsofvictims of CambodiaasphysicaltestimonythecrimescommittedagainstinnocentCambodianpeopleby C Archives andRecords State andInstitutions Deputy PrimeMinisters CC: I General SecretariatoftheNationalAssembly R C U K 3. Effortsshallbemadetoimplementtheaboveprovisions before7January2002,the23rdanniversaryof 2. WithparticularreferencetotheAnlongVengregion,indistrictofAlongVeng,OtdarMeancheyProvince, 1. Alllocalauthoritiesattheprovinceandmunicipallevelsshallcooperatewithrelevantexpertinstitutions in In ordertopreservetheremainsasevidenceofthesehistoriccrimesandbasisforremembrance Following theliberationof7January1979,numerousgraveswereleftbehindthroughoutentireterritory L A Ministry oftheRoyalPalace A M R P O U N C H P E R A E S ( E 1 R 9 V 7 A T 5 I O -1 1 N 9 Office ofthePrimeMinister O 7 F 8 Offices ofProvincesand Municipalities R ) E ,

M A A N I D D N S OCUMENTATION P General SecretariatoftheSenate R O E F P A T H R A E K T V I I O I N C N N T G a Ministries, Secretariatsof I C M O D t NE OF ENTER i F S o O n A M O

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K N O B i G C O n I g D D T (DC-C O E I A C B O E C M AM O M M ) I T E T S E EARCHING A D 9 R Phnom Penh,14December2001 D E G U I R O I N N F G OR F [Signed andsealed] O T H R Prime Minister T E HE H R I Hun Sen S E T T G RUTH O I M R I E C A O L F D T OCUMENTATION D O U E M R I O S M C R A T I C

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S convince twostudentsand twoprofessors(Chann School inSvayRiengprovince. Hemanagedto Ministry ofEducationto teachatSoryavongHigh namely UyTyMan,MignDanandKaingKovin. while Toeunwasabletoemploy3moreforces, revolution. serve theCIA;hewasgivenjobofspyingon the advancementoffreeworldanddecidedto counties. Afterthat,Toeunbecameobsessedwith freedom, foodandclothesincomparisontodemocratic about therevolution’sdeficienciessuchas:insufficient named ChienKimYean.ToeunsaidYeantoldhim induced todistrusttherevolutionbyaclassmate at theFacultyofPedagogy. high schoolinPhnomPenh.In1963Toeunstudied his secondaryeducationatKampucheaBot,aprivate his elementaryeducationin1954-55,hecontinued Chhouk PagodainKampongSpeu.Whenhefinished 1949 heenteredelementaryschoolatTraPoang E E in Battambang province under the regime of King of regime the under province Battambang in PECIAL d d Norodom Sihanouk. He was born in Tang Choeuk Tang in born was He Sihanouk. Norodom village, Pneay subdistrict, Samroang Torng district, Torng Samroang subdistrict, Pneay village, u u Kampong Speu province. His father’s name was name father’s His province. Speu Kampong Poul Thuch, and his mother’s was Chey Vit; both Vit; Chey was mother’s his and Thuch, Poul c c were farmers. When the Khmer Rouge took power, took Rouge Khmer the When farmers. were a a he was classified as one of the new people in Kdol in people new the of one as classified was he t t From 1965to1967Toeunwasassignedbythe Kim Yeanrecruited10studentsandprofessors, While attheFacultyofPedagogy,Toeunwas Toeun grewupinKampongSpeuprovince.In Poul Toeun aka Chang, age 40, was a teacher a was 40, age Chang, aka Toeun Poul cooperative, subdistrict 4, Daun Teave district, Region district, Teave Daun 4, subdistrict cooperative, E i i 4, Northwest Zone. Toeun was arrested by Angkar on Angkar by arrested was Toeun Zone. Northwest 4, o o NGLISH November 4, 1977, and sent to Toul Sleng prison. Sleng Toul to sent and 1977, 4, November n n

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DITION c P k o O g l r i t o , S i N c u s ECOND n d F E Q S UARTER S I D O OCUMENTATION 2005 N S U C NE OF ENTER M Sophal Ly Sophal M C AMBODIA A to beasecretagentinSin Lum’snetwork,andin controlled. Toeunwasalso abletoconvinceKolSeat northern partofBattambang, whichSinLum closely withSinLumtopersuadepeopleinthe Lum, acustomsofficialandspy.Toeunworked Battambang, wherehestayedwithhiscousinSin at aprivateschoolinPhnomPenh. his CIAnetworkwithKhuySien,aformerprofessor people: PhaiChhonandRannSarith.Heconnected Republic regime.Toeunmanagedtoconvincetwo convincing morepeopletoworkforLonNol’sKhmer began theiractivitiesagainsttherevolutionby was releasedin1969. responsibility for30prisonersincludingToeun.He and Choek.Thesetwoformercombatantsweregiven continued hisactivitieswithtwootherinmates,Chin for fivemonthsatPreySarprison.Whilethere,he him toturnhimselfintheauthorities.Hewasjailed time. Toendhislifeinhiding,Toeun’sbrothertook his brother’shouseinPhnomPenhforaperiodof forces whiletheywereenroute.ThenToeunfledto However, guerillatroopsattackedandkilledthe that KimYeancouldbringthe10forcestobase. in San-Danndistrict,KampongThomprovinceso Yean inordertogetassignmentsfromhim. brought 10forceshehadfashionedtomeetKim on thecountry’snaturalresources.In1967Toeun make CambodiaasrichtheUnitedStatesbased cousins-in-law namedEkSina,whoseideawasto that itwaseasyforToeuntoinfluencethem. were sofascinatedwiththeideasoffreeworld Ien andChumBan)abouthisideas.Thesetwomen R Y (DC-C In 1971Toeunwasagainassignedtoteachat Before 1970ToeunandNe,anarmymajor, In 1968Toeunwasorderedtoestablishabase In 1966hewasabletoinduceoneofhis :

P AM ) O 10 U L T O E U N storehouses forsalt,fishsauce, andrice.Toeunwas secretary showedhim different placessuchas aka Sou,whowasateacher inKampongSpeu.The went tomeetthesecretaryofRegion4,KhekPin airport almosteveryday.OnApril17,1975Toeun because theKhmerRougeshelledPohchentong plans failed,reasonswouldbesoughtafterwards.” was tostrikediversetargetsoftherevolution.Ifboth the countryinordertoimplement2 all forceshadtojoinwithCIAfromover had tofollowDamChhuob’scommand.Ifthatfailed, army wastooelatedtoprotectthemselves.Everybody attack therevolutionfrombehindwhenliberation wait forordersfromfirstlieutenantDamChhuobto after thewarended,allforcesweretobereadyand opportunity tostriketherevolution’skeyleadership.” If possible,forcesofsecretagentshadtotakethe implemented –fighttherevolutioninvariousregions. with joy.Ifthisfailed,the2 revolution whenthewinnerswereoverwhelmed forces wouldbeabletotakethechancefight battle too.Bypretendingtolose,allthesesecret authorities oftherevolutionhadtobereadyfor the revolutionaryauthorities;forcesoutside plan: topsecretagentshadtohidethemselveswithin local membersinBattambang.Theplanswere:“1 about twonewplansthatweretobereported in Battambangoverthepastyear.KhuySeantoldhim to KhuySeanontheforceshehadbeengathering Bory, wasalsoinducedbyToeun. named Oak.VanChamRatt,ateacherinMongkul agents, Luot,NgoyandVattVoeutviaanotheragent managed toacquainthimselfwiththreeothersecret them foradditionalinstructionfromKhuySean.Toeun Nuon andLyBorn. mid-1972 Toeunrecruitedtwomoreforces:Phann In late1974PhnomPenhwasintrouble Toeun’s planwasasfollows:“Immediately In 1974ToeuncametoPhnomPenhreport In 1972heconvincedthreeothers,andsent nd D OCUMENTATION plan wouldbe nd plan, which C NE OF ENTER st C AMBODIA people heclaimedwere linked tohisactivities. In hisconfession,Toeunrevealedthenamesof61 He wasinterrogatedbyKhanatTuolSlengprison. his house,AngkararrestedhimonApril19,1977. dig damsforsixweeks.Fourdaysafterreturningto later transferredtoharvestriceforonemonthand arranged aplantofurtherresistAngkar.Toeunwas secret agentstoruinmanycropsandanimals. village. Whilethere,Toeunconvincedfiveformer Saom SamUnthenassignedhimtoraisepigsinKdol Toeun gotintoadisagreementwithvillagecadres. district, Battambang).Afteraweekofworkingthere, as acadre’sassistantinDistrict43(DaunTeave arrested byAngkar,SaomSamUngotToeuntowork in cooperativesundertheclosewatchofAngkar. intellectuals wereputtoworkwithordinarypeople actions againsttherevolutionaryAngkar.Some of Region4becauseitwassuspectedlaunching Angkar completelydissolvedtheintellectualgroup continued resistingtherevolution.Inlate1975 Despite thisconflict,ToeunandYauveChhom over callingpeopletoameetingwithoutpermission. village afterhehadclasheswiththecadres instruments, birdtrapsandcrops. and SinLumdestroyeddikesatthericefields,fishing was transferredtoworkinO-Munysubdistrict.Toeun district, discoveredtheiractivities,andIngLaiHieng the cooperativechiefofSubdistrict30,Maong follow localcadres.Notlongafterthat,IngLaiHieng, persuaded peopleinDistrict41ofRegion4tonot Cambodia’s lossofterritorytoThailand. where SaomSamUnremindedToeunabout 4. KhekPininvitedToeuntojointhevictorymeeting, assigned toworkamongtheintellectualsofRegion _ S _ o _ p _ _ h _ (DC-C a In 1977Toeun,SaomSamUnandSousecretly After learningthatsomeintellectualswere Angkar transferredToeunoutofRoangKroal Later ToeunandIngLaiHieng,aformerteacher, _ l

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S the CIA.AmannamedTum instructedSrintowork world, anddecidedtotake Srininasamemberof about thetremendous development ofthefree from KampongCham,KoltriedtoexplainSrin In early1966whenhewasreturningtohisvillage of revolutionarymovementswithinthelocalpopulation. Preah Theatsubdistrictsoastograspthedevelopment people. to workexpandtheconceptofdemocracyamong Kol movedtoKampongChamprovince.Srincontinued so hecouldliveanormallifewithhisfamily,while to demandafreeregime.In1964Yaunquithisjob by Kol.YaunoftenpushedSrintopersuadevillagers the FreeKhmerandwasintroducedtoYaunSay democratic campaignamongthepeople. as anexample,KolsuggestedthatSrinlauncha and triedtodowngradecommunism.TakingChina later cametoappreciatethefreeregime(democracy) helped oneanotherwithagriculturalwork,buthe such astheestablishmentofmutualaidgroupsthat At firstKoltaughtSrinabouttheideasofrevolution, learned thatSiengHywasaKhmerRougesoldier. later cutoffhisconnectionwithSiengHywhenhe demanding landfromtheSihanoukgovernment.He encourage peopleinhisvillagetojoinaprotest O-Reang Ovdistrict,Region22,EastZone. help hisparentsfishatChakvillage,Meansubdistrict, he was15and16.Helaterleftthemonkhoodto in 1975 and a chief of protocol at the Ministry of Ministry the at protocol of chief a and 1975 in PECIAL Foreign Affairs of Democratic Kampuchea in 1977. in Kampuchea Democratic of Affairs Foreign On June 1, 1977 he was arrested and sent to Tuol to sent and arrested was he 1977 1, June On Sleng prison (S-21). prison Sleng In 1965MutmadeChaoSoeungsecretaryof In late1960hewasacceptedasamemberof In 1960hegottoknowKolthroughSiengHy. In 1957amannamedSiengHyurgedSrinto Srin hadbeenordainedamonkfor2yearswhen 22 Region of secretary the was Mut aka Srin Ty E NGLISH E DITION C , S ECOND O N Q F UARTER E D S OCUMENTATION 2005 S I O N C NE OF ENTER S Farina So Farina U M C AMBODIA Zone, Srinwasmadesecretary ofRegion22and meeting toremoveSoaYann, secretaryoftheEast even starvedpeople.InJune ofthesameyear,ina and materialsfromthecitytocountryside, He sloweddownthepaceoftransportingpeople Srin incitedpeopletoresistAngkar’spolicyofevacuation. checkpoints andcausingpeopletodistrustAngkar. the revolution.Theplancalledforcreatingmore a plantosowpoliticalconflictbetweenpeopleand the front. would easilysurrender.Srinwaslaterremovedfrom against therevolutionarysoldiersofAngkarsothey was thesame:manysoldierswereinjuredorkilled. did notfullyknowthesituationthere.Theresult Kampoul district,Kandalprovince,eventhoughthey to fightinabattleatRo-KaKaongsubdistrict,Mukh Suor, Srindestroyedmanyweaponsandfoodstuffs. and injured.WhenfightingonabattlefieldinVihea feeble soldierstofight,leavingmanydead who controlledthearmyofRegion22,assigned the growthofKhmerRougerevolution,Srin, people wholikedthefashionablelifestyle.Toblock Nol’s administration.Srinwasabletorecruiteight all kindsofbeansandpeaswithregionsunderLon secretary ofKohSotindistrict.Srintradedfiberand Peam Chaing. weapons fromaplacenearOlympicmarketto panding democracy.TumlaterorderedSrintotransport Mountain sohecouldstrengthenhisstanceofex- village tojoinhiscause. Srin wasabletorecruittwopeopleinMesBra-Chann hard tomobilizemoreforcesdestroytherevolution. M A (DC-C In 1975whenAngkarevacuatedPhnomPenh, Srin calledhisforcesforameetingtodevelop In 1974Srinorderedhisforcestomakethreats In 1973TumandSrincommandedsoldiers After thecoupin1970TumappointedSrinas In 1968SrinwassenttofarmatPeamChaing R Y AM : )

T 12 Y S R I N generate disappointmentwithAngkar. to delivermaterialsandfoodpeopleinorder the taskshehadcompleted.ChheanorderedSrin about thenumberofforceshehadmobilizedand take Srin’searlierposition.SrinthentoldChhean secretary ofRegion22,andappointedChheanto when differencesemergedbetweenSrinandSambok. November 1975.Thesecondplanwasagaincancelled plan –ademonstrationthatwouldtakeplacein studies. Srinandhisaidsthenbegantoarrangeanother involved wereassignedbyAngkartopursuepolitical on MukhKampoulandwerereadytotakeaction. and cadresofallministries.Srin’stroopsconverged (people evacuatedon17April1975fromthecities) strengthen forceswithinthebasepeople,newpeople province. Thoseattendingthemeetingagreedto October 1975atMukhKampouldistrict,Kandal the revolution.Thecoupwassettotakeplacein at PrekTaMeaktostageacoupd’étatoverthrow Sambok deputysecretary. by email:[email protected]. Thanks! submissions isFebruary28, 2005.FordetailspleasecontactMr.Sophearith Chuongat(855)23211875or to DC-CamatP.O.Box 1110, PhnomPenh,Cambodiaoremail:[email protected]. Thedeadlinefor thoughts aboutDemocraticKampuchea. talk aboutyourownexperiencesduringtheregime, thestoriesyouhaveheardaboutothers,and/oryourown awards. Thewinningessayswillbepublishedin in Cambodiaandabroad.Thewinningessayswill be announcedinApril2006.Thewinnerswillgivencash contest. Itisopentostudents,survivorsofDemocratic Kampuchea,andotherCambodians,boththoseliving for futuregenerationsandingivingavoicetoits survivors,DC-CamandKWAareholdinganotheressay lives duringtheregimeortheirthoughtsonissuesrelatedtoKhmerRouge. essay competitionforsurvivorsofDemocraticKampuchea.Contestantssubmittednarrativeessays ontheir Please submityournarrativeessaysbymailtoKWA’s officeatBotumVateyPagodainPhnomPehnor Those whoareinterestedinsubmittinganessay requiredtowriteatleasttenpages.Youressayscan Because oftheimportantrolethiscontestcanplayinpreservinghistoryKhmerRougeperiod On April2,2004DC-CamandtheKhmerWriters’Association(KWA)announcedfourwinnersof an In 1976AngkardemotedSrintodeputy The coupwascancelledbecausethecadres In August,Srinarrangedameetingof12people K H M E R R O U G E D H OCUMENTATION I S T A O R N Y N P C O NE OF ENTER R E Searching for the Truth the for Searching U S E N R C V C AMBODIA A actions againstAngkar. people whoSrinstatedwerelinkedtohistreacherous was foundatS-21after1979.Itcontainedalistof64 where hewasinterrogatedbyOnLy.Hisconfession on June1,1977andtransferredtoTuolSlengprison, accused ofbetrayingtherevolution.Hewasarrested Srin hadlosttouchwithhisconnectionsandwas But bythetimehecametoworkatministry, 1977, Srinwaspromotedtochiefofprotocolaffairs. try tomobilizeforceswithintheministry.InJanuary position, Chhean,Srin’sformerboss,advisedhimto of ForeignAffairsin1977.BeforeSrinleftforhisnew of 3tonsperhectare. so thatyieldswouldnotreachAngkar’spolicygoal Kandal district)andtheirforcesdamagedtherice, of O-ReangOvdistrict)andThan(secretarySithar Kandal districts,Srin,Chhean,ChaoSoeung(secretary to performagriculturalworkatO-ReangOvandSithar from thedistrictsofMukhKampoulandKohSotin _ F E T a _ _ I r M O i i _ n _ a N _ (DC-C

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S at thetrials.Butmorerecently, adebatehassurfaced graves willprovidephysical evidenceofmassmurders historical importance,the bones inCambodia’smass the regime’sseniorleaders.Inadditiontotheir establishes ExtraordinaryChambersforatribunalof Kampuchea andamendmentstothelawthat prosecution ofcrimescommittedduringDemocratic United Nationsratifiedanagreementonthe 2004, theRoyalCambodianGovernmentand to thedead. concerned withthestruggletolivethanattending its educatedpeoplehaddied,leavingsurvivorsmore structures wereconvertedintoprisons)andmostof telecommunications wereshutdown,andreligious during theregime(schools,banks,postoffices,and all Cambodia’sinfrastructurehadbeendestroyed left untouchedandexposedtotheelements.Nearly graves thatdottedthecountry,mostofwhichwere over thedispositionofbonesfoundinmass visited onCambodia,therewaslittlepublicoutcry the country’speople. were responsibleforthelossofaboutaquarter as apercentageofthepopulation.TheKhmerRouge but noothergenocidehasapproachedCambodia’s or astheresultofstarvation,disease,forcedlabor), estimated 1.7millionpeopleperishedfromexecution compared tothoseofmanymoderngenocides(an that theKhmerRougeheldpowerwasrelativelysmall regime. Thedeathtollduringthenearlyfouryears brought aboutbyPolPot’sDemocraticKampuchea they discoveredampleevidenceofthemassdeath in lateDecember1978andtoppledtheKhmerRouge, PECIAL B After sevenyearsofnegotiations,inOctober In thewakeofdevastationKhmerRouge When Vietnamese-ledforcesinvadedCambodia E U NGLISH D D P E DITION H R I E S , S S T ECOND E R C V Q R E UARTER E M F D OCUMENTATION O 2005 A R T I E O N N S C Wynne Cougill Wynne I NE OF ENTER C T R E A V C D AMBODIA I I documents foundinandaroundtheprison,atleast Khmer RougebyitscodenameS-21).Accordingto during DemocraticKampuchea(itwasknowntothe high schoolthatservedasasecret,state-levelprison Democratic Kampucheatoday. and havebecomesymbolicofthehorrors Phnom Penhareawerethefocusoftheirattention, legitimate government.)Twoimportantsitesinthe still recognizedtheKhmerRougeascountry’s United NationsandseveralWesterngovernments the PRK’scontrolofcountry.(Atthistime, as evidenceofgenocideandthusajustificationfor murders inCambodia.Later,theyviewedthebones political enemyChinahadbeenbehindthemass Cambodia, atfirsttoprovethattheirideologicaland PRK) soughttopreservetheskeletalremainsin Cambodia (thePeople’sRepublicofKampuchea, over theirtreatmentandpreservation. E D T a r E I l y O

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B B o O n N e D s E I E A D T O preservatives andplacedinawoodenmemorial specialists. Theremainsweretreatedwithchemical site withtheassistanceofVietnameseforensic 9,000 individualskeletonswereremovedfromthe out oftheapproximately130invicinity.Nearly Ek in1980:about89massgravesweredisinterred spade. them onthebackofneckorheadwithahoe at theedgeofmassgraveswhileguardsclubbed from theprison.Victimswereusuallyforcedtokneel – wereexecutedatthissite,whichisabout15km to manyotherCambodians–atleast20,000people invasion. MostofTuolSleng’sinmates,inaddition Ek, whichwasdiscoveredaboutayearafterthe are housedinawoodencaseenclosedbyglass. map wasdismantled.Today,theskullsfrom remained onpublicdisplayuntil2002,whenthe Cambodia’s manyriverspaintedinbloodred.They -square mapcontaining300exhumedskulls,with that survivedatthesite),PRKcreateda12meter museum in1980usingthemassivedocumentation January 7,1979,theyfoundlessthanadozensurvivors. and whentheVietnameseenteredPhnomPenhon 14,000 enemiesofthestateweredetainedhere, Large-scale excavationstookplaceatChoeung The secondisthe“killingfield”ofChoeung At TuolSleng(whichwasmadeintoanational Skull arrangementatChoeung Ek D OCUMENTATION C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA memorials, inS.Cook(ed.) post-1979 Cambodia:ChoeungEkandlocalgenocide proof.” (Hughes,Rachel.Memoryandsovereignty in “very importantfortheCambodianpeople–it’s characterized thepreservationofhumanremainsas Tuol SlengMuseumanddesigneroftheskullmap, skulls. VietnameseGeneralMaiLam,thearchivistof contains asealedglassdisplayhousingabout8,000 Ek inJune1988.Its62metertallconcrete Cambodia. AnewmemorialwasbuiltatChoeung local-level memorialswereconstructedthroughout toppling oftheKhmerRouge,manynationaland manner forphotographs. PRK officialsalso“arranged”bonesinadecorative pavilion withopenwalls.Tothedismayofmany, p. 271.) International andAreaStudies: NewHaven,2004, genocide: Cambodia and Rwanda and Cambodia genocide: (DC-C In thedecadeimmediatelyfollowing Choeung EkGenocideMemorialStupa AM ) 15 S EARCHING New perspectives on perspectives New F OR T . YaleCenterfor HE T RUTH H stupa ISTORY

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S family members’ashesina to rebirth.Aftercremation,Cambodiansstoretheir rituals forthedeadhelpeasedeceased’stransition Many Cambodiansbelievethatcremationandother and otherBuddhistsocietiesinAsiaforcenturies. cremating thedeadhasbeenatraditioninCambodia Buddhism, whichdoesnotprescribecremation.But addition, tohaveuncrematedremains dangerous placeandrefusetovisittheMemorial.In “ to rebirth.ScholarRachelHugheshasnotedthat place whereheorshedied,anddoesnotmoveon that thedeadperson’sspiritorghostremainsin such asbyviolenceoraccident,itiswidelybelieved the livingandcausethemmisfortune. these; becausetheirspiritscannotrest,theyhaunt deaths areconsideredtobethemostmalevolentof of thedead.Thespiritspeoplewhodiedunnatural many spiritspresentintheanimisticworldarethose elements ofHinduismandanimism.Amongthe practice ofBuddhisminCambodia,whichcombines most CambodiansviewChoeungEkasa and honorthembygravevisits,however).Thus, such (thoseofChinesedescentdoburytheirdead bury theirdead,andthusdonotvisitgravesitesas observations. First,CambodianBuddhistsdonot victims.” tantamount toasecondviolencebeingdonethe considered bysometobeagreatoffence,and ghosts present,notbecause theyfearphysical Choeung Ekasadangerous placebecauseofthe visit thememorial.Last,some Cambodiansdoview relatives, whichmakesmanypeoplereluctantto human reaction:thebonesmaybethoseofone’s as amemorial.Second,theoffensetakenisnatural be liberatedforreincarnation B many CambodiansconsiderChoengEkahighly PECIAL u d d h About 95%ofCambodianspracticeHinhayana In thecaseofespeciallyinauspiciousdeaths, Overlaying thistraditionisthesyncretistic A fewcaveatsareinorderregardingthese E i s NGLISH m

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2005 R e m on display on a i n stupa s C , not NE OF ENTER is C AMBODIA welcome thepreservationofremains Buddhist clergy.Infact,manymonksseemto for theremainsinlate2001: Minister HunSen,forexample,issuedinstructions the preservationofbonesasevidence.Prime in Cambodia.) their remains,cremationcouldposesomeobstacles the country’skillingfieldshavebeenidentifiedfrom family members.Becausevirtuallynoindividualsin that peoplecancremateonlytheremainsoftheir reinforced byanunderlyingbeliefinBuddhisttradition remains ofDemocraticKampuchea.(Thissupportis to supportthepreservationofskullsandotherhuman the religiouscommunity,andgovernment–seem Ek canbeviewedasaplaceofhealingforsurvivors. this sitedosotosharetheirsorrow;thus,Choeung violence byrobbers,etc.Thosewhohavevisited from theDocumentation CenterofCambodia: Cambodia’s Kandalprovinceinlate1999,toldstaff of amemorialfortheremainsfromSa-angprison in patriarch monk,whohadinitiatedtheconstruction T h e transformed intomemorials. grave sites,sothatallsuchplacesmaybe and toexamineresearchotherremaining restore andmaintainallexistingmemorials, expert institutionsintheirareastoexamine, municipal levelshallcooperatewithrelevant government issuesthefollowingdirectives: by theDemocraticKampuchearegime…the of thepainfulandterriblehistorybroughtabout people asawhole,especiallyfuturegenerations, remembrance andeducationbytheCambodian of thesehistoriccrimesandasthebasisfor memorial isthatonemember ofmyfamily

C o (DC-C Neither hastherebeenanoutcryfromthe All localauthoritiesattheprovinceand In ordertopreservetheremainsasevidence The CambodianGovernmenthaslongsupported Most Cambodians–thegeneralpopulation, One reasonIgottheidea toconstructthis n t r o v AM e r ) s y

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R e m a i n s in situ. in A local regime. Somelivedthrough thisregimeas not experiencetheregime. Iexperiencedthis Rouge regimewas,because theyoungdid that theymayknowhowvicioustheKhmer are alegacyfortheyoungergenerationso then theirsoulswanderaround.Theremains dies andtheirmindisstillwiththisworld, will restinpeace.InBuddhism,whensomeone meditating theresothatthesoulsofdead in anotherworld.Iwanttohavemonks wandering aroundandhavenotreincarnated dream ofthem,andtoldthemthattheyare of thedeadhavemadetheirparentsorchildren come andpayhomagebecausesomesouls of havingmonksstaythereandforpeopleto remains shouldexistforever.AndIamthinking the districtgovernorthatthismemorialfor and payhomagetothedead.AndIwillrequest people fromvariousplacescancometopray do notwanttolosetheevidence,sothat their money.Ididnotbuildthisonmyown. not conceited.Manypeoplehavecontributed remains isthemostimportantreason.Iam there, howcanwebelieve?Sopreservingthe “many diedthere,”buttherearenoremains worried aboutthemost.Becauseifpeoplesay to mymind. of buildingamemorialfortheremainscame was notaplaceforthemtodoso.Sothisidea commemorate thesoulsofdead,there to comelightincenseandpayhomage to see.Inaddition,ifBuddhistfollowerswanted evidence wouldbeleftforyoungergenerations were intheywouldcertainlyvanishandno if theremainscontinuedtolieinstatethey eaten bycows.Thatinspiredmetothinkthat The remainshavedecayedandevenbeen sitting thereexposedtothesun,wind,andrain. that Iobservedtheremainsinasadstate,just was killedatSa-angPrison.Anotherreasonis But thelossofremainsiswhatIhave D OCUMENTATION C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA killing fields.TheApril19editionof Rouge bycallingforthecremationofvictims anniversary ofPhnomPenh’sfalltotheKhmer nationwide religiousceremonies. and thattheirremainsshouldbecremated in the KhmerRougewill“neverhavepeaceandserenity” around thecountry.Hewrotethatthosekilledby Khmer Rougevictimshavebeenleftoutandexposed in February2004,decryingthewaybonesof the issueafteranytrialsofformerKhmerRouge. his willingnesstoholdanationalreferendumon their soulscouldfindrest.HunSenlaterindicated Tuol Slengand“crematedintheBuddhistway”so asking thattheskullsberemovedfrommapat February 23,2001,SihanoukwrotetoHunSen of Cambodia’sroyalistparty,FUNCINPEC.On former KingNorodomSihanoukandsomemembers remains tobeplacedinthe been tocrematethecorpses andthenbringthe belief andcustomssince ancient timeshavealways Daily relatives. and holdreligiousceremoniesfortheirdead them inmypagodasothatpeoplecancome keep theremainsthere,Iwouldliketo them. Inmyopinion,iftheydonotwantusto that theremainsbeburnt,Idarenotoppose them tomypagodahere.Butiftheystillinsist already. Iftheydonotwantthat,Icanbring remains becauseIhaveastupaforthem give themtome.Pleasedonottouchthe only requestthattheydonotburnthem,but would notdaretoopposethematall.Icould would requirethatthebonesbemoved]I can theybasebeliefon? those whodidnotlivethroughbelieve?What children buttheystilldonotbelieve;howcan quoted himassaying:“WeareBuddhistswhose (DC-C On April17,2004,Sihanoukmarkedthe29 Instead, oppositionhascomemainlyfrom [Speaking ofthepossibilitythatauthorities Sihanouk alsopostedaletteronhiswebsite AM ) 17 S EARCHING stupa F OR T at thepagoda.” HE The Cambodia The T RUTH H ISTORY th

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S at theKhmerRouge tribunal). only toofficials(e.g.,prosecutors room atTuolSleng,which isopen It thushousedtheskullsinaseparate Center lookedforanothersolution. idea ofboxinghumanremains,the who areuncom-fortablewiththe Sihanouk andotherCambodians However, outofrespectforKing display theskulls victims’ remains. can bescientificallygatheredfrom about thetypesofinformationthat humanity andtoeducatethepublic Khmer Rouge’scrimesagainst of forensicsindocumentingthe sought todemonstratethevalue Hold inThemselveshasbeenRevealed,”theexhibit “The BonesCannotFindPeaceuntiltheTruththey of theskullsatTuolSlengGenocideMuseum.Entitled In February2004,DC-Cammountedanexhibition specialists. Theexpertschosetenskullsforanalysis. Cambodia toateamofNorthAmericanforensics of skullsfromChoeungEkandotherparts Sleng GenocideMuseum.” the existingskullmapbeingdisplayedatTuol the mapofCambodiawithgenocidesitestoreplace of youruniquestate-of-the-artinitiativeinzooming express myprofoundgratitudeandwarmappreciation subsequently wrotetoDC-Cam,“Iwouldlike mass gravesfromDemocraticKampuchea.TheKing Cambodia identifyingthelocationsofprisonsand it replacedtheskullmapwithasatelliteof evidence fromthegenocide.Forexample,in2002, with theneedsforpubliceducationandforensic views ofthekingandrespectforBuddhistbeliefs Cam) hasmadeanumberofeffortstoreconcilethe A PECIAL n

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a convexity d d stupa v i i s o r y father (namedSeng)and aVietnamesemother(Le hybrid beauty.Shewasborn in1950toaChinese groceries, raisepigs,andfarmrice. pagoda andcamehometohelphisparentssell the teachers werenolongerrecruited,soMonleft the examstobecometeachers. both monksandthoseinotherschoolscould could becomeateacher.InSangkumReastr both Buddhistteachingsandlayeducation,sohe subdistrict, expectingthathewouldbeabletolearn the monksatSvayBotumPagodainAntor daughters. In1957,Monleftthefifthgradetoserve buy goods.” would-be wifecomingfromAnlungTrea...byboatto boy wenttoPreyVeng[town],wherehesawhis Anlung Treavillage.“Mon,whilehewasatemple Khun MonfirstsawthebeautifulSengHuorfrom are traded.Thesefactorshelpexplainhowyoung town ofPreyVeng,wherefish,vegetables,andcrops boats forafewkilometerstoreachtheprovincial much ofvillageisfloodedandvillagerstravelon River, whichrunssouthtoVietnam.Intherainyseason, Vietnamese. ItissituatedonthebanksofMekong A K As theCambodianssay, SengHuorwasa Anlung Treavillageisanaturalhomeformany h

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M o A n M B family offoursonsand thefourthsoninafarmer He is north ofAnlungTrea). km 10 province (thevillageisabout Prey Veng village, Svay is aKhmernativeofSvayAntor O D oni 90 hnMon Born in1940,Khun I A T D But in district, PreyVeng H N OCUMENTATION Antor subdistrict, E -V V 1968-1969, K I Niyum, E H C T take NE OF ENTER Sorya Sim Sorya M N A E C R M AMBODIA parents inSvayAntorvillage. Unliketheirparents, and hiswifemovedtolive inanewhousenearhis Villagers treatedhimlikeothers.” criticized MonformarryingaVietnamesewoman. 1975). AsMon’soldersisterobserved,“noone against suchunionsuntiltheLonNolregime(1970- in Cambodiaandtherewaslittlediscrimination the groom’svillage. remembers. A20-tablereceptionwastofollowat of theKhmerlunarsystem)in1969,asMonproudly the pagoda.Thedatewassetfor13 the bride’shomevillagethreemonthsafterMonleft gold). Aweddingwasthereforejoyfullyorganizedin bride’s parentsrequestedadowry( with SengHuor’sfamily.Monsaidthathisfuture visited AnlungTreavillageandhadbecomefriends first glance.Infact,KhunMon’sparentshadfrequently introduce himtothesamegirlhefellinlovewithat and happy.Hedidnotexpectthathisparentswould become engagedtoHuor,Monwasbothsurprised and gainedskillsasatailor. Ro. Beforegettingmarried,shefinishedfourthgrade Hok Chhorn,whowasthendistrictgovernorofPeam school years,shelivedinthehouseofhercousin one werekilledduringtheKhmerRouge).Duringher Prey Vengprovince(allofSengHuor’ssiblingsbut Trea village,PreakChreysubdistrict,PeamRodistrict, Thi Hai).TheyandtheirsixchildrenlivedinAnlung 8,500 riels(atthattime,equalto2½ Kadek Kadek E R S (DC-C Two monthsafterthey were married,Mon Vietnamese-Khmer intermarriagewascommon When KhunMon’sparentsproposedthatshe (13 daysafterthefullmoonin11 O E U AM C ) G O 19 E U S EARCHING P L E F OR U T HE N bangkuop) T damloeng damloeng RUTH th D oaKhe Roca th E month H R ISTORY of of

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S recounted theevent: brother (Ke)toare-educationmeeting.KhunMon take Huor,herparents,sister(Tieng)and when militiamenarrivedwithorderstocomeand in thecareofolderwomenduringday. to comehomeherchildren,whohadbeenplaced the restofherunit.Inevening,shewasallowed became soquickatitthatshesooncaughtupwith village. Huorwasabletolearnhowplantriceand Seng Huortoawomen’sunitthatworkednearthe with mosquitoes,over-work,andinsufficientfood. camp inaricefieldforoneortwoweeks,struggling a children’sunit.There,hehadtosleepinmakeshift family. In1976KhunMonwasassignedtoworkwith was usuallyabletocomehomeatnightandjoinhis to workonaplowingteaminSvayAntorvillage;he of Cambodia,KhunMon’sunitchiefassignedhim Vietnamese. mentioned thattheirchildrendidnotspeak 1970, adaughterin1973,andson1975.Mon Huor andKhunMonhadthreechildren,asonin Year. Businesswasgoodandthefamilyhappy. Khmer, thefamilyalsocelebratedVietnameseNew the couple.Althoughtheirdailylifewastraditionally (Seng Tieng)andasisterKe)cametolivewith water, didthesellingandsuch.” wife helpedmealot.Shecookedriceandcarried sold groceries.KhunMondescribedhiswife,“My and Khmer.Shewasgoodatcalculating.”So,they a Chinesehalfblood.Shecouldspeakboth As Monputit,“Shewasverysmartbecauseshe Huor waspleasantandclever,withtalentsinbusiness. however, thecouplewasnotgoodatricefarming. PECIAL plowing andcameback home, butIdidnot wife whowasarrestedand killed.Istopped When Iwasplowing toldaboutmy Khun MonwasnotaroundonOctober10,1977 At thesametime,unitchiefassigned In 1975aftertheKhmerRougetookcontrol About ayearlater,Huor’sparents,brother E NGLISH E DITION , S ECOND Q UARTER D OCUMENTATION 2005 C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA a feverandIaskedifthe childcouldstay,butthey to saywithmygrandparents.’ Thesecondonehad under thebedandcried,“I donotwanttogo,I them andputinahorsecart.Theoldesthid her childrenalong.”Mutrecalled,“They[KR]arrested the childrensaying,“Theirmotherasked[us]tobring named TaLimandtwomilitiamencametook came back.Andthenextmorningunitchief she returnedinacoupleofhours.ButHuornever elder sisterMut,askinghertocareforthemuntil meeting, HuorhadbroughtherchildrentoMon’s what todo.Itwassopainful.incomparable. those whokilledmywife,butIdidnotknow in withmyfather.Iwasextremelyangry have evenahousetostayin,soIhadmove arrest andwheretheyweretaken.Ididnot called Tho.Idonotknowwhoorderedthe family wastheheadofsecuritydistrict Phea. Themanwhocameandarrestedmy chief wasChhemandthedistrict Thlav pagoda,butshewasnot.Thesubdistrict me. Theyliedtome,sayingmywifewasat every meal.Theydidnotbeatorinterrogate dirt. They[theKhmerRouge]calledmefor was askedtodoeverythingincludingdigging from 1977to1979.WhenIwasheldthere, pagoda, Thlavvillage,SvayAntorsubdistrict it atme. threatened mebytakingoutagunandpointing you tosetoneofmychildrenfree.”Thenhe me tocomeandseehim.Iaskedhim,“Iwant more than10days.Thesecuritychiefasked because theydidnotcomebackhomefor been takentostudy.”Iknowtheywerekilled my wifeandchildren?”Hesaid,“Theyhave father keptforme.IaskedTaLim,“Whereare house wasgoneexceptmyclothes,which see mywifeandchildren.Everythinginthe (DC-C When shewascalledtothere-education After that,IwasarrestedandputinThlav AM ) 20 was towagewaragainst Vietnam,”headded. people todigcanalsandbuild ricefielddamsystems which beganinearly1977. “Thegoalofleading this killingwasonlyapartofthewaragainstVietnam, the nationalsoftheirenemy.”InSokhom’sopinion, reasons forthekillings.TheKhmerRougehadtokill Vietnamese weretargetstobedestroyed.Isawno killed alongwiththeirchildren.Inthosedays,the killed. MycousinhadaVietnamesewifewhowas Vietnamese –young,old,women,andmenwere and children,Ithoughtofthemrightaway.” together. WhenIsawthedailyclothesofmywife dreamt ofmywife,children,andmother-in-lawliving said that“Ineversleptatnight.WhenIdid,often was caughtandkilled. wives, includingPrunch,whotriedtoescape,but several newpeopleheknewwhohadVietnamese older mensteamedherbstomakemedicine.Hemet not interrogated.Atnighthesleptinahousewhich grow vegetables,andatelikeotherpeople.Monwas “house arrest,”hewasnevershackled,toldto pagoda inThlavvillageuntil1979.Underasortof district securitychiefThoanddetainedinThlav did notagree.” brother-in-law (SengKe)werealsokilled. Thi Hai),sister-in-law(SengTieng),and children werekilled.Mon’smother-in-law(Le had made,butthatVietnamesewivesand report thattheyknewofnomistakesanyone survived. KhunMon’srelativesandneighbors son (namedMao)whohidinacornfieldand of hisfamilymemberswerekilledexcepta brother-in-law SengVannasanexample.All they wouldbekilled.Hementionedhis a personwasrelatedbybloodtoVietnamese, understand thereasonsforhiswife’sarrest:if Neighbor PakSokhomsaid,“Inlate1977, It wasonlylaterthatKhunMoncameto After theKhmerRougetookhisfamily,Mon About twoweekslater,Monwasarrestedby D OCUMENTATION C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA Lim forfearofproducingbad although hewasangry,didnotdoanyharmto forgiven hisformertormenterLim.Hestatedthat 1979 andvillagechiefLimisstillalive. away, militiamanChhoeundiedfromanillnessafter chief). Ofthosewhoactuallytookthefamilymembers chief), Tho(districtsecurityandPhea the executionofMon’sfamily:LoekChhem(subdistrict Nobody sidedwithVietnam.” came in1978sayingwesidedwithVietnamese. it wastheotherwayround.TheSouthwestcadres cadres ofbeingtraitors.ButtheEasternsaid Southwest ZoneKhmerRougeaccusedtheEastern Antor villagewasinRegion20oftheEastZone.The Svay AntorvillageintheKhmerRougetime,“Svay soon purged.AccordingtoPekPachwholivedin and supportingtheVietnameseenemy;theywere Rouge cadreswhowereaccusedofbeingtraitors Khmer Rougetribunalseekingjustice. In Mon’smind,however,hewouldliketoseea and Limoftenmetnevertalkedaboutthepast. of thesubdistrictanddistrict.Asneighbors,Mon He explainedthatLimwasonlyfollowingthechiefs me tokillsomeoneinrevenge,Isimplycan’tdoit.” _ S Please send letters or articles to to articles or letters send Please _ Documentation Center of Cambodia (DC-Cam) Cambodia of Center Documentation o _ P.O. Box 1110, Phnom Penh, Cambodia Penh, Phnom 1110, Box P.O. r _ Tel: (855) 23-211-875, (855) 23-221-165 (855) 23-211-875, (855) Tel: y _ Fax: (855) 23-210-358 (855) Fax: a _ Email: [email protected] Email: (DC-C As aBuddhist,KhunMonseemstohave The cadrespurgedincludedthosewhoordered Also, manyofthearea’sresidentswereKhmer

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S lay prisoners'deadbodies inacommongrave."One handcuffed. Throughholes onthewall,hesawguards the prison.Somediedin theircells,shackledand depending onthenumberexecutedorbroughtinto the numberofprisonersdecreasedorincreased only oneofhislegswasshackled.AccordingtoMao, for Mao.Hewasthenmovedtoanotherroomwhere manage tospeakaftertheunconsciousness,"hesaid. unconscious. "IttookmesolongbeforeIcould him confess.Hewasoncesuffocated guards interrogatedhim,Maowas folded andinterrogated.EverytimetheKhmerRouge manner astheseriouscriminals. and unabletomove.Maowastreatedin the same who wereseriouscriminalsshackled,handcuffed was putinaroomwithabout20otherprisoners.Those were puttogetheratfirst,butlaterseparated.Mao they reachedKraingTaChanprison.Thethreemen with twosoldiersfromotherbattalionsforadayuntil imprisoned inlate1974.Afterhisarrest,Maowalked accused ofbeingatraitortoAngkarandwasarrested. of hislegs.Notlongafter,Mao'sbattalionchiefwas seriously wounded,requiringtheamputationofone various otherbattlesafterwards.In1974hewas during thecountry'swarofliberationin1970s. and prideathavingbeenaKhmerRougesoldier by theKhmerRougedominatehispresenthappiness Mao stillhaunthim.Hismemoriesofimprisonment 30 yearsago,thepainfulexperiencesinflictedonKeo F PECIAL R O Four monthsoflivinginhellseemedlikeyears Mao wasalsoaccusedofbeingatraitorand Although thetragiceventsinhispastoccurred K E e NGLISH M o

M a E A o DITION S , S O ECOND near theTakeoRiver,andto front linesinKampongSpeu youth, andwas liberation forcesin Takeo province.Hejoinedthe subdistrict, TramKakdistrict, Trapaing TaSokvillage,Kus wife andthreechildrenin L D Q I E Keo Maoliveswithhis UARTER R D He was also blind- also He was OCUMENTATION T 2005 tortured tomake until hebecame O sent tothe A 1971 asa P C NE OF ENTER Savina Sirik Savina R I S O C AMBODIA N was extremelyafraidofbeing about hisowndestiny,Mao The killingstookplacefrom3p.m.to6Worrying and calledanotherprisonerouttorepeattheprocess. their jobwasdone,theguardsreturnedtoprison drag thedeceased'sbodytoanalready-dugpit.When cries. Assoonasthesoundstopped,guardswould The nextthinghewouldhearbetheprisoner's about 20metersawayfromtheprison,"saidMao. gun athim.Thepoorprisonerwastakentoabush guard calledaprisonerout,whileanotherpointed soldier, andIwasaprisoneratlast,"saidMao. see justicedone."AtfirstIwasaKhmerRouge seek personalvengeance.Instead,heiswaitingto inflicted painandsufferingonhim,buthedoesnot Khmer Rouge.Heremainsfuriouswiththosewho wants toknowwhyhewaspersecutedunderthe responsible forthebrutalregimeisvitalbecausehe children," saidMao. have beenreleased,andamamanwithwife imprisoned. ItisonlywhenIawakethatrealize dream ofbeingasinglemanwithnofamilyand hell: "Ineverthoughtofhavingachancetolive.Istill Time andtimeagain,hehasdreamedofbeingin a traitor.Andhisdaysinprisonstilltormenthim. of anywrongdoingonhispart,wasaccusedbeing Angkar. Heandhiswifearestilltogether. was forcedtoacceptamarriagearrangedforhimby still underheavyobservation,"heconfirmed. but watch ofAngkar."Iwasentitledtomorefreedom, a mobileunit.However,heremainedunderthe he wasreleasedtothevillageandallowedworkin of aforest.Hespentmorethanyeartherebefore sent toOffice204,whichwaslocatedinthemiddle _ S _ t E a h _ v _ e R i _

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f o r dodge bulletsandbombs. Everytimebombers at thebattlefield.Thisrequired thatsheconstantly assigned todeliverfood soldiersfromDivision12 revolution,” saidMary. ourselves frompoverty,andvoluntarilyservedthe “We weresopooratthetime.Wewantedtoliberate teachers, mostofitsyouthsjoinedtherevolution. become apuresociety.Sincethevillagehadno liberate peoplefrompovertyandleadthenationto the villageyouthstojoinrevolutionsoas villagers, particularlyjuveniles.Theytheninduced came toteachKhmerRougerevolutionarysongs One ofthemwasKhieuSamphan’sman.Theofficials in 1970,anumberofofficialsarrivedhervillage. with theKhmerRouge.Shesaidthataftercoup was persuadedbyanofficialwhocollaborating her memory. Democratic Kampuchea,butcannoteraseitfrom was tooskinny.Sheneverwantstothinkabout at tortured byAngkarand later soldiers whowerecaptured She wasspeaking about helped said. Now, Inolonger Mary feelsshesurvivedthekillingbecause After joiningtheKhmerRouge,Marywas Mary joinedtherevolutionin1973aftershe Mary recalled,“Ipitied them... Icried...Theydidnot M a A S-21 andthenexecutedatChoeungEk. r y

L touch [guns]...Iamsoscared,”she O perilous. “Iregret...Ishouldn’t... knowing thathersituationwas risked herlifetofightwithout of Cambodia.Atthetime,she battle duringtheUSbombing Division 703,whowassentto was aKhmerRougesoldierin O K the alleged Thirty yearsago,Mary the soldiers...Noone B D OCUMENTATION A betray [Angkar].” C betrayals by K T Socheat Nhean Socheat C NE OF ENTER O T C H AMBODIA included ensuringsecurity inthecity,takinga the countryinSeptember 1975.Herotherwork also welcomedKingSihanouk whenhereturnedto Cambodia duringDemocraticKampuchea,andshe She sawmanyforeigndelegationscomingtovisit many placeswerecleanedupbeforevisitorsarrived. wear whenwelcomingthem.Maryconfirmedthat white shirtsandbluepantsorskirtstosoldiers reality inDemocraticKampuchea,Angkardistributed order togivevisitingforeignersadifferentpictureof there werenoordinarypeopleinthecity,and, in a knifewasallowedinside.Atthatpointintime, She saidthatsecuritywasstrictlyprotected,noteven responsible forinspectingparticipantsatthegate. soldiers fromDivision703(includingMary)were control ofthegeneralstaffrevolutionaryarmy. made partofDivision703andplacedunderthe on July22,1975.AtthatmeetingDivision12was A largemeetingwasconvenedattheOlympicStadium store theminawarehousebehindtheRoyalPalace. soldiers wereorderedtocollectpeople’sgoodsand those unabletowalkwereshotdeadonthespot. the soldiers,shesaid,werebarbarous.Oldpeopleor the city,MaryguardedMonivongBridge.Atthattime bury them. Rouge soldierslyingdead,butnoonebotheredto was defeated.AtPrekPao,shesawmanyKhmer Prek PaoandTaKmao,untilLonNol’sgovernment Phnom PenhalongNationalRoadN 40 gunatthebattlefield.Shefoughtherwayinto Prek Daung.AngkarlaterassignedhertoholdaB- were cuthalf.In1974Marylearnedtouseagunin in thetrencheswerekilled.Someofdeadbodies approached, shesaid,thosewhodidnottakecover E H (DC-C At anygrandeventscelebratedatthestadium, After thecitywasemptied,Maryandother When theKhmerRougeevacuatedpeoplefrom O AM R ) R 23 I B S EARCHING L E P F OR A T HE S T o T RUTH 1, crossing H ISTORY

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S years ofdiscussions,the CambodianGovernment and justiceareperhapson thehorizon.Afterseven impasses. Despitetheominous setting,stability,peace have beenburdenedbyfrustrations,delays,and negotiations foraninternationalcriminaltribunal span overaquartercentury.Eventhemostrecent attempts tobringtheKhmerRougejusticenow Cambodia’s pastareseeminglyendless.Various human rightsviolations,effortstoeffectivelyaddress authoritarian rule,politicalcorruption,andimmense But intheend,bothwerekilled. other’s hair,sayingthatthewinnerwouldbereleased. guards toldbattalionchiefsMetandNytopulleach in massgraves.ShealsorememberedthatPreySar clubbing soldierstodeathandputtingtheirbodies down,” Maryrecalled.Shewasshockedtoseeguards death. “Iregrettheloss[ofsoldiers]...Mytearsfell alive. Somewereexecutedandsomestarvedto but afterlessthanayear,onlyabout100werestill 703 werecommandedtoplantriceatChoeungEk, to plantriceinPreySaraspartofherre-education. chief ofDivision703,hadMaryreleasedandassigned re-education center).After10daysthere,TaPin,the in Cambodia,shewassenttoS-21Kh(thePreySar defeated LonNolregime.Immediatelyafterarriving because shehadabrotherwhoworkedforthe perceived tobegood.MarywasreturnCambodia to Cambodiabecausetheirbiographieswerenot there, tensoldiers,includingMary,weresentback telephone techniquesinChina.Afteronemonth the safetyofdelegations. protection courseattheRoyalPalace,andensuring PECIAL In acountryravagedbylegacyofbrutal In late1977Mary’sdivisionwastoldthat Mary remembersthat300soldiersfromDivision In September1976Angkarsenthertolearn E NGLISH H E O DITION W , S ECOND T H Q E UARTER E D OCUMENTATION C 2005

C A Simon O'Connell Simon N C NE OF ENTER L E C A AMBODIA international supportershave insistedthatCambodia over-expansiveness andinefficiency. Notcoincidentally, tribunal receivedagreat dealofcriticismdueto ICTR attemptedtobringjusticetheregion, Tribunal forRwanda(ICTR)commenced.Whilethe the worldinArusha,InternationalCriminal the UnitedNationsandCambodia,halfwayaround future. closure tothepast,andpavewayforCambodia’s and internationalcommunityarereadytofinallybring returned toherbirthplaceinKandalprovince. Rouge. AtthefallofKhmerRougeregime,Mary invasion ofCambodiaanddroveawaytheKhmer and moreVietnamesetroopsparticipatedinthe 703 managedtoretreattheborder.Later,more attack, takingwithherseveralVietnamesetroops. to walkbecauseofleginjuries,carriedoutasuicide and friendofMary’snamedPhon,whowasunable Vietnamese troopswentforthem.Afemalesoldier soldier wasgivenahandgrenadejustincasethe 703 werebeingbesieged.Shesaideachfemale in Vietnam.Butthemeantime,forcesofDivision moved furtherintotheterritoryofTaiNinhprovince Vietnamese troopsbacktotheborder,andthen half monthorso,KhmerRougesoldierspushedthe had tocarry20deadbodies,”sherecalled.Withina Division 703.“Icriedbecausewithin15minutesI hiding inbuildings,shootandkillmanysoldiersof Mary saidshesawVietnamesesnipers,whowere were commandedtoslowtheprogressoftroops. Vietnamese troopshadenteredPhnomPenh.They _ R S _ w o _ N c o _ h _ r k _ e (DC-C During thelengthynegotiationperiodbetween After twoweeksoffiercefighting,Division s _ a

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w h o the tribunal’sabilitytoeffectivelyadministerjustice. excessive costsandfiscalirresponsibilityhampered in handingdowndecisionsandverdicts. Third carry outitsmandate. the ICTRwhichECmustavoidifitistoeffectively by itsinitialdifficulties.Severalproblemsbesieged 11-year-old tribunalarestillinlargepartovershadowed measurable success,theaccomplishmentsofnow and provideablueprintfortheworld. better equippedtoproducejusticeinCambodia, the mistakesofICTRinArusha,ECwillbe lessons fortheExtraordinaryChambers.Byheeding criminal tribunalforRwandawillserveasvaluable well documenteddeficienciesthatplaguedthe live uptotheUnitedNations’loftyrequisites.The the ICTR. and resourcesthatwereallocatedtoitspredecessor, Chambers (EC)willnothavethesameluxuryoftime and judiciallyexpedient.Cambodia’sExtraordinary carry outatribunalthatisbureaucraticallystreamlined tribunal’s abilitytooperateeffectivelyandefficiently. justice andproducingaccountabilityrestsuponthe task thatliesahead.Thelikelihoodofbringingabout the ECwillbebetterpreparedtohandledaunting proceedings ondailylife. magnified delaysanddiminishedtheimpactof remoteness oftribunal(itwasheldoutsideRwanda) government andinternationalcommunity. plagued byapoorrelationshipbetweenthenational Government’s concerns with regardtophysical aspects ofthetribunal.The UNfailedtoaddressthe the creationofICTR, itdisagreedwithseveral tenuous affair.Althoughthegovernmentsupported Rwandan GovernmentandtheICTRhasbeen a I S n t t r e a r i n n , proceduraldelayshinderedtheICTR’sefficiency e a By acknowledgingtheweaknessesofICTR, d t While theICTRhasmorerecentlyexperienced The tribunalforCambodiaisequippedto R i

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, the NE OF ENTER a n d , C AMBODIA Penh. if moneybeginstoslipthroughthecracksinPhnom The internationalcommunitywillnotbeastolerant produce financialrecordsorexpenditureinformation. accounting systemandconsequentlycouldnot audits oftheICTRrevealedthattribunalhadno the tribunal’sbudgetwithinfirsttwoyears.UN general mismanagementresultedinadepletionof building thenecessaryinfrastructurecoupledwith courts, officesjails,andhousing.Thesunkencostof the UNwasresponsibleforconstructionofsuitable cost servesasavaluablelessonfortheEC.InArusha, to goconstructioncosts. UnliketheICTR,where resources. First,littlefinancing fortheECwillhave key factorswillhelptheEC bettermanageitsfinancial stay withinitsestimatedoperationalbudget.Two be requiredoftheCambodiantribunalinorderto lacking intheCambodianlegalsystem. a levelofprofessionalismandimpartialitytraditionally and lawyersinthedomestictribunalwillhelpinstill In thelongrun,participationofCambodianjudges level ofdomesticinvolvementabsentfromtheICTR. the tribunalheldinPhnomPenh)willimplementa panel ofCambodianandinternationaljudges,with the UNoriginallysought,hybridmodel(amixed neighboring country.Whileacompromisefromwhat sought aninternationallyruntribunalheldina UN andCambodianGovernment.Theoriginally Chambers isaproductofnegotiationsbetweenthe benefit fromtheproceedings. objective, theRwandanlegalsystemwillnotgreatly legal profession.WhentheICTRcompletesits the ICTRdoesnotdirectlyimpactRwandan concerns, asanexclusivelyruninternationaltribunal, Rwandan Governmentovertheaforementioned punishment. Inadditiontonotworkingwiththe location, temporaljurisdiction,andbanoncapital E x c e s s (DC-C i v C C R e w a a

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S tribunal inaforeigncountry. Inanefforttoensure has beenthelogistical difficulty ofholdingthe experienced bytheICTR. language barrierwillbelessburdensomethan Cambodian judgesservingonthetribunal, translations willinevitablyhavetobemade,with languages: Khmer,EnglishandFrench.While ICTR. Second,theChamberswillhavethreeofficial the ECwillbeabletorelyonlawcreatedby international precedentswillbefollowed.Ineffect, implement proceduralrules.Wheregapsexist, largely ontheexistingCambodianlegalsystemto delays experiencebytheICTR.First,ECwillrely Cambodian tribunaltoavoidmanyoftheprocedural Rwandan counterpart. Cambodian tribunaltobemoreefficientthanits restrictions oncapitalandtimewillenablethe operational timeframe.TheEC’sself-imposed the ECwillbegovernedbyafixedbudgetand inaction andfiscalmisconductmalignedtheICTR, Cambodian tribunalalreadyexist.Second,while majority ofaccommodationsneededforthe infrastructure wasbuiltfromthegroundup, problems inadministeringjustice. among witnesses,judgesandlawyersonlycompound things donotgetanyeasieraslinguisticbarriers distances fromRwanda.OncearrivinginArusha, subpoenaing witnesseswhomusttravelgreat make mattersworse,thetribunalhaddifficulty new codeofcriminalprocedureasitwentalong.To precedent tofallbackon,theICTRhadcreatea trials heldwithinthecriminaltrialitself.Without gap inproceduralruleswouldoftenleadtomini- develop abodyoflawasproceduralissuesarose.A international tribunal,theICTRhadtojudicially administering justice.Duetothenoveltyof T J u PECIAL h d e i

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s J : u s t i C c NE OF ENTER e C AMBODIA for newsfromthetribunal. must relyonmediacoverageorlessreliablesources neighboring land,thevastmajorityofRwandans to theproceedings.Withtribunalheldina fact thatRwandancitizensarenotdirectlyexposed growing bill.Perhapsevenmoresignificantisthe and delaysingettingtoArushaaddedthetribunal’s logistical andeconomicproblems.Travelexpenses Arusha. However,theremotelocationcompounded impartiality, theRwandantribunalwasstationedin ensure theintegrityoftribunal. of theECandbroadpublicinvolvementwillhelp the tribunal’saffairsastheyunfold.Thetransparency Victims, perpetrators,andcitizensalikewillwitness will beexposedtotheproceedingsonadailybasis. Arusha. Perhapsevenmoreimportantly,thepublic will nothinderthetribunaltoextentseenin expenses anddelaysingettingtotheproceedings complications experiencedbytheICTR.Travel Cambodia willfurtherreducethepotentialfor in PhnomPenh.Thetribunal’slocationwithin served, Cambodiacanillaffordtowaitanylonger. leadership areonlygrowingolder.Ifjusticeistobe of opportunityisclosing.TheremainingKhmerRouge within reach.Timeisoftheessence,aswindow But whatonceseemedadistanthopeisfinally enough. Formany,justicewillhavecometoolate. Arusha. ThecitizensofCambodiahavewaitedlong ensure aneasierinceptionthanexperiencedin ICTR, anumberoftheEC’sprovisionswillhelp not adirectresponsetotheshortcomingsof coexist. AndwhiletheaccordtoestablishECis Government andUnitedNations,whichmustnow between theconflictinginterestsofCambodian W _ S _ C h i i _ m l a _ a t _ o r

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S a n t a failure oftheinternational communityandhaslargely most oftheexistingliterature hasfocusedonthe conflict. First,inexamining thecausesofgenocide, (dangerous) misconceptionsabouttheRwandan an integrativeapproachandhaveproducedmany have beenlargelyinadequateinundertakingsuch building arenotaquick-fixtechnicaloperation. I willdemonstrate philosophical issuesofthe with thegrayzonesofpsychological,moral,and future inamoreconcreteway.Inaddition,bydealing allow ustoconceptualizeRwanda’spast,present,and the pastthatneedstobeburiedinRwanda.Thiswill genocide, soastoarticulatewhatexactlyconstitutes to identifythecausalfactorsanddynamicsof justice, forgiveness,andreconciliation.Itattempts ethnical, andphilosophicalquestionspertainingto and, atthesametime,strugglingwithdifficultmoral, acquiring ananalyticalunderstandingoftheconflict resignation, itundertakesanintegrativeapproach: expression ofintellectual,moral,andemotional prevent thisquestionfrombecomingamere begin toanswerthisultimatequestion.Inorder “Is therehopeforthatplace?” Indeed, wecannothelpbutasktheultimatequestion, reconciliation forpeoplewithsuchadarkpast? Where doweevenbegintotalkaboutpeaceand understand howandwhysuchtragedycouldoccur? a senseofbeingoverwhelmed:howwecan Looking atthecaseofRwanda,oneoftenencounters the governmentarmy,aswelltheirHutuneighbors. machetes andbulletsoftheHutuextremistmilitias, moderate HutusandTutsisperishedunderthe genocide. Inlessthanahundreddays,over800,000 the mostgrievousformofviolenceagainsthumanity: R Unfortunately, conventionalstudiesonRwanda This paperexploresthewaysinwhichwecan From ApriltoJuly1994,Rwandaunderwent W A N D how conflictresoluti A :

genocide and I S T D OCUMENTATION H nandpeace- on E its aftermath, R E C NE OF ENTER Ah-Jung Lee Ah-Jung A H C AMBODIA O of theHutuandalsoignores thehistoricaland colonial Rwandadisregards thepre-colonialoppression version ofRwandanhistory whichromanticizespre- the seedsofethnicviolenceinRwanda,RPF colonialism certainlyplayedacrucialroleininstituting dynamics ofthegenocide,Iwillargue:1)while of ethnicgrievances.Byexaminingthecontextand the Past,”Iwillscrutinizehistoricaldevelopment in threesections:Inthefirstsection,“Understanding examine thequestion,“IstherehopeforRwanda?” reconciliation. philosophical dimensionsofjustice,forgiveness,and while largelyignoringthepsychological,moral,and justice andthedevelopmentofinfrastructures, discussions havefocusedonthejudicialaspectsof Finally, withregardstopeace-building,mostofthe vigorous reportingontheinternalpoliticsofRwanda. righteous andhasrefrainedfromamorecritical has largelyacceptedthenewgovernmentasmorally rights organizations,theinternationalcommunity been adequatelyscrutinized.Exceptforseveralhuman led governmentinpost-genocideRwandahasnot performance oftheRPF(RwandanPatrioticFront)- Zaire, involvingethnicHutusandTutsis?Second,the the conflictsinRwanda,Uganda,Burundi,andCongo- neighbors? Whatarethelinkages,ifany,between of ordinaryHutusparticipateinthekillingstheir transition”? Howandwhydidhundredsofthousands within agovernmentsupposedlyin“democratic How couldthegenocidebesystematicallyplanned As well,manyquestionsremaininadequatelyaddressed: colonization istheoriginalsourceofethnicconflict. the onlyvictimsofviolenceand/orthatEuropean As aresult,manyhavecometobelievethatTutsisare context ofthegenocidehasnotbeenappreciated. and dynamicsoftheconflict.Inthisway,full ignored importanthistorical,local,andregionalfactors P E (DC-C With theseproblemsinmind,thisstudywill F AM O ) R S 27 EARCHING T H A F OR T T HE P T RUTH L A P C UBLIC E ? D EBATE

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S lies inthehandsofcurrent Tutsi-ledgovernment. responsibility forcreatinga hopefulfutureforRwanda will arguethat,forbetter orworse,thegreatest and philosophicaldimensionsofpeace-building. I and internationallevels,incorporatingthemoral a hopefulfutureforRwandaatthedomestic,regional, sections andwillproposewhatshouldbedonefor builds ontheanalyticalfoundationfromprevious for thefutureofRwanda. inadequate butalsoinmanyrespectsdangerous doing inthenameofpeace-buildingisnotonly government andinternationalcommunityhavebeen reconciliation. IconcludethatwhattheRwandan to thequestionofjustice,truth,forgiveness,and in Rwandasincethegenocidewithparticularattention region. Then,Iwillscrutinizethepeace-buildingefforts without consideringthehopeforentireGreatLake that wecannottalkaboutthe“hopeforRwanda” threats fromandtoRwanda.Iwilltherebydemonstrate grievances inCongo-Zaireandtheexternalsecurity a complexinterplaybetweentheinternalethnic context. Iwillarguethatthisconflictistheresultof in ordertosituateRwanda’spresentaregional dynamics oftheregionalwarineasternCongo-Zaire (Post-1994),” beginsbyexaminingthecausesand the desireforpowerandaprofoundfear. motivation fortheperpetrators co-operation frombelow;and only totheextentthattheyhadresonanceand hatred; thedesignsfromabovecouldbeimplemented project noraspontaneousoutburstofancientethnic 4) thegenocidewasneitheranexclusivelystate opportunity structuresforHutuextremisminRwanda; interplay withtheeconomic,social,andpolitical dynamic contextforthegenocidethroughitscomplex Rwanda; 3)thecivilwarwithRPFprovideda perpetuated aracializedsocietyinpost-colonial exclusion betweentheHutuandTutsi merely turnedaroundtheagentsofprivilegeand colonial favoritism;2)theHutupoliticalleadership moral responsibilityoftheTutsiwhocapitalizedon PECIAL The finalsection,“TowardsaHopefulFuture,” The secondsection,“UnderstandingthePresent E NGLISH E DITION , S ECOND Q UARTER of the genocide was genocide of the D 5) the underlying OCUMENTATION 2005 C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA itself. and 3)thelongprocesslimitsofpeace-building to forgiveandbeforgiven,2)acommondestiny, mutual recognitionandacceptanceof:1)theneed these peace-buildingeffortsmustbebasedona break thecycleofviolenceinRwanda.Finally,all rights, andtocreateacommoncitizenship,soas endeavor tobuildacommonhistory,upholdhuman Though indeedchallenging,thegovernmentmust understanding thepastof Rwanda. history andtherebyestablish acommongroundfor legitimacy andfalsityofthecontestingversions genocide inRwanda.Theaimistoshowboththe conflict soastocontexualizethecausesof section, Iwillcriticallyexaminethehistoryofethnic there canbenoreconciliation.Inthefollowing Without truth,therecanbenojustice;withoutjustice, allow Rwandatomoveonforahopefulfuture. genocide occurred,“buryingthepast”wouldnot history. Withoutaconsensusonwhyandhowthe resurrect thedeadbyscrutinizingbothversionsof Thus, beforetryingtoburythepast,wemustfirst of history)toowellwhoaredoomedtorepeatit. know theirhistory(or,morespecifically,versions however, thereverseisalsotrue:itthosewho are doomedtorepeatit.InthecaseofRwanda, tells usthatifpeopledon’tknowtheirhistory,they set ofvictimsturningintokillers.Thepopularwisdom and eachroundofviolencehasledtoyetanother violence asameansofensuringthe“never-again,” psychology, bothsideshavejustifiedtheiruseof legitimizing violence.Sufferingfromavictim’s Hutus haveplayedacrucialroleininstigatingand of historyandthehistoricalmemoriesTutsis at theheartofconflictinRwanda.Competingversions the paper,problemofcontestedhistoryhasbeen constitutes itspast.Aswillbeshownthroughout imperative istoestablishatruthfulaccountofwhat W U N h D y

E i s (DC-C R In ourquesttofindhopeforRwanda,thefirst

H S T i s A t N o AM r D i ) c I a N l G

28 T

r T u H t h E

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s a r y ? the landtohiscloset subjects. Inthisprocess, was transferredtotheTutsi king,whothenassigned the firsthalfof19thcentury, controlovertheland many landchiefswereactuallyHutu.However,in over whichtheyhadcleared.ThusinearlyRwanda, Before the19thcentury,lineagescontrolledland to changesinclientshipandthenatureoflandtenure. elites and,duringthe19thcentury,diminisheddue offered affectedonlyaveryfewnumberofHutu kwihutura occupational categoriesthrough As well,thereexistedsome the politicalstatusofaTutsiandviceversa. more thantencowsweredeclaredtohaveachieved of cohabitation,intermarriage, of Kinyarwanda-speakingpeoplethrough the pre-colonialeracreatedasingleculturalcommunity However, astheRPFversionnotes,twogroupsin and establishedaTutsimonarchincentralRwanda. they hadthedivineordinationtoruleoverHutu type classsystememerged.TheTutsiclaimedthat payment forusingtheircattle,and,overtime,afeudal- and prestige.TheHutuworkedfortheTutsias their cattleandwarringskillstoconsolidatepower to Rwandaaroundthe15thcentury.TheTutsiused of ethniccleavagesinRwanda. important toscrutinizetheoriginanddevelopment ethnic divisionsasacolonial“invention.”Thus,itis groups livedinperfectharmonyandhaspresented pre-colonial pastasagoldenerawherethetwo genocide RPFregimeinKigalihasportrayedRwanda’s and feudalservitude.”Ontheotherhand,post- return ofTutsidominationcomprising“forcedlabor believe –thatRPFrulewouldmeannothingbutthe argued andtrulybelieved–inmanycasesstill extremists andperpetratorsofthe1994genocide roots incenturiesofabuse.Indeed,theHutuPower history, Hutus’fearandhatredoftheTutsihavetheir T P h r e e -c

c O o r However, suchsocialmobilitythat The Tutsi,pastoralists,aresaidtohavecome According totheHutuversionofRwandan l i o g n i n i . Inthissystem,Hutuswhoaccumulated a

a l

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i n C AMBODIA uburetwa, uburetwa, the end, Rwanda wereforcedtoselltheirlaborregularly.In half oftheHutupeasantsinpartssouth-central days outofsix.Bythelate19thcentury,asmuch Belgian administration,constitutedtwooreventhree bound bythelaborduewhich,timeof result, theHutu–especiallypooroneswere regaining accesstothelandstheyhadlost.Asa labor forthelocalTutsihill-chiefsas“payment” Tutsi dominance.Withthis favor,theTutsiaristocracy of racialidentitycardsand therebyinstitutionalized administration (1916-1962) alsointroducedasystem applicants topassaminimumheighttest.TheBelgian them ofthemselves.Theyevenrequiredcollege height, faircomplexion,andfinerfeaturesreminded classified theTutsias“superiorAfricans,”whosetall of racialsuperiority,bothGermansandBelgians social flexibilityvanished.Basedontheirideology and Belgiancolonialadministration,eventhislittle Hutu representation.However,undertheGerman of administrationapparatuscontinuedtohavea and politicalsignificance.Aswell,thelowerlevels in thepre-colonialerahadmuchsocial,ideological, quantitative value,theveryexistenceofsocialmobility Rwanda cannotbeunderestimated.Althoughoflittle colonialism insolidifyingtheethniccleavages Tutsi arenotcompletelywithouthistoricalbasis. about returningtotheageofservitudeunder the HutuversionofRwandanhistoryandtheirfears Hutu wasmoreandtobeasubject.”Therefore, simply tobeidentifiedwithpower–justasa a Tutsiwasthustobeinpower,nearor the Hutupopulation.AsMamdanidescribes,“Tobe of Hutucommonsandcreatedaserf-likestatusfor lineages. Healsoinstitutedalaborservicecalled and brokethepoweroflocallandowningHutu Rwabugiri labeledallcattle-owninglineagesasTutsi during thereignofKingRwabugiri(1860-95). those whowereidentifiedas“Tutsi.” numerous Hutucultivatorslosttheirlandrightsto (DC-C Of course,thecriticalroleofEuropean The socialdegradationoftheHutuworsened Uburetwa Uburetwa in whichtheHutuwereforcedtodomanual AM ) S 29 EARCHING undermined thelivelihoodsecurity F OR T HE T RUTH P UBLIC D EBATE

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S the HuturememberRevolution astheperiodof period asthetimeoftheir climbtothemiddle-class, memories. WhiletheTutsi rememberthecolonial middle classhaveoppositeandadversarialhistorical Rwandan historyaroundwhichtheHutuandTutsi Revolution. The1959Revolutionisacrucialtimein the questionoflegitimacy1959Hutu in bothpre-colonialandcolonialsocietyleadsusto memories oftheHutuaboutracialdiscrimination favorable positionsduringthecolonialperiod. responsibility oftheTutsiforcapitalizingontheir the Hutubutalsoignoreshistoricalandmoral not onlydisregardsthepre-colonialoppressionof the RwandansocietyunderTutsidomination, the RPFversionofRwandanhistory,whichromanticizes the seedsofethnichatredandviolenceinRwanda, colonialism certainlyplayedacrucialroleininstituting crucial roleofhumanagency.Inconclusion,while beneficiaries ofthecolonialruleistodisregard rebellion. Indeed,tosaythattheTutsiwereinnocent used gunssuppliedbyGermanstosquashtheHutu forces toreinforcetheirownposition.Theyeven the TutsimonarchytookadvantageofGerman Tutsi king,soastomaketheiradministrationeasier, the GermansdecidedtoruleRwandathrough Tutsi elitesinthecolonialproject.Forinstance,when we mustrecognizetheactiveinvolvementof existing structuresofracializedsociety.Moreover, colonial ruledidnotcreate,butratherbuiltupon,the the indigenousmajorityandTutsiasalienminority. distinctive politicalidentitiesbasedonrace–Hutuas colonialism inRwandawastheconstructionoftwo towards theTutsi.Indeed,ultimatelegacyof legitimacy forHututobuilduptheirhatredandanger colonizers andprovidedastructuralideological colonial rolecementedtheidentityofTutsias education, andjobopportunities.Asaresult,the monopolized politicalpower,judicialauthority, R T PECIAL h e e p

u L b e Acknowledging thelegitimacyofhistorical Nevertheless, itmustbeemphasizedthat E l i g NGLISH c a c y

o E f DITION

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NE OF ENTER F i r s t C AMBODIA Burundi exacerbatedthe Tutsi paranoiainRwanda. hunt. Furthermore,theTutsi atrocitiesinneighboring attack, thePARMEHUTUintensifieditsTutsiwitch- from Uganda,Tanzania,Burundi,andZaire.Aftereach 1966, theTutsimilitantslaunched10majorattacks completely withoutgrounds.Between1961and population. Tobesure,suchpolicieswerenot policies andplacedasevererepressiononitsTutsi Republic’s governingparty,adoptedethnocentric legitimize itspoliticalpower,thePARMEHUTU, Tutsi attempttoregainpoliticalpower.Inorder response oftheFirstRepublictosubsequent was nottherevolutionitselfbutratherbrutal what shapedthegrimpoliticalfutureforRwanda seed forgenocidalviolenceinRwanda.However, as many20,000Tutsisandtherebyplantedthe Watch, theRevolutionresultedinmassacreof refugees fledintoneighboringcountries. political power,andhundredsofthousandsTutsi end: theHutuextremistparty,PARMEHUTU,seized them. However,theHutumajorityprevailedin power bykillinganyHututhatposedathreatto 1959, theTutsiinitiallyscrambledtoholdonto in independentRwanda.WhentheHuturoseup sought toendtheTutsimonopolyofpoliticalpower leaders drewuptheManifestoofBahutuand for self-government.Asacountermeasure,theHutu for anurgenttrainingoftheTutsieliteinpreparation intention toperpetuateTutsidominance;itcalled the Tutsi-dominatedHighCouncildidnothideits from theHutu.Whenindependencebecameplausible, the Revolutionwasalmostaninevitableresponse and controlovertheallocationofland.Inasense, Revolution forgivingthemajorityfreedomoflabor we mustrecognizethehistoricallegitimacyof Rwanda condemnstheRevolutionas“anti-Tutsi,” crucial forestablishingacommonhistory. Revolution forRwandans–bothHutuandTutsiis servitude. Thus,articulatingthemeaningof emancipation fromthecolonialfrustrationand (DC-C As inRwanda,theTutsi in Burundihadlong According tosuchsourcesasHumanRights Although thecurrentRPF-ledgovernmentof AM ) 30 perpetuated aracialized societyinpost-colonial around theagentsofprivilege andexclusion, the end,Hutupolitical leadershipmerelyturned strengthen andlegitimizetheirpoliticalpower.In exacerbated theexclusiveidentitiesasameansto or killed.Aswell,thePARMEHUTUnurturedand tried, regardlessoftheirmotivations,wererepressed participating inpoliticsasRwandans,andthosewho In post-1959Rwanda,Tutsiswereprohibitedfrom Republic turnedthesearchforjusticeintorevenge. “Bazungu” (whites)colonization.Aswell,theFirst of theHutufromboth“Hamites”(aliens)and – i.e.,foreignTutsi”andcalledforadoubleliberation Rwanda was“theconflictbetweenHutuandHamitic document declaredthattheheartofproblemin Manifesto,” not“TheRwandanManifesto.”The Hutu independencein1959wascalled“theBahutu the nameofjustice.Forexample,declaration reinforced exclusive,racializedpoliticalidentitiesin of colonialism,theFirstRepublicbuiltuponand Rwanda. However,insteadofdismantlingthelegacy constructed acommoncitizenshipforindependent Rwandan history,haditendedTutsiprivilegeand 1962 couldhavebeenapositiveturningpointin the institutionofFirstRepublicRwandain grievances. Inretrospect,the1959Revolutionand the FirstRepublicasan must notconceptualizetheethnicviolenceduring the securitythreatsthatFirstRepublicfaced,we the historicallegitimacyof1959Revolution,and of theHutuinbothpre-colonialandcolonialRwanda, military coupinitiatedbyHabyarimana. that thePARMEHUTUgovernmentfellaftera heights. Theensuingsocialinstabilitywassogreat the anti-TutsiviolenceinRwandareachednew in 1972.Inresponsetothis“selectivegenocide,” and schoolchildrenoveraperiodofthreemonths the BurundianTutsikilledover250,000Hutuelites growing Huturesistance.Toeliminatesuchathreat, position seemedlessandsecureagainstthe majority. Inthelate60sand70s,however,their monopolized thepoliticalpoweroverHutu However, evenifweacknowledgetheplight inevitable inevitable outcome ofhistorical D OCUMENTATION C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA to thepointwhereitsextremistelements Habyarimana’s regimeplayedtheveryethniccard national reconciliationwasshort-lived.Intheend, the TutsiandHutu.However,suchhopefor of acommonpoliticalpast,present,andfuturefor society. Inotherwords,itacknowledgedtheexistence of theTutsiaslegitimatemembersRwandan enormous significancesinceitsignifiedrecognition rights.” Suchachangeinpoliticallanguagehad of conflictresolution. causes ofthegenocidenor formulatethestrategies dynamics ofRwanda,we can neitherunderstandthe factors andtheircomplexinterplaywiththeinternal As willbecomeclear,withoutexaminingtheregional attention totheconflictovercitizenshipandrights. internal developmentsinUgandawithparticular now gobeyondthebordersofRwandaandlookat account fortheoutbreakofcivilwar,wemust – thegenocidebecamethinkableinRwanda.To we canneverfullyappreciatehowtheunthinkable situating thegenocideincontextofcivilwar, RPF inOctober1990. the civilwar,whichstartedwithinvasionof we mustnowexaminethecausesanddynamicsof tragic –politicaldevelopmentoftheSecondRepublic, objectives. Tomakesenseofthisdramatic–and genocide asa“rational”meanstoachieveitspolitical indigenous (or“alien”) changed thedefinitionofTutsifromanon- Rwanda. Asafirststep,theHabyarimanregime impact ofethnicviolenceonpoliticalstabilityin question ofjustice;heunderstoodthedetrimental to incorporatetheneedforreconciliationinto the SecondRepublicin1972,heinitiallyattempted social unrest.Thus,whenHabyarimanaestablished the paranoiacrepressionofTutsiproducedmassive citizens. Alongwithcontinuingeconomicproblems, Rwanda largelyfailedtodeliveritspromises aftermath ofdecolonization,theFirstRepublic Rwanda. group (DC-C As thefollowingsectionsdemonstrate,without Like somanyotherregimesintheimmediate and begantodiscussTutsirightsas“minority AM ) S 31 EARCHING race F OR to anindigenous T HE T RUTH P UBLIC ethnic chose D EBATE

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S fact, theirinvolvementwith Amin’srepressiveregime refugees didnotimprove underAmin’sregime.In the returnofrefugees.”But thelivesofmostTutsi the monarchyinRwandaand,thatmanner,ensure believing that“Aminhadpromisedtohelpreestablish him. TheyjoinedAmin’sarmyandsecretservice, regime, manyBanyarwarndahappilysupported detention. Thus,whenIdiAmioverthrewtheObote residents subjecttoarbitraryquestioningandeven Act), whichmadetheRwandeseaspecialclassof of bills(forexample,theControlAlienRefugees emphasized “Ugandanisation”andpassedaseries intensified. Inthe1960s,OboteIgovernment when theconflictoverindigeneityandentitlement more volatilesituationintimesofpoliticalcrisis, common citizenship,theTutsirefugeesfaceda how successfulandeducatedtheywere.Denieda could notescapefromthesocialstigma,nomatter generation refugeeswerebrandedasand Unlike inTanzaniaorZaire,eventhesecond- refugees inUgandawastheworstregion. UNHCR, andmanyofthemevenwenttouniversities. refugees andtheirchildrenreceivedaidfromthe they sawthemasaprivilegedgroup:manyTutsi Ugandans alsoenviedandhatedtherefugeesbecause land belongingtoBairu.”Manypoorautochthonous to joinhandswiththeBahimatakeawaylittle ethnic groups,astheBairusawTutsi“comingin exacerbated theexistingtensionbetweenthesetwo Hutu, weretraditionalserfs.ThearrivalofTutsirefugees were thetraditionalrulers,andBairu,like division similartoRwanda’s:LiketheTutsi,Bahima However, Ugandawasacountrythathadanethnic with whichtheyhadadeephistoricalconnection. welcomed bytheBahimaroyalfamilyofUganda “those fromRwanda.”Initially,theTutsirefugeeswere Tutsi refugees,whowerecalled“Banyarwanda”or 1963-4, and1973.By1990,therewereabout200,000 refugees cametoUgandainthreewaves:1959-61, T o PECIAL h f

e t h

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O u t b C NE OF ENTER r e a k C AMBODIA up ofUgandanTutsis,particularly formerNRAmembers. head wasaHutu,theRPF waspredominantlymade Banyarwanda intheGreat Lakeregion.Althoughits in 1987ordertoensurethepoliticalsurvivalof of power.Outthispredicament,theRPFwasborn the NRAafter1986wereincreasinglysqueezedout political order.Asaresult,theBanyarwandaofficersin indigenous Ugandansreceivepriorityinthenew for theirownpoliticalpurposesanddemandedthat opposition playedontheanti-Banyarwandasentiment refugees inUganda.However,politiciansthe finally guaranteedapoliticalfuturefortheRwandan government. Ifsuccessful,suchreformscouldhave indigeneity andsoughttocreateabroad-based of equalcitizenshiprightsasresidenceinstead the NRAregimeinitiallytriedtoredefinebasis the post-genocideRwanda. Kagame, whowouldlaterbecometheleadersof ranking officersincludedFredRwigyemuandPaul up almostaquarteroftheNRAranks.Itshigh- in KampalaJanuary1986,Banyarwandamade National ResistanceArmy(NRA)finallytookpower joined Museveni.Asaresult,whenMuseveni’s as repressiongrew,evenmoreBanarwandarefugees (UPC) partyintensifieditspersecutionofTutsi,and, power waned,Obote’sUgandaPeople’sCongress and expelledabout40,000refugees.Asitspolitical about 40,000headsofcattleand16,000homes, nationals andrefugees.Inthatyearalone,itdestroyed looting, andexpulsionofallBanyarwanda–bothits youth, thegovernmentlaunchedmassivekillings, with thehelpoflocalauthorityandparamilitary soldiers” andincreaseditsrepressionofthem.In1982, II regimethenbrandedBanyarwandaas“Museveni grim situationundertheOboteIregime.The for therefugees,whoalltoowellrememberedtheir the OboteIIregime.Thiswasalmostanatural warnda refugeesjoinedMuseveni’sguerrillawar more difficult. them asinternalenemies,andmadetheirliveseven generated hatredamongUgandans,whoperceived (DC-C Like theHabyarimanaregimeinitsearlyyears, After Obotereturnedin1980,manyBanyar- AM ) 32 response against political future. Rwanda withagrimdeterminationtofindtheir left withnooptionbuttocontinuepushinto even strongerinUganda.Asaresult,theRPFwas country, andtheanti-Rwandansentimentbecame for usingUgandaasabaseattackingtheirhome Once thewarbegan,UgandansresentedRPF so astoeliminatepoliticalcomplicationsforhimself. invasion, butontheconditionthattherebenoreturn, civil warinRwanda.MusevenisupportedtheRPF October 1990,whichmarkedthebeginningof and tiltitinfavorofanarmedreturntoRwanda.” against naturalizationinthecountriesoftheirresidence refugee commonersandleaders,decisively was toswingthebalanceofopinion,amongboth “immediate consequenceofthesquatteruprising foreigners onceagain.AsMamdaniexplains,the people andtherebymadethemintovulnerable revoked commoncitizenshipfortheBanyarwarda of thepoliticaldebate.Cornered,Musevenithen question ofethnicityandindigeneityatthecenter the oppositionthenusedthisissuetoplace Banyarwanda squatters.ToundermineMuseveni, which theyviewedasfavoringthenonindigenous squatters organizedanuprisingagainstthegovernment, struggle inSouthernUgandawhichindigenous Rwanda? Thetriggercamefromthesquatter-rancher that itsonlysalvationlayinthearmedreturnto systematic scapegoating of theTutsiandused economic, andpolitical crisis inRwandaintoa opportunistic Hutuelites transformedthesocial, time ofandduringthecivilwar.Aswillbecomeclear, structures forpoliticalextremisminRwandaatthe dynamics, letusfirstexaminetheopportunity in Rwanda.Inordertounderstandtheseinternal through acomplexinterplaywiththeinternaldynamics become a O R w p p a n o d r This armedreturnwastheRPFinvasionof Then, howdidtheRPFcometoconclusion The civilwarwiththeRPF,however,could t a u

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i n C AMBODIA homeland inEthiopia. century, shouldbesentbacktotheir(imagined) the Tutsis,whohadlivedinRwandasince15 began tointernalizetheHutuPowerdoctrinethat the Tutsi.Astonishinglyenough,landlessHutus legitimacy andmomentumtosuchscapegoatingof towards theTutsi.CivilwarwithRPFonlyadded land andtherebyredirectedresentmentofthepoor the Tutsias“aliens”whotookoverHutus’rightful land fromthepooratlowprices.Then,theylabeled market boomandboughtupmuchofthearable the Hutuelitestookadvantageofillegalland as togaintheloyaltyofpoor.Inearly1990s, the conflictfromclasstoethnic/racialstruggle,so institutionalized confusionasaninstrumenttoreframe from landholdingsrapidlygrew. increased, andthelistofsocialcategoriesbarred owned?” Asaresult,disputesoverlandownership Aren’t theycultivatingthelandmyancestorsonce Who aretheyandwhatrightsdohave,really? to question,“Wheredomyneighborscomefrom? their identitiesandrightsinRwanda:Peoplebegan “institutionalized confusion”overpeople’spast, of landscarcityandambiguouslawscreatedan were largelyopentointerpretation.Thecombination in Uganda,lawsregardinglandownershipRwanda arable landreachedastaggeringnumberof422.As the populationdensitypersquarekilometerof 1990s, therewasnomorearablelandtoclaim,and grew from2millionto7.15million.Bytheearly Between 1940and1991,thepopulationofRwanda expectations, Rwandafell intoasevereeconomic decade ofsteadyeconomic growthandincreased Monetary Fund(IMF)and WorldBank(WB).Aftera adjustment programs(SAPs)oftheInternational collapse andtheextremelyunpopularstructural Accompanying thelandscarcitywaseconomic legitimize theirmanipulation. civil warwiththeRPFasatooltostrengthenand c o n f u (DC-C Opportunistic Hutuelitesthenusedthis R E s c i i e o o s n o n ” u o AM

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S Interahamwe for militias.Themostfamousexamplewasthe extremist Hutuelitesconvenientlyrecruitedthem restless, andeasy-to-manipulateyoungthugs, economic chaosproducedasociallayerofpoor, malnutrition anddisease.Theacutepovertythe living incampsandwassufferingfromserious end of1993,oneouteverysevenRwandanswas and displacingtensofthousandspeople.Bythe battered economybydestroyingtheinfrastructure creditor nations,theEC,andWB. regime for“sellingout”RwandatotheParisClubof unemployment. Then,Rwandanscondemnedthe immediately inducedhighinflationratesandmassive pressure fromtheEEC,acceptedSAPs,which October 1990,theHabyarimanaregime,underheavy coffee. JustthreemonthsbeforetheRPFinvasionin over 60%ofRwanda’ssmalllandholderswhogrew on behalfofthelargeUScoffeetraders)devastated coffee price(duetopoliticalpressuresfromWashington scheme. In1989,thecollapseofinternational collapse ofthegovernment’spricestabilization influx ofrefugeesfromBurundiin1988ledtothe recession inthelate1980s.Poorharvestsand frustrations ofthelandlessweregreat. socio-economic disparitieswerewideandthe genocide weremore“intimate”inregionswhere As TimothyLongmanfound,killingsduringthe Nevertheless, ethnicpoliticstriumphedoverreality. Habyarimana’s Northwesternregion,nottheTutsis. class wasHutu,especiallythosefromPresident such animagewaslargelyinvented:theprivileged as aristocraticandprivileged.Inreality,however, the Tutsi,“enemywithin,”whomtheyportrayed from theSAPs(thatis,themselves)toRPFand used thecivilwarasatooltoredirectpublichatred of thegenocide.Aswell,opportunisticpoliticians in early1992,whichlaterservedasakeyinstrument C T PECIAL h u e r s

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NE OF ENTER t h e C AMBODIA but theRwanda that theHutuwerenotjustademocraticmajority supported theideologyofHutuPower,whichdeclared PARMEHUTU years,muchoftheHutupopulation national reconciliation.Forinstance,duringthe political languageprovidedahugepotentialfor rather thananalienrace,andsuchachangeinthe initially spokeoftheTutsiasanethnicminority threat. as thedefenderofnationinfaceaTutsi regime awelcomeopportunitytoregaintheirlegitimacy RPF attackon1October1990,therefore,gavethe early 1990s,threateneditsmonopolyofpower.The which begantosweepthroughthecountryin in thelate1980sandpoliticalreformmovement, support. However,surmountingeconomicproblems initially enjoyedmuchpopularandinternational (MRND) the MouvementDemocratiqueRepublicain economic development,Habyarimana’srulingparty, of reducingethnictensionsandfocusingmoreon the Hutuextremistmovement.Throughstrategy the RPFpolarizedRwandanpoliticsandgalvanized the moderatesinRwanda. context ofthecivilwarbecame apoliticalcurseto initiative. Inotherwords, imposed democracyinthe and todevelopthecapacityforindependentpolitical Power a state ofapermanenttensionandprovidedtheHutu however, multipartycompetitionputRwandain a a multi-partydemocracy.Inthemidstofcivilwar, community pushedthegovernmentintoinstituting government adoptedSAPs,theinternationaldonor Power inRwanda.AtthesametimethatRwandan in theearly1990sfacilitatedgrowthofHutu arrangements withtheRPF. and moderates,whosupportedpower-sharing into twohostilecamps:theHutuPowerextremists of theHutuPowerandpolarizedpoliticalclass ideology. Then,thecivilwarfosteredresurgence only afractionoftheHutupopulationsupportedthis 1980s, afterfifteenyearsoftheSecondRepublic, (DC-C As discussedearlier,PresidentHabyarimana Ironically enough,thedemocratizationprocess legal AM ) space toorganizeitsowninstitutions 34 nation nation itself. However,bythelate Burundi, MelchiorNdadaye. Inpost-1959era,Rwanda with theassassinationof theHutupresidentof the WBandIMF.” head bytheRPF,US,Belgium,Britain,UN, made Rwanda“acountrywithagunpointedatits suspend creditstoRwanda.AsPanderexplains,this right away,threateningthatitwouldotherwise paralyzed governmentintoimplementingthepeace international communitypressuredthealready- means toimplementsuchanunpopularpeace,the make thingsworse,withoutprovidinganyrealistic more moderatepoliticswaseffectivelysealed.To charged himwithtreason,andthusthefateofhis suicide forHabyarimana;theHutuextremists the ArushaAccordsweretantamounttopolitical population todiscreditthemoderateHutus.Indeed, succeeded inconvincingalargeportionofthe as thebetrayersofnation,HutuPower parties assympathetictotheRPFandlabelingthem supported thepeace.Byportrayingopposition and toeliminatethemoderateHutusTutsiswho the extremists’effortstoabrogateArushapeace an exclusionfrompoliticalpoweronlygalvanized in theparliamentforHutuextremistparty.Such of theInterior,and,mostsignificantly,gavenoseats also puttheRPFinchargeofimportantMinistry make roomfortheRPFTutsisoldiers.TheAccords Rwandan army,especiallytotheyouth,inorder unemployment noticetotheHutusoldiersin since 1990,thisessentiallymeantgivingamassive Rwandan armyhadbeenenlargedbysixtimes new nationalarmy.However,giventhefactthat two armiesallowedtheRPFtoprovide50%of faction. Forexample,theprovisiononmerging incorporate theinterestsofgrowingextremist were doomedfromtheoutsetastheyfailedto and theRPFinAugust1993.TheAccords,however, Peace Accords,signedbytheRwandangovernment Hutu PowerinRwandanpoliticswastheArusha A p c o c o l i i u t i i n c The finalmomentforthe extremistscame T a t h i n l

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m NE OF ENTER t h i c e s C AMBODIA institutional apparatusof thegenocidewasalready enemy.” Accordingto René Lemarchand,the machetes, andtrainedyoung mentoattackthe and expandedthemilitia,importedfirearms organized, andfacilitatedthekillings–theycreated this decisionwasmade,theysystematicallyplanned, itself asanalternativetolifewithoutpower.Once Power proponents moral responsibilityofthegenocidaires.TheHutu disregard thecrucialroleofhumanagencyand inevitable politicaloutcome.Todosowouldbeto Burundi isnottosuggestthatthegenocidewasan the contextofArushaAccordsandcrisisin explaining thegrowthofgenocidaltendencyin Mamdani, the“ as thesolutiontocivilwar.Inwordsof power-sharing arrangementsoftheArushaAccords the RPF–andmoderateHutuswhosupported all Tutsis–whowerepresumedtobesupportersof means toachievetheirpoliticalobjectives:eliminate all themoreisolated. remaining moderatesandTutsipoliticiansbecame politicians joinedtheHutuPower,andthus large proportionoftheformerlymoderateHutu Burundi ledtoafull-scalepoliticalrealignment: between HutuandTutsi.”Asaresult,thecrisisin clear: “Historyhadruledoutpoliticalcoexistence eyes ofHutupoliticians,themessagewassimpleand some 200,000HuturefugeesfledtoRwanda.Inthe generating anotherwaveofpoliticalviolence,and from theall-TutsiarmyassassinatedNdadaye, after thesigningofArushaAccords,elements of theHutuandTutsi.However,onlytwomonths for thefuture–ahopepeacefulco-existence Burundi in1993,manyRwandanssawitasapromise Ndadaye waselectedasthefirstHutupresidentin violence againsttheTutsiinRwanda.Thus,when 1972 generatedanewwaveofvolcanicethnic of 200,000Hutuschoolchildrenandintellectualsin domination. Aspreviouslydiscussed,themassacre would beliketocontinueliveunderTutsi looked atBurundiasareal-lifeportrayalofwhatit (DC-C P o l i i t i i c AM a l

) e genocidaires n g S 35 i i EARCHING n e chose e r i i n g

F o OR genocide asa“rational” f chose toembracedeath

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S – TutsiandHutu,Twainitiallyfoughtthe eastern shoresofLakeKivu,theentirecommunity local authoritiesthreatenedtopunishthem.Onthe opposed thegenocidaloperation,militaryand afterwards. InplaceslikeButare,wheremanyHutus public sitestobekilled,anddisposedthecorpses They alsotransportedweapons,gatheredTutsisin citizens tofinishofftheslaughterwithmachetes. started anddirectedmajormassacresencouraged and the described. ThePresidentialguards,nationalpolice, people” inananarchicsituationassomehave not a“spontaneousoutburstofragebygrief-struck genocidal operation.TheRwandangenocidewas inciting ordinaryHutucitizenstoparticipateinits responsibility ofthegovernmentauthorityin generated thewilltoparticipateinthesetrainings. the warraisedlegitimacyofauthorityand civil war.FromtheperspectiveofordinaryHutu, to servethatpurposeinthefaceofdefeat purpose ofthegenocidebutwererathertransformed these instrumentswerenotinitiallycreatedforthe see me.” were busymobilizingothers.Theynevercameto friends receivedtraining.Whentheyreturned, disassociate themselvesfromTutsi.Someofmy and givenguns.Thosecomingfromtrainingwould young menweretakeninthereservesandtrained given guns.DuringthewarwithRPF,many Mamdani interviewedin1995testified: enemy. Forexample,aTutsimaninNtaramawhom where theytrainedtheyoungandoldtokill “self-defense” unitsineverycommuneandvillage, in placeby1992.Theextremistpoliticiansformed Interahamwe Interahamwe meticulously organizedand inducedkillingsovertime. government authorityhadnot systematicallypromoted, genocide couldnothavebeen possibleiftheextremist benefits todeserttheirTutsineighbors.Indeed,the threatened andenticedtheHutuwithmaterial PECIAL Nevertheless, wecannotunderestimatethe However, againinthecontextofcivilwar, “The killingwasplanned,becausesomewere E NGLISH Interahamwe Interahamwe E together DITION , S ECOND . . dispatched fromthecenter, Then the Q UARTER D Interahamwe OCUMENTATION 2005 C both NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA forces. after thecivilwarbeganprovidelocaltrained Youth whohadbeentrainedinself-defenseunits were broughtinfromneighboringcommunities. Presidential GuardcamefromKigali.TheInterahamwe killing. Mamdaniwrites: town, outof3,500Hutu,allmenparticipatedinthe conducted in1995,aTutsimantestifiedthathis perpetrators. AccordingtoaninterviewthatMamdani thousand, ittookatleastmanythousandsof motivation tokill.Italsomeantthatkillahundred strokes; itwashardworkthatrequiredapersistent meant thattodismemberoneperson,ittookmany genocide inRwandamostlyusedmachetes,which such aspoisonousgas,theperpetratorsof participation. Insteadofsophisticatedtechnology of thescaleandnaturepopular was verydifferentfromtheNaziHolocaustinterms less thanahundreddays.TheRwandangenocide support andparticipationtokill800,000peoplein organized themajorkillings,itneededpopular project. Evenifthepoliticalauthorityplannedand Yet, genocideinRwandawasnotsimplyastate their closefriends,andother timessimplystrangers. risked theirlivestosave theTutsis–sometimes they werethreatenedbythe militia,andmanyothers participated sozealously.Somebecause wives andrelatives.Ofcourse,noteveryHutu Sometimes HutuhusbandsevenkilledtheirTutsi facilitated killingsoftheirTutsicongregation. their neighborsandstrangers,evensomepriests doctors killedtheircolleagues,patientsaswell by theirneighborsinpublicsites.Alargenumberof sanctuary. Victimsweremutilated,burnt,andraped churches, andhospitalswherethevictimssought isolated concentrationcampsbutinschools, street battle.” auxiliary roles,likethesecondlineinastreet-to- women, too:cheeringtheirmen,participatingin [italics added],atleastallmen.Andnotonlymen, (DC-C “Who werethekillersinNtarama?Unitsof As well,themassacresdidnottakeplacein T h But the truth is that everybody participated everybody that is truth the But e

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p a r t i i c i i p a t i i o n . genocide. not accountfortheorganizationalaspectof nature cannotbeeasilychanged.Aswell,itdoes other placeintheworldforthatmatter,sincehuman there canbelittleornohopeforRwanda,any of resourcescarcity. many countrieswithevenmoreseriousproblems a plethoraofthegenocidalviolencesincethereare take thisargument,however,theworldshouldsee scarcity, anddiminishingfoodproduction.Ifwe suffered fromadramaticpopulationincrease,land previous section,Rwandasince1984hadindeed take apoor,ignorantpopulation, andgivethemarms, revere power,andthereisn’t enougheducation.You Supporting thisclaim,aHutu lawyerclaimed,“people centralized andunconditionalobediencetoauthority.” Rwandan politicaltraditionasthe“oneofsystematic, sufficient If wesaythathumannaturewasthenecessaryand be dismissed. the popularparticipationinRwandangenocidecannot Nevertheless, themassscaleandgrimnatureof explanations. let mefirstscrutinizeandrefutefourmainalternative from repeatinginthefuture. to resolvetheconflictandpreventsuchtragedy behind thekillingsiscrucialifwewanttofindaway its ownexplanation.Scrutinizingthemotivations ordinary Hutusinthegenocide?Atrocitycannotbe how canweexplainsuchactiveparticipationof own livestosavetheTutsis. contradicts thefactthatmanyHutusriskedtheir when therewasnopromiseofreward.Moreover, it displayed suchextraordinaryzealforthekillingseven argument cannotexplainwhysomanyperpetrators goods) thattheauthorityoffered.However,this to thematerialincentives(theirneighbors’landand documented, manypoorHutusindeedresponded As AlisonDesForgesofHumanRightsWatch authority. authority. survival at each other’s expense. other’s each at survival Before presentingtheviewpointofthisstudy, A c c cause o For example,GerardPrunierdescribesthe 2) An outcome of a desperate bid for bid desperate a of outcome An 2) u n 1) Manifestation of a dark human nature. human dark a of Manifestation 1) t i i n of suchmassviolenceasthegenocide, g

f o r

3) Self-interest opportunism Self-interest 3) p o p u l a 4) Blind obedience to obedience Blind 4) r

p D As discussedinthe a OCUMENTATION r t i i c i i p a t i i o n . Then, C NE OF ENTER . C AMBODIA explanation…to bemadethinkable,itneedsto conviction andzeal?” people toparticipateinmassslaughterwithsuch historicized of troubling question,“howcouldastillsmallnumber these explanationssatisfiesourinitialanddeeply trying toemphasizehere,however,isthatnoneof causal factors,eachreinforcingtheother.WhatIam conflict isalmostalwaysanoutcomeofmultiple provide apartialaccountfortheviolence.Violent explanation, eachofthesefourexplanationsdoes element ofchoiceineverypossiblesituation. action: Howeversmallitmaybe,thereisalwaysan the fundamentalroleofhumanagencyinany notion ofanunthinkingparticipantfailstorecognize and say,‘It’syours.Kill.’They’llobey.”However,this their interviewwithHutu refugeesinTanzania Revolution. Catharineand DavidNewburynotedin “reversal ofhistory”or annulment ofthe1959 purpose oftheRPFinvasionwastobringabout a Bizimungu inOctober1990declaredthatthe such certainty.Forinstance,ForeignMinisterCaimir and theexpansionofaHutumiddleclass.” future fortheHutu,synonymouswithexistence secured thegainsofrevolution,whichmeant“a so basedontheassumptionthattheyhadforever greater democraticrightsinthelate1980s,theydid Therefore, whentheHutumiddleclasscalledfor domination remainedvibrantinpost-colonialRwanda. historical memoryofthehardshipsunderTutsi paranoiac ethnicpoliticsoftheFirstRepublic, of servitudeunderTutsidomination.Thankstothe which theyrememberedasliberationfromthelife class wastheproudinheritorof1959Revolution, conflict. Atthetimeofgenocide,Hutumiddle genocide perpetratorsperceivedthenatureof making, andexaminehowitaffectedtheway problem ofhistory/historicalmemoryandidentity- popular participation,wemustgobacktothe genocidaires genocidaires (DC-C As Mamdaninoted,“atrocitycannotbeitsown To besure,thoughnotanecessaryandsufficient Then, thecivilwarwithRPFdestroyed .” Indeed,inordertomakesenseofthe AM ) convince hundredsofthousands S 37 EARCHING F OR T HE T RUTH P UBLIC D EBATE

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S the newspaper ( campaign oftheHutuextremists.UsingRTLM massive andindeedverysuccessfulpropaganda turned intoamotivationtokillwereitnotforthe was betweenpowerandservitude. prophecy formanythattheonlyalternativeHutu Hutu presidentinBurundi1993servedasa Revolution. Furthermore,theassassinationof that thepeacewouldundoallgainsof1959 (who wouldbemostlyTutsi)convincedmanyHutus that recognizedtherightofreturnforallrefugees Rwandans, but that therealaimofRPFwasnotrightsforall Thirdly, theArushaAccordsconfirmedbelief generating morehatredamongthepopulation. RPF dramaticallyincreasedafterFebruary1993, boys andmenforforcedlabor.Suchcrimesbythe destroyed theirproperty.Theyalsoconscripted as “backward”and“ignorant”forciblylootedor leaders thenbegantodescribetheHutupeasants initially hoped.Inresponsetotheirdistrust,theRPF did notwelcometheRPFas“liberators,” thus seenasthe“Tutsiforce.”Thus,Hutupeasants RPF wasstilldominatedbyUgandanTutsiand although itsleadershipincludedseveralHutus,the induced andnurturedbyseveralfactors.Firstofall, inevitable end-resultofhistoricalmemory;itwas war wastheirhistoricalfate. Hutus cametobelievethatthetruestakeincivil the pre-Revolutionarypowerstructure.”Indeed,many The RPFwasseenbymanyasthereincarnationof regime beforeIndependenceandthe1959Revolution. camps returnedtofocusintenselyonthemonarchical 1994: “Timeandagainconversationintherefugee regime, the were madeintheearly yearsofHabyarimana’s cockroaches.” Aswell,annulling thechangesthat example, theHateRadiocalledTutsis“man-eating racialization anddehumanizationoftheTutsi.For genocide morethinkablethroughitslanguageof PECIAL Radio et Television Libre des Mille Collines Mille des Libre Television et Radio Even so,suchabeliefcouldnothavebeen Such belief,however,wasnotanaturalor E NGLISH genocidaires E DITION Tutsi power Tutsi Kangura, Kangura, , S ECOND the labeled theTutsianalien . Inparticular,theprovision Q UARTER genocidaires D OCUMENTATION 2005 made the ) and C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA Hutu, thepropagandamadekillingsseem by declaringthattheTutsiswouldotherwisekill their veryexistenceinRwandaillegitimate.Moreover, race, notanindigenousethnicgroup,therebymaking more thinkableforordinaryHutus. especially atthelocallevel,madegenocide legitimacy. Suchgrowingfamiliaritywithkillings, gained adegreeofcoherenceandperception in thepoliticalcontextofcivilwar,thesemassacres of Tutsisasakindcommunityproject.Moreover, outcome ofthispracticewastopresentthekilling in thenameofobservingcustom.Theultimate colonial eratoenforceobligationsoncommunities which wasemployedduringthecolonialandpost- the extremistssoughttouse“customary”power, were executedlocally.Ineachofthesemassacres, these massacreswereinitiatedfromthecenter,they in Rwanda,killinganestimated3,000Tutsi.Although Between 1990and1993,fourmassacrestookplace the RPFandthenarresteddetainedthem. accused thousandsofTutsissympathizingwith war. AftertheinitialRPFinvasion,government the precedentsofmassviolenceduringcivil became thinkableforordinaryHutusbecauseof did notmakethegenocideinevitable; was systematicallypromotedbythepropaganda. violence bythefootsoldiers.Yet,muchoftheirfear anything –playedacrucialroleininstigating for theengineersofgenocide,fear–morethan exclusive politicalpowerwasthemainmotivation be victimsagain.”Insum,whilethedesirefor political drama,victimsofyesterdaywhomayyet saw themselvesasthetruevictimsofanongoing Mamdani writes,“theperpetratorsofthegenocide only thechoicetokillorbekilled.”Indeed,as act notoutofhatebutfear.Theythinktheyhave Tutsis areouttokillthem,andthatisreality.Sothey refugee explains:“Theyhearoverandthatthe and legitimizedviolenceasaself-defense.AHutu U N D E (DC-C R Nonetheless, suchinternalizedfearsalone So far,thisstudyhasscrutinized thehistorical S T A N AM D ) I N G 38

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necessary had acriticalimpactonthe Rwandanconflictleading developments, especially inUgandaandBurundi, peace-building inRwanda. Rwanda andposesahugeimpedimenttoeffective This regionalwarhasagreatpotentialtode-stabilize been undergoingalife-and-deathconfrontation. and HutudiasporaintheGreatLakeregionhave is theconditionofTutsisurvival.Asaresult, for thesurvivalofallremainingTutsi;and2)power 1) theRwandangovernmenthasamoralresponsibility emergence ofadiasporicstatebasedontwobeliefs: Indeed, thegenocideinRwandahasresulted while sendingintheirownarmiestoassistthem. trained ethnicTutsisoldiersintheneighboringcountries become aregionalwar,astheRPFhasarmedand (DRC; hereafterEasternCongo-Zaire)andhasgradually eastern partoftheDemocraticRepublicCongo civilians onbothsides.Theconflictalsospreadtothe militia) hasresultedinthedeathsofthousands up ofex-RwandanarmyandtheInterahamwe RPF forcesandtheHutuinsurgencygroups(made ongoing conflictinthenorthwesternregionbetween However, thearmedconflictdidnotendthere.The the RwandanarmyandseizedcontrolofKigali. officially endedinJuly1994whentheRPFdefeated reconciliation inRwanda. the challengestoalastingpeace,justice,and building effortssincethegenocide,soastoelucidate and Tutsidiasporasthenexaminethepeace- of thecontinuingregionalconflictinvolvingHutu To doso,Iwillfirstscrutinizethecausesanddynamics – thatis,thedevelopmentssince1994genocide. to acquireacriticalunderstandingofthe“present” initial question,“Istherehopeforthatplace?”Iwant understanding ofthepast.Now,goingbackto that therecanbenohopewithoutacritical and dynamicsofthegenocidebasedonpremise development ofethnicgrievancesandthecauses E T h a s e t

e C r a n As discussedintheprevious section,regional The civilwarandthegenocideinRwanda u

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i n C AMBODIA 61 and1963-4.Infact,after theviolent1959Revolution influx oftheTutsirefugees fromRwandain1959- only intensifiedwiththeincreasing landscarcityand contention andthepoliticaldebateover“nationality” population, whomtheylabeledasforeigners.The land” andsoughttoexpeltheBanyarwanda claimed theirrightstothe“inalienableandancestral rights. Afterindependence,theindigenouspopulation thereby sowedtheseedsforfutureconflictoverland agreements withtheautochthonouschiefsand the colonialadministrationmadeambiguouslease of migration,marginalizingtheautochthones.Moreover, of apartheidandappointedHutuchiefsintheareas early 20 (or “thosefromRwanda”)intoKivuprovinceinthe and assistedamassivemigrationoftheBanyarwanda projects, theBelgiancolonialadministrationplanned threats fromRwanda. the internalethnicgrievancesandexternalsecurity this conflictistheresultofacomplexinterplaybetween Kivu provinces.JustasinRwandatheearly1990s, in EasternCongo-Zaire,comprisingNorthandSouth played acrucialroleinthedevelopmentofconflict issues ofindigeneity,entitlement,andcitizenship refugees. AsinUganda,Burundi,andRwanda,the look attheeventspriortoarrivalofRwandan Rwanda cannotbeproperlyunderstoodunlesswe Eastern Congo-Zaireafterthe1994genocidein aftermath ofthegenocide.However,eventsin of themassiverefugeeinfluxfromRwandain Congo-Zaire byportrayingitasaninevitableoutcome a simplisticunderstandingoftheconflictinEastern post-genocide Rwanda. address theregionalcitizenshipcrisisindiscussing so astopointtheneedunderstandand on thedynamicsofwarwithRwandaafter1994, over citizenshipinCongo-Zairehadacriticalimpact This sectionfocusesonhowtheinternalconflict and dynamicsofthisregionalwarinsomedetail. “hope forRwanda,”wemustexaminethecauses up tothegenocide.Thus,inourinquiryinto (DC-C In ordertomeettheneedforitsplantation Many journalisticaccountshaveperpetuated th century. TheBelgiansthenadoptedapolicy AM ) S 39 EARCHING F OR T HE T RUTH P UBLIC D EBATE

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S whom wereHutu)stillremained displaced.Thus,it were displacedduringthe 1993conflict(mostof July 1994,100,000ofthose 350,000peoplewho the HuturefugeesfromRwandabegantoarrivein ethnic TutsisandHutus.Forexample,inMasisi,when 1994 involvedmorethanaconfrontationbetween simplistic analysessuggest,theconflictinKivuafter 1994 genocideinRwanda.Unlikewhatsome on thedynamicsofregionalconflictafter displacement of350,000people. 20,000 peopleonbothsidesaswelltheinternal resulted inthedeathsofbetween10,000and and theTutsipopulation.Inend,conflict brought inmilitiasandmassacredboththeHutu (the HutuandtheTutsi).Theindigenousgroups Bahunde andtheBanyangu)“nonindigenous” ethnic conflictbetweenthe“indigenous”(the Hutus andsomeBahundes,itsoonturnedintoan Tutsi) migrantstakingoverthelandsofmostlypoor the conflictoriginallybeganwithrichHutu(and Masisi, anareawithaHutumigrantmajority.Although ethnic and“foreigner”problem. what wasaneconomicandclassstruggleinto by theautochthonouseliteswhosoughttotransform 1970s and1980s,theyweremadeapoliticalscapegoat process. DuringthefoodsecuritycrisisinKivu were onceagainexcludedfromthenationalpolitical the annulmentofthislawin1981,Banyarwanda Rwanda andBurundibefore1950.However,after granted citizenshiptoeveryonewhocamefrom 1972 withthechangeincitizenshiplaw,which chiefs foraccesstoland.Theirsituationimprovedin citizenship, theyhadtopaytributeautochthonous denied citizenshipbythe1964constitution.Without Eastern Congo-Zaire:themajorityofthemwere remained politicallyvulnerableinpost-colonial establish theirownidentitiesasZairians. themselves fromtheir“homelands”andsoughtto in Burundi,theTutsiSouthernKivutriedtodistance in Rwandaandespeciallythe1972“selectivegenocide” PECIAL These internalsituationshadacriticalimpact In early1993,aviolentconflicteruptedin However, theBanyarwandapopulation E NGLISH E DITION , S ECOND Q UARTER D OCUMENTATION 2005 C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA Mobutu. Inthisfirstrebellion,theADFLtargeted to overthrowtheHutu-sympatheticZairiandictator, Democratic ForcesfortheLiberationofCongo-Zaire) Paul Kagame,helpedKabila’sADFL(Allianceof militants inrefugeecamps,Rwanda’svice-president, the protectionofTutsidiasporaagainstHutu first rebellion.InthenameofRwandansecurityand factors oftheconflictwasnoclearerthanduring been expelledfromMasisi. February 1996,250,000HundeandNyangahad had lostafter1981andespecially1993.By the autochthones,soastore(?)claimlandthey in ordertosituateRwanda’s presentinaregional dynamics oftheregionalwar ineasternCongo-Zaire involving allthestatesinGreatLakeregion. forces andthewarcontinuedtoexpand,eventually by attackingbothRwandanandtheZairianTutsi population. Theindigenouspopulationthenresponded 6,000 Hutusbutalsoassaultedtheindigenous In thefirsthalfof1997,theynotonlykilledabout opportunity tosettleoldscoreswithlocalenemies. into arevengeseekinginKivu. To confirmtheirfears,therebellionindeedturned in Congo,or,worsestill,toannexKivuRwanda.” to giveteethTutsiclaimsforan“indigenous”status expression oftheTutsipowerthatwouldbeused post-genocide Rwandesearmywasanarmed of viewthe“indigenous”ethnicitiesinKivu, occupation. AsMamdaniexplains,“Fromthepoint the rebellionwasturningintoalikelyRwandese against thedictator,theysoonbegantofearthat indigenous militantsinitiallysupportedtherebellion Rwandan Hutusfromrefugeecamps.Althoughsome Congolese army,andrepatriatedsome700,000 Interahamwe Interahamwe Zairian HutuswhocollaboratedwiththeRwandan wanted tosettleinthefertileMasisiregion.These allied withtheRwandanHuturefugeeswhoalso was notsurprisingthattheseZairianHutusthen (DC-C Such aninterplayofinternalandexternal So far,Ihaveexamined thecausesand The CongoleseTutsitooktherebellionasan AM ) (the CongoleseHutu)andtheallied attacked notonlytheTutsibutalso 40 reconciliation. to thequestionsofjustice,truth,forgiveness,and Rwanda sincethegenocidewithparticularattention section, Iscrutinizethepeace-buildingeffortsin Great Lakeregion,particularlytheDRC.Innext Rwanda” withoutconsideringthehopeforentire context. Indeed,wecannottalkaboutthe“hopefor responsible forthegenocide arenotsorryfortheir existence. Tomakematters worse,manyHutus of dealingwiththeproblem ofevilintheirvery genocidal horrorandsufferfromalife-longchallenge 250,000 to500,000–arelivingremindersofthe the UN,numberofrapecasesrangesfrom systematic rapeduringthegenocide–accordingto ten yearstime.”Moreover,thechildrenbornof …and imaginingwhomightkillyourownchildin Hutu meansrememberingwhokilledyourparents Medicins sansFrontièresnoted,“TobeaTutsior a the situationoflivingindistrust,fear,andanger.As and deepenedtheethniccleavages,exacerbating people, shatteredtheirconfidenceinmoralorder, rate of11.2%in2001. dramatically increased,reachinganationalinfection rape asaweapon,theprevalenceofHIVhasalso population movementandthesystematicuseof infrastructure.” Asaconsequenceofthelarge-scale base, institutionalcapacity,andeconomicsocial destroyed thecountry’ssocialfabric,humanresource Department ofStatedescribed,“the1994genocide of hunger,disease,andviolence.AstheUnitedStates people. Inrefugeecamps,thousandsofHutusdied resulting inthedisplacementofoveronemillion million peopletofleeneighboringcountries, to onemilliondeaths,thegenocideimpelledthree lives ofeightmillionRwandanpeople.Besidesup every aspectofsocial,economic,political,andpersonal eight yearshavepassed,itslegacystillbreathesin enduring impactonRwanda.Althoughmorethan T P h e e a

c L e e -b The violencealsotraumatizedtheRwandese The genocidehadaprofound,devastating,and b g a u c i l y d

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t o C AMBODIA perpetrating thegenocide. Aswell,countlesscivil to representthosewho havebeenaccusedof provide bothRwandese and internationallawyers sans Frontièresprojecthashelpedtoorganizeand and administrativepersonnel.Notably,theAvocats trained asignificantnumberofjudges,prosecutors, has alsoundertakenimportantlegalreformsand vision ofthenewRwandansociety.Thegovernment political reeducationandlearnaboutthegovernment’s operating “solidaritycamps,”wherecitizensreceive organizing communityreconciliationinitiatives,and conducting civiceducation,mediatingconflicts, and Reconciliation(NCUR)hasbeenactivein refugees. Aswell,theNationalCommissiononUnity sought toorganizeandfacilitatethereturnof by WarandDemobilization,thegovernmentalso Through itsMinistryofRehabilitationThoseDisplaced education system,andthecommunalpoliceforce. local andnationaladministrativestructures,the rehabilitating thestateanditsstructuressuchas government hasachievedaremarkablesuccessin efforts inthelasteightyears.First,Rwandan the internationalcommunityhavemadevarious the genocide,bothRwandangovernmentand loved onesstilllayinneighborhood of carryingonwithlifewhenthe friends. Indeed,onecanonlyimaginethechallenge and wishthattheyhaddiedwiththeirfamilies of theiragonynotknowingwhytheyarestillalive alive, survivorsofthegenocideoftenexpressdepth some peoplewouldsaythattheyareluckytobe genocide createdmany“ghostpeople.”Although Rwandan society.Onthepartofvictims, vanish withtheRPFvictorybutcontinuetopoison moral righteousnessoftheperpetratorsdidnot to legitimizeviolence.Theinternalizedhatredand propaganda wastodehumanizetheTutsiandthereby people aservicebykillingthe“cockroaches.” crimes andcontinuetobelievethattheydidtheir V a r i o u (DC-C In ordertodealwiththehorrendouslegacyof Indeed, theultimateeffectofextremist s

P e a AM c e ) -b b u S 41 i EARCHING l d i n g

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S memory ofthepastfrom poisoning thepresentand themselves inthepast?How cantheypreventthe Rwandese rememberthe pastyetavoidburying be helpful: efforts inRwanda,thefollowingthreequestionsmay of peace.” reconciliation andtotherestorationmaintenance but alsoto“contributetheprocessofnational not onlytoprosecutetheperpetratorsofgenocide in Arusha,Tanzania.TheICTRwasgiventhemandate International CriminalTribunalforRwanda(ICTR) Resolution 955of8November1994createdthe On thejudicialside,UNSecurityCouncil funding tohelpfostereconomicgrowthinRwanda. especially theWB–hasalsogivenquiteextensive widows. Theinternationaldonorcommunity– services, particularlyfororphans,rapevictims,and counseling, housingconstruction,andchildren’s They havealsoprovidedmedicaltreatment,trauma bridges, roads,andwaterelectricalsystems. helped torebuildthephysicalinfrastructure,including non-governmental organizationssuchasOXFAM in Rwanda.NumerousUNagenciesandinternational remarkable amountofresourcesinpeace-building Africa, theinternationalcommunityhasinvesteda on theissueofgenocideandpeace-building. have alsoorganizedconferencesandsymposiums University ofRwandaandcommunityorganizations numerous reconciliationprograms.TheNational particular haveplayedacriticalroleinundertaking aspects ofpeace-building.Women’sgroupsin society groupshavebecomeinvolvedinvarious but alsotheperpetrators. latter implicatestherestorationofnotonlyvictims justice.” Theformerisbasedonvengeancewhilethe a balancebetween“retributive”and“restorative” question essentiallyhighlightsthechallengeoffinding “just forgiveness”anda“forgivingjustice”?This pursue justiceinsuchawaythatitenactsboth a E PECIAL v a l u a In ordertohelpevaluatethepeace-building Furthermore, givenitsusualapathytowards E t i NGLISH o n

First, E DITION how canthepeopleofRwanda , S ECOND Q Second, UARTER D OCUMENTATION 2005 how canthe C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA Finally, respects dangerousforthefutureofRwanda. building isnotonlyinadequatebutalsoinmany community havebeendoinginthenameofpeace- what theRwandangovernmentandinternational on thesequestions,Iwillargueinthefollowingthat can bemadetofostersuchrecognition?Reflecting common humanity?Whatkindofpoliticalarrangements favor oftheTutsi. programs, whichtheHutu perceivetobebiasedin reduced theeffectivenessofvariouspeace-building influence. TheRPFandTutsidominance,inturn, society, especiallyintheareasthathavepolitical havea dominatedkeypositionsoftheRwandancivil such asthemediaandNGOs.Asaresult,Tutsi ensured anominalHutupresenceincivicorganizations resigned inMarch2000.Thegovernmenthasalso notably, theHutupresident,PasteaurBizimungu, out offrustrationswiththeTutsidomination.Most been eitherpressuredtoleavepoliticsorhaveresigned the population.Aswell,manyHutupoliticianshave government, whichhaveamoredirectcontactwith dominates themiddleandlowerlevelsof level leadershipincludessomeHutus,theTutsistill by theTutsi-ledRPF.Whilemorevisiblehigh- claim thatitrepresentsallRwandans,isstillruled were short-lived.Firstofall,despitethegovernment’s and respectforhumanrights.However,theseideals based ontheprinciplesoftolerance,coexistence, home, anddeclaredthatthenewregimewouldbe its ministries,encouragedHuturefugeestoreturn predecessor. ItincludedHutuintheseniorranksof impressive effortstodistinguishitselffromitsgenocidal August 1994,theRPF-ledgovernmentinitiallymade post-genocide Rwanda.AftertakingoverKigaliin has overallpursuedaretributiveorvictor’sjusticein truth-telling andthequestionofpoliticalforgiveness. is importanttoconsiderthewaysofconstructive instigating thecycleofviolenceinRwanda.Thus,it how historicalmemoryplayedacrucialrolein future? Intheearliersectionsofthispaper,Idiscussed (DC-C As well,thegovernmentof Rwandahascreated V i i how cantheTutsisandHutusrestoretheir c t o r AM ’ s

) j u s t 42 i i c e . . First, theRwandangovernment section ofthestudy,Tutsi havenotalwaysbeen sought todiscourageordismiss criticismsfromabroad. to judgewhatishappeninginRwandaandthereby advantage. Ithasinsistedthatoutsidershavenoright feels aboutitsfailuretointervenein1994 has wellutilizedtheguiltinternationalcommunity the HRFORin1997.Finally,Rwandangovernment the Rwandangovernmentrespondedbyexpelling on humanrightsabusesbythecurrentgovernment, field operationinRwanda(HRFOR)begantoreport United NationsHighCommissionforHumanRights’ Kibeho) afterthegenocide.Forexample,when civilian massacres(e.g.,intherefugeecamps government armyofficialswhoareresponsiblefor who havepushedfortheprosecutionofthose also persecutedjournalistsandhumanrightsactivists and controltheHutumajority.Thegovernmenthas arbitrary arrestsandimprisonmenttointimidate and Tutsitogether,thegovernmentcontinuedtouse around thecountrysidewithanaimtobringHutu a NationalUnityandReconciliationCommission 8,000 Hutusin1997alone.Aswell,whileitdispatched According toUNmonitors,governmentforceskilled and therebytogainobediencefromthepopulation. or byadesiretodemonstrateitsnewpoliticalpower killings appeartohavebeenmotivatedbyvengeance thousands ofunarmedHutucivilians.Somethese killings ofnotonlyHutuextremistsbutalsotens crackdowns intheaftermathofgenocideinvolved its Hutucitizensinthenameofsecurity.Itssecurity ment hasperpetuatedhumanrightsviolationsagainst returnees inlandallocations. construction toHutureturneesandfavoredtheTutsi the governmenthasoftendeniedassistanceinhome the crimeofgenocide.Basedonthismoralhierarchy, every livingHutuismorally–ifnotlegallyguiltyof survivors aslivingvictims,therebysuggestingthat government hasidentifiedonlytheTutsigenocide Hutus werevictimizedduringthegenocide, political languageandpolicies.Althoughmanymoderate a second-classcitizenshipfortheHututhroughits Moreover, thepost-genocideRwandangovern- P e r v e r s i i o n

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h i i s t o r y .

As Iarguedinthefirst D OCUMENTATION C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA and violence,astheydefine victimsandperpetrators played acrucialroleininciting andlegitimizinghatred historical memoriesofthe HutuandtheTutsihave have shownthroughoutthestudy,conflicting conducive toalong-lastingpeaceinRwanda.As I unity basedonthisparticularversionmaynotbe that RPF’sversionofhistoryanditsvisionnational one mayconclude.However,thetroublingfact is innocuous –whatagreatpeace-buildingproject, personnel. Onthesurface,suchprogramsseem entering university,governmentofficials,andmilitary ingando has organizedandoperated“solidaritycamps”or academics intheregion.Domestically,government to theworld,misleadingmanyjournalistsandnovice interpretation andpropagateditsversionofhistory an intellectualandmoralmonopolyonthehistorical intervene inthegenocide,RPFregimehastaken advantage oftheinternationalguiltforfailingto job inpropagatingthispervertedhistory.First,taking against theTutsi. legitimacy andfocusesonlyontheaspectofviolence Revolution, itdoesnotacknowledgeitshistorical lived inperfectharmony.Indiscussingthe1959 pre-colonial pastasagoldenerawheretwogroups as acolonial“invention”andportraysRwanda’s version ofRwandanhistorypresentsethniccleavages minority ruleincontemporaryRwanda.TheRPF perverted Rwandanhistory,soastojustifytheTutsi RPF-led regimeinpost-genocideRwandahas the favorofEuropeancolonizers.However, bear thehistoricalresponsibilityforcapitalizingon present inpre-colonialRwanda,andtheTutsielites Ethnic grievancesagainsttheHutuwerealready in Rwandaandneighboringcountries(i.e.,Burundi). committed alonglistofatrocitiestheirown,both peace-loving victims;overtheyears,theyhave attendance in vision ofnationalunity.”Thegovernmenthasmade history andpoliticsthatseektopromotetheRPF’s education programs,withpresentationsonRwandan building efforts.Thesecampsinclude“extensive (DC-C The governmenthasalsodonearemarkable since 1996asanintegralpartofitspeace- AM ) ingando S 43 EARCHING a requirementforallstudents F OR T HE T RUTH P UBLIC D EBATE

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S 125,000 suspects–10% oftheHutupopulation– resources totryallofits prisoners.Asof2000, Third, Rwandasimplydoes nothaveenoughlegal such asystemforsettlingtheirpersonalscores. administrative authoritieshavetakenadvantageof a judicialreview.Inthemeantime,rulingand arrested anddetainedthousandsofpeoplewithout have beenviolated.Thegovernmenthasarbitrarily and afterthegenocide.Second,fairtrialstandards responsible forgrosshumanrightsabusesduring prosecuted itsownRPAmilitarypersonnelwhoare the RPF’svictory.Moreover,governmenthasnot who remainedinthecountryorreturnedafter incorporate experiencedHutujudgesandprosecutors the newgovernmenthascontinuallyrefusedto With theTutsinowdominatingjudicialsystem, a strongperceptionofbiasinthejudicialprocess. for anumberofreasons.Firstall,thereremains justice inRwanda.However,hasbeenelusive its toppriorityandsoughttoestablishasenseof placed theprosecutionofgenocideperpetratorsas its powerinKigali,theRPF-ledgovernmentofRwanda sow theseedsforfutureconflict. past infavoroftheTutsiminority,itwouldcertainly perverted accountsofwhatconstitutesRwanda’s of Rwandacontinuestowriteanddisseminate from theirownperspectives.Ifthecurrentregime and haslargelyfailedtohelpRwandaheal. provide ajusticethathasmeaningforRwandans Overall, thejudicialapproachhasdonelittleto unsatisfactory andproblematicinmanyrespects. to justiceinpost-genocideRwandahasbeenboth As Iwillargueinthefollowingpages,suchanapproach have takenanalmostexclusivelyjudicialapproach. of justice,Rwandaandtheinternationalcommunity challenges. However,dealingwiththiscomplexissue psychological, moral,andpoliticaldilemmas justice isnevereasysinceitinvolvesmanyeconomic, concerned withhopeforRwanda,thesearch strong amongRwandansandthoseofuswhoare t PECIAL o

j u s Domestic Legal Efforts. Efforts. Legal Domestic P E t NGLISH r i i c o e b b .

l Although thedesireforjusticeisvery e m E DITION s

a n d d , S

l ECOND i i m i i t s

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OCUMENTATION j 2005 u d d i i c i i a l

a p p r C o NE OF ENTER a c h C AMBODIA gacaca new for judicialjusticeisparticularlyconcerninginthe Frontières as“GénocidairessansFrontières.” genocide survivorsinitiallyscornedtheAvocatssans the countryinfearofreprisals.Forexample, harassed, assassinated,arrested,orforcedtoleave defended genocidesuspectsincourthavebeen the measure.Aswell,manyRwandanlawyerswho survivors, launchedamassivecampaigntocondemn the IBUKA,amainorganizationofTutsigenocide those pre-trialdetaineeswhohadnolegalcasefiles, Minister ofJusticedecidedinOctober1998torelease of thejudicialsystem.Forexample,whenRwandan antagonism havedebilitatedtheveryfoundations and theprevalenceofextremesuspicionsocial alone. Mostimportantly,populardesireforrevenge the crowedjailskilled3,300prisonersin1998 150 years.Inthemeantime,diseasesthatspreadin those injailatthecurrentpacewouldtakeupto remained incarceratedinRwandanjails.Totryall the Rwandangovernmentin2001instituted According tothegovernment, and makeaverdictthroughcommunityhearings. provide informationaboutthegenocideoffences, new system,localresidentsaretoselecttheirjudges, more than100,000pre-trialdetainees.Underthis for disputesettlements,the However, asatraditional,community-basedmechanism the communitiesinwhichcrimeswerecommitted.” the trialofallegedgenocideperpetratorswithin to “restoretheRwandesesocialfabricbylocating ‘collaborators’ becausethey survived.Thefamilies been accusedbyTutsi ‘returnees’ofbeing victimized becauseofthem. Tutsisurvivorshave by Prunier: and moralhierarchyincommunitiesiswellcaptured foundation ofthe these commonvaluesandnorms,thusthevery of reciprocity.However,thegenocidehasdestroyed the existenceofcertaincommonvaluesandnorms gacaca gacaca (DC-C This problemoflackingthesocialfoundation “Innocents haveguiltyrelatives–andcanbe tribunals toaddressthejudicialbacklogof AM court system.Aftermuchcontroversy, ) 44 gacaca. This problemofdistrust gacaca gacaca gacaca gacaca presupposes is expected situations ofthesurvivors. Ithasalsodonelittleto realities, thetribunalhasoften exacerbatedtheliving with them. of sufferingthesameconsequencesbyassociating shunned bytheirTutsineighborswhowereafraid sent threateningletters.Thesetestifierswereeven turned downtheirsickchildrenatthehospitals,or Hutus refusedtosellfoodtheTutsitestifiers, on theinterviewsthatNeufferconducted,local and afraidofreprisalsintheircommunities.Based testifying atthetribunaloftenleftpeopleisolated a justiceasintimatethegenocide.”Aswell, remote andincomprehensible…Rwandanscraved potentially dangerousforRwanda’sfuture. are boundtobenotonlyunsuccessfulbutalso reconciliation, andforgivenessthroughthe top-down measurestoimposecollectivetruth-telling, the Rwandesegovernment.Inthissituation, are guaranteedbyinternationaltreatiesratified fails toguaranteeminimumfairtrialstandardsthat the legislationestablishingGacacaJurisdictions genocide Rwanda.” tainted bythegeneralguiltofHutuinpost- considered ‘true’survivorsbecausetheyareseenas genocide inthesamewayasTutsifamilies,arenot of Hutumoderates,whohavebeenravagedbythe broadcasts by As journalistElizabethNeuffernoted,“Despiteregular impression ofdeliveringjusticethatistrulyRwandan. from Rwandanrealitiesthatithadnotmadean Rwanda.” Moreover,thetribunalhasbeensofar lacking oneessentialthing:theyhaveneverbeento “the Tribunalisstaffedwithqualifiedpersonnel Rwanda’s representativetothetribunal,lamented: sloppiness, andlegalincompetence.MartinNgoga, years, theICTRtriednineindividuals),mismanagement, Rwandans. Thetribunalhasbeencriticizedforits ICTR hasprovedtobeadisappointmentmany hoc (ICTR). (ICTR). nature, slowproceedings(insevenandahalf The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda for Tribunal Criminal International The Indeed, withoutappreciating suchsocial Moreover, asAmnestyInternationalargued, Despite theinitialidealsandhighhopes, Radio Rwanda Radio , thetrialsseemed D OCUMENTATION gacaca C NE OF ENTER ad C AMBODIA as establishananalytical foundationtodealwith constitutes thepastand the presentofRwanda,so relationship betweencourtproceedingsandhealing. we cannotassumeanautomaticcause-and-effect international law.Thepointhere,however,isthat and thisconstitutesaverysignificantprecedentin in history,recognizedrapeasaweaponofgenocide, tell theirstories.Aswell,theICTR,forfirsttime knowledge thattheyhadaninternationalcourtto in thetrialstillmadethemfeelstronger justice theywantedorevenunderstood,participating justice deliveredbythetribunalwasnotkindof Tutsi witnessestoldNeaufferthat,althoughthe example, aftertestifyingatthecourt,threefemale a senseofempowermentforsomesurvivors.For is nothingbutuseless.Insomecases,ithasprovided neither theresourcesnorabilitytodeliverjustice. of thecourthaveconcludedthattribunalhas ciliation. Aswell,manydisillusionedstaffmembers tribunal hasthepowertobringhealingandrecon- majority ofthesurvivorsstilldonotbelievethat and otherassistanceforitswitnesses.However,a donor countriestoprovidemedicalaid,counseling, 1999 finallygot$300,000fromtheUNandother to eat.”Toassuagetheseconcerns,theCourtin who aresurvivorshavenofamilyandnothing problem: Heeats,hehashisfamily.Butthoseofus accused] livesbetterthanus.Hedoesn’thaveany declared, “ThereisnojusticebecauseAkayesu[the to bringthemfood,talkwith?”Anotherone reconcile withthoseinjailwhostillhavesomeone “How canawomanwhohaslostallherfamily Tutsi womanwhotestifiedinthecourtthusexclaimed, women, haveveryfewmeansofmakingaliving.A members killed,thegenocidesurvivors,especially Rwandans. Withtheirhomesdestroyedandfamily crime butalsoasocialandeconomicconditionfor must rememberthatthegenocideisnotonlya address thesocialandeconomicsideofjustice.We T O W A (DC-C So far,thisstudyhascritically examinedwhat Of course,Iamnotarguingherethatthetribunal R D S

A AM

H ) O P S 45 E EARCHING F U L

F U F T OR U R T E HE

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S by excludingoneparty inthepeaceprocess, clearly showhowitisimpossible toendacivilwar the domesticpoliticalsituation. TheArushaAccords not imposepeacewithoutfullytakingintoaccount war inthefuture,internationalcommunitymust from thepresentanalysis.First,incaseofanother of theconflict.Yet,someconclusionscanbedrawn historical, local,andregionalfactorsdynamics community andthelargelyignoredimportant has focusedonthefailureofinternational on theobservationthatmostofexistingliterature Rwandan conflictonlyverybriefly.Thiswasbased the roleofinternationalcommunityin similar totheRwandangenocideinfuture. Great Lakeregionmaybeengulfedinatragedy rights foralltheirresidents.Other-wise,theentire institutions soastorecognizeequalcitizenship first step,theregionalstatesmustreformtheirpolitical is approach tothisregionalproblem For alastingpeaceinRwanda, only conditionforthesurvivalofallremainingTutsis. region, basedonitsargumentthatpoweristhe government continuesitsarmedinvolvementinthe the regionalconflictislikelytoescalateasRwandan politically vulnerableintheircountriesofresidence, salvation. AslongastheethnicTutsiandHuturemain susceptible totheexternalforcesthatofferedtheir and societies eternallyvulnerabletoethnicpolitics citizenship crisis,whichmade and Rwanda)havebeenboundbya in theGreatLakeRegion(DRC,Burundi,Uganda, foundation ofalltheseefforts. will endbydiscussingthemoralandphilosophical the domestic,regional,andinternationallevels.I the waystobuildahopefulfutureforRwandaat This sectionwillexamine,basedonthisfoundation, the ultimatequestion,“IstherehopeforRwanda?” I R n PECIAL e t g e i r o n n a For thepurposeofthisstudy,Ihaveexamined As Ihaveshownthroughoutthestudy,countries E a t NGLISH i l o

L n e a v l

e E L l DITION e v e l , S ECOND Q UARTER certain groups in their in certain groups therefore, aregional D OCUMENTATION 2005 essential. Asa common C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA another tragedyinRwanda. perverted history,itmayverycontributetoyet especially withregardstoitsprojectofwritinga the government’spursuitofavictor’sjustice, government whennecessary.Byblindlysupporting opinion andraisevocalcriticismagainstthecurrent international communitymustformulateindependent foster asenseofhopeinRwanda.Finally,the making Burundiamodelstate,itwillbeableto much influenceonethnicrelationsinRwanda.By particularly inBurundi,whichhashistoricallyhad into peace-buildingoftheGreatLakeregion, international communitymustinvestmoreresources extremism inRwandatheearly1990s.Third, and theimposeddemocracyexacerbatedHutu their aidprograms.AsIdiscussedearlier,theSAPs must beextremelycarefulindesigningandenforcing ideology. Second,theinternationaldonorcommunity especially thepartywithmostradicalpartisan Rwanda. itself forverylongbeforeanothertragedystrikes accomplish –thefollowingtasks,itmaynotsustain accomplishes –oratleastsincerelyattemptsto indeed enormous.Yet,unlessthegovernment challenges thatthegovernmentcurrentlyfacesare hands ofthecurrentTutsi-ledgovernment.The for creatingahopefulfutureRwandaliesinthe what trulyconstitutesthe pastfor“Rwandans”asa Hutu-Tutsi relations,soas toreachaconsensuson promote anationaldebate towriteafullhistoryof cycle ofviolence,thegovernmentmustendeavorto history isextremelydangerous.Inordertobreakthe disseminating aTutsi-biasedversionofRwandan For thisreason,thecurrentstrategyofcreatingand causes oftheviciouscycleviolenceinRwanda. understanding ofthepasthasbeenoneroot fragments.” Indeed,theabsenceofacommon culture ofmutualunderstanding,societybreaksinto of theFreeUniversityBerlinnoted,“withouta D o m e (DC-C For betterorworse,thegreatestresponsibility C s t r i e c a

L t e i i AM n v g e )

l a

c 46 o m m o n

h i i s t o r y . As GesineSchwan the HutuandTutsi.” there canbenosustainedreconciliationbetween minorities toparticipateintheexerciseofpower, a majorityinpoliticsandtheneedforfearful power, onethatrecognizesboththeimportanceof all. AsMamdaniconcludes,“withoutareformin identify themselvesassimply“Rwandese,”oncefor citizenship throughwhichpeopleofRwandacan difficult itmaybe,toconstituteatrulyequal another cycleofviolence. the Hutufrompoliticalpowerforever,itmayseeyet establish ajustandpeacefulsocietybyexcluding RPF-led governmentcontinuestoimaginethatitcan and moderateHutus.Inthesameway,ifcurrent the worldabetterplacebyannihilatingTutsi followers imaginedthattheywouldsomehowmake government andhundredsofthousandsits deliver justice. crimes, treatingthemlikeanimalsisnotawayto if someormanyoftheprisonersareguiltytheir its treatmentofprisonersassoonpossible.Even citizens. Asafirststep,thegovernmentmustimprove protect thefundamentalhumanrightsofallits this requiresthegovernment’scommitmentto must feelthattheyowntheprocessofjustice,and For restorationandreconciliation,peopleofRwanda and toarrestordetainitscitizenswithoutevidence. as afreelicensetorepresshumanrightsactivists legitimate securityconcerns,itshouldnottakethem social fabric.Whilethegovernmentindeedhassome objectives ofendingimpunityandrestoringthe government ofRwandacannotachieveitslaudable to bedone.Withoutrespectinghumanrights,the corporate identity. must bebasedonmutual acceptanceoftheneed M i n s h

o R a r a w r i i l n

a a The Rwandangovernmentmusttry,however Finally, allofthesepeace-building efforts C U g n n r p . d e d Leading uptothegenocide,extremist h a a

o P t

i i h l n d d i g l i i o n

c s g o o

h p m u h m m i c a o a l n n

F

o r c i i i i u g t i i n h z d t e s a n . t s Justice mustbe i o h D n i i p OCUMENTATION

o

t f h

P r e o a u c g e h -b

b p u o C i l seen w d NE OF ENTER i e n r g - C AMBODIA comes fromPresidentVaclav HavaloftheCzech be determinedbythepast. the presentalongwithaconsciousdecisionnotto much thepastshouldframe,shape,andinfluence forgiveness entailsanactiveassessmentofhow of expectationsforthefuture.”Inotherwords, of thepastinordertoenvisageanalteredhorizon forgetting” ora“relinquishmentofthefullburden of whatJeanBethkeElshtaincalls“knowing This recognition,inturn,necessitatesacertainamount of realwrongs,sins,evildeeds,andhistoricinjustices. cheap grace,butratherinvolvesanactiverecognition does notmeansimplisticnon-judgmentalnessor relationship betweenthepartiesinvolved.Forgiveness a one-waystreet;rather,itisaboutcreatingnew we’d soonhavenoonetolivewith,for “If westartedrulingeachotheroutfortheleastsin, Robert Frostwroteinhispoem“TheStarSplitter,” see boththewisdomand does notneedcomplextheologicalargumentsto because ofitsreligiousimplications.However,one object tousingthenotionofforgivenessinpolitics ourselves asmorallyrighteous.Somepeoplemay accused asoneofourownandrefusetosee implies thatinjudgingothers,wemustconsiderthe only indignitybutalsosinfulness.Inpractice,it In Christiantheology,humanbeingsareequalnot between usandthem.” hands. But,ifwedothat,there’llbenodifference we willbeforcedtotakejusticeintoourown explained, “Thekillersmustbepunished,orelse whose familylayasskullsinachurchNyamata will berighteousoraliveintheend.AsaTutsiman forgive andtobeforgiven.Withvengeance,noone perpetrated bybothsidesandaccepttheneedto and Hutusneedtoacknowledgethewrongs cycle ofthevictims-turninginto-killers,Tutsis and limitationsofhumanjusticeitself. to forgiveandbeforgiven,acommondestiny, is to be forgiving be to is (DC-C One illustrativeexampleof politicalforgiveness Then, howdoweconceptualizeforgiveness? First ofall,inordertogetoutthevicious AM ) ” (italicsadded).Forgivenessisnot S 47 EARCHING F OR utility T HE T of forgiveness.As RUTH to be social be to P UBLIC D EBATE

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S will certainlyhaveconsequences forfuture common citizenshipand writing acommonhistory, make long-termeffortstoday, especiallycreatinga minds, hearts,andspirits.However,thefailureto Hutus –maynotreceivecompletehealingoftheir survivors ofthegenocide–again,bothTutsisand experience thefullfruitsoftheirpeaceefforts.The The peoplewhoarealivetodaymayneverseeor process; peace-buildingisataskofmanylifetimes. reconciliation –canonlybeachievedthroughalong peace-building –justice,peace,forgiveness,and must acceptthefactthatultimategoalsin determination tobringlifetheirfuture. this commondestinyandmoveforwardwitha mutual survival.Indeed,twogroupsmustaccept a hopefulfuturecanbefoundonlybyensuring even attempttoannihilatetheother,butkey together inacommonfate:onemaysuppressand in thisscene,theHutuandTutsiarehandcuffed his wristtofriend,withnokeybefound.As the deadmaninhisfinalstrugglehashandcuffed and fightinthevastdesert.Onekillsother,but by FrankNorris,twomen,oncebestfriends,meet in Rwanda.Inthefinalpagesofbook of acommondestinyisessentialforreconciliation can beadoptedinRwandaaswell. starting pointforacommonfuture.Suchgesture of GermanandCzechhistorytherebymarkeda significance becausetheyestablishedaconvergence public acknowledgementsstillhadanenormous the crimestheyacknowledged.Nonetheless, for thevictimsordescendentsof German governmentprovidedmaterialcompensation violence.” Inthiscase,neithertheCzechnor In turn,GermansapologizedforNazi“policiesof Czechs, althoughwewerevictims,alsoknewsin.” Elshtam putsit,hisessentialmessagewas,“We revenge fortheGermanatrocitiesduringWWII.As Sudentenland in1945,whichCzechstookonas killings andtheexpulsionofGermansfrom Republic. Havalacknowledgedandcondemnedthe PECIAL Finally, inordertohavehopeforRwanda,we In additiontomutualforgiveness,recognition E NGLISH E DITION , S ECOND Q UARTER D OCUMENTATION 2005 McTeague C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA be hopeforRwanda,aslongwebelievethereis. this life,inthelifetocome.Indeed,theremayyet peace andjusticehealingwillcome–ifnotin need toholdontoaneschatologicalhope:perfect Perhaps, astheologianNiggarargued,someofus and thebestthingsthatwecangivetoRwanda. for now,hopeandcontinuouseffortsaretheonly total justicenorannihilatethepast.Nevertheless, magnitude ofthehorror,wecanneitherachievea Rwanda istoacknowledgeandacceptthat,giventhe Indeed, partofthechallengeinpeace-building scenario, andthingsmaynotalwaysgowell. and reconciliation.Ofcourse,thisisthebest-case finally livingoutthevisionofjustice,forgiveness, internalize acommonidentityandhistory,thereby future generationswillhopefullybeableto forward-looking politicalinstitutionsfirmlyinplace, will thedirectexperienceofgenocide.With not wefeellikeitorseeanyhopeintoday. make peace-buildingeffortsinRwanda,whetheror too grandiose.Inotherwords,wemustcontinuously and reconciliationisboundtoremainabstract fear andsuspicion,thevisionofjustice,forgiveness, creating acommonpoliticalidentityandtoeliminating without politicalinstitutionsthatareconduciveto be built.However,theoppositecanalsotrue: and reconciliationbeforepoliticalinstitutionscan there mustbesomedegreeofjustice,forgiveness, security insurancesforpeace.Somemayarguethat critical sincetheyprovidethemotivationsand political institutions(i.e.,equalcitizenship)isabsolutely crucial tasksdiscussedabove.Buildingcommon their generationbyundertakingthedifficultyet life istobreakthecycleofviolenceinRwanda have perished.Inmyview,oneofpurposestheir they arestillaliveaftertheirfamiliesandfriends often expressedtheiragonyatnotknowingwhy generations. Thesurvivorsofthegenocidehave _ A _ s h o _ t u _ -J f

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n c o i i v n e f r l s i i c i i t t y other willhearappealswithintheexistingjustice thousands ofciviliansduringthe1970swhile court willconductthetrialsofthoseaccusedkilling the staffingoftwoExtraordinaryChambers–one pledges andcontributionswerenowinplacetofund sent itsnotificationtotheUNinNovember. approved bytheGeneralAssemblyin2003.Cambodia fulfilled itslegalrequirementsundertheagreement Minister HunSeninaletteryesterdaythattheUNhas begin operations. took effecttoday,pavingthewayfortribunalto try the court to United NationsandCambodiatosetupaspecial following hisnotification – giventhatHisExcellency therefore enteredintoforce on29April2005–theday period ofDemocraticKampucheahavenowbeenmet. Cambodian LawofCrimesCommittedduringthe Cambodia concerningtheProsecutionunder the UnitedNationsandRoyalGovernmentof side forentryintoforceoftheAgreementbetween that allthelegalrequirementsonUnitedNations him to PrimeMinisterSamdechHunSeninforming United Nations,HisExcellencyMrKofiAnnan, A H H A i i s s G 29 April 2005 – – 2005 April 29 According toaUNpressstatement,sufficient Secretary-General KofiAnnannotifiedPrime According toArticle32of theAgreement,it On 28April2005theSecretary-Generalof S

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U M M 0 under way.” “Administrative arrangementsinthisregardarenow begin tofunctionpromptly,”thestatementsaid. are establishedassoonpossibleandthatthey extraordinary chambersandtheirrelatedinstitutions will besparedonhisparttohelpensurethatthe implementation oftheagreement,andnoefforts United Nationslooksforwardtotheexpeditious about $38.5millionfortheUNshare. Cambodia. Apledgingconferencelastmonthraised the UNand$13.3millionbyGovernmentof $56.3 million,ofwhich$43millionistobepaidby of time. system –andtheiroperationsforasustainedperiod in thecomingweeksand months. effort inthisregard,and are readytomoveahead have giventheirassurancesthattheywillspareno establishing theExtraordinaryChambers.Bothsides are nowabletomoveonthelong-awaitedtaskof have finallyconcludedthesepreparatorystages,and General statingthatweareindeedrelieved The PrimeMinisterhasrespondedtotheSecretary- requirements ontheCambodiansidehadbeenmet. Excellency Mr. NicholasMichelthatthelegal His Mr. SokAnhadon16November2004informed t t B L

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S days, leadersofseveral human rightsNGOsand apprehension inthelead-up tothetrials.Inrecent of erroneousstatementsthat maycauseunnecessary successful. contributions tomakingtheselong-delayedtrials public Extraordinary Chambers,itishearteningtoseeincreased twenty fiveyears. tirelessly toachievejusticeonthisissueforover in Cambodiaandaroundtheworld,whohaveworked work ofsomanyindividualsandorganisations,both that meetsinternationalstandards. to thechallengingtaskofestablishingasoundprocess that bothsidesofthebudgetareequalimportance achievement ofthistarget.Iwouldliketoemphasize and weexpecttobeablesoonannouncethe us meetthetotalallocatedtoCambodianshare, are willingtocontributebilateralcontributionshelp expenses). Severalcountrieshaveindicatedthatthey in thebudgetplus$5.2millionextra-budgetary of theExtraordinaryChambers($61.5million–$56.3 Cambodia amountstoover10%ofthetotalcosts which lieoutsidethebudgetitself).Thispledgefrom cash, andanestimated$5.2millioninkindexpenses contribute $6.7million(consistingof$1.5in million. TheRoyalGovernmentofCambodiawill allocated shareofthebudget,amountingto$13.3 to interestedstatesassistCambodiainmeetingits appeal fortheinternationalshare,weareappealing of theinternationalsharebudget. substantial contributionof$21.6million–fully50% in NewYorkon28March2005.Japanmadethevery the PledgingConferenceheldatUNSecretariat PECIAL S interest intheprocess,andtohearconstructive As wemovetowardstheestablishmentof We areconcerned,however,atthecirculation I wishtoexpressourprofoundthanksforthe Complementary totheSecretary-General’s E T NGLISH A T T E E DITION E M S E T , S N I ECOND F T Y I N O Q UARTER G N D A S OCUMENTATION 2005 T E C T U H R E I C T E NE OF ENTER Y X T F O R C A AMBODIA R safe house,orprovisions to protecttheiridentities.” for witnesssecurity–such askeepingthemina Licadho saidlateThursday thattherewasnobudget Press, “CambodianhumanrightsgroupsAdhocand justice oftheCambodianpeopleandallhumanity. on andthatareneededtoaddresstheneedsfor international standardsthatwehavebothagreed soon aspossible,andthattheyattainthelevelof Extraordinary Chambersmaybegintofunctionas of Cambodiawilldoourutmosttoensurethe more time.IcanassurethattheRoyalGovernment were committed.Wecannotaffordtoloseany commitment forthecomingyear. pledge toworktogethertowardsthisendasour tribunal orcommissionismostappropriate.Letus differences ofopinionastowhatformcourt, Rouge trialsasuccessfulprocess,despiteanypast the world,todoourutmostmakeKhmer Cambodians, andallfair-mindedpeoplearound the ExtraordinaryChambers,istimeforall for othercountriesintheirsearchjustice. Cambodian modelmayalsoserveasaninspiration standards. Furthermore,wearehopefulthatthe by providingamodelcourtmeetinginternational assist thewiderprocessoflegalandjudicialreform needs forjusticeinthisegregiouscase,butwillalso agreed toestablishwillnotonlymeetourcountry’s statements thatwewishtocorrect: Khmer RougeTrialshavemadeseveralinaccurate Penh ontheInternationalCriminalCourtand visiting delegatestoaconferenceheldinPhnom O W R D (DC-C 03 May2005 Phnom Penh A generationhaspassedsincethesecrimes Now, aswestandonthebrinkofestablishing We areconfidentthattheformulawehave 1 I ) T I .

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S E e C c S u r H i t A y A N – accordingtoAssociated M D B V E R I C S T I M S ( of personsreferredtointhepresentAgreement” required toensurethesecurity,safetyandprotection “all effectiveandadequateactionswhichmaybe of Cambodiahasacceptedtheresponsibilitytaking a matterofseriousconcernandtheRoyalGovernment Cambodia andtheUnitedNations,securityhasbeen discussions betweentheRoyalGovernmentof technical assessmentmissionstoCambodia. has includedexpertsonsecurityinallitsrecent Interior on8August2004,andthe Commission wasestablishedwithintheMinistryof budgeting byboth arrangements areunderactiveplanningand between theUnitedNationsandGovernment.” and securityarrangementsasagreedseparately from withinCambodiaandabroad;safety Nations shallberesponsiblefor…witnesses’travel Article 33). identity.” ( proceedings andtheprotectionofvictim’s include, butnotbelimitedto,theconductof and witnesses.Suchprotectionmeasuresshall Chambers…shall providefortheprotectionofvictims experiences duringtheKhmerRougeregime. alike, areindeedwillingandkeentotestifyontheir that Cambodianpeople,bothvictimsandperpetrators overwhelming findingsofrepeatedresearchandsurveys fear oftestifying.Thesestatementsflyintheface speakers suggestedthatwitnessesareexpressing that severaloftheconferenceorganisersandvisiting still traumatizedbytheregime.” in thetribunalorsupport tohelpthosewhowere Khmer Rougevictims,nowayforvictimstoparticipate quoted assaying“therewasnoreparationsfundfor Agreement This isincorrect.Fromtheverybeginningof The detailsofthesesafetyandsecurity Both partieshavealsoagreedthat“theUnited Under Cambodianlawvictims havetheright 2 3 ) )

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i T o e n s s t i f sides. Ahigh-levelSecurity – theorganiserswerealso y i n g – itisofsomeconcern D OCUMENTATION United Nations in camera in C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA Email: of theCouncilMinisters.Tel/Fax:023428952or contact theSecretariatofTaskForceinOffice Agreement aswellmanyrelateddocuments;or which includesthefulltextofLawand please viewourwebsite to readthebooklet,and,ifyouneedfurtherinformation, counselling servicesavailablewithineveryprovince. large aboutsuchsupport,andgivesinformationon in thecountry.Thisbookletexplainstopublicat Khmer andEnglish)distributedineverycommune Task Forcehasalreadyprintedabookletentitled up withintheExtraordinaryChambers.TheGovernment’s awarded tothevictims. most valued,formofreparationthatcouldbe Rouge. Moneyisnottheonly,nornecessarily for thecrimeswroughtuponthembyKhmer finally providingacknowledgementandaccountability the damagecausedtoCambodianpeopleby the mainreasonsfororganisingtrialsistorepair comes fromtherootword“repair”andthatoneof in additiontothecostsoftrialsthemselves. funds neededformassivefinancialcompensation, the UnitedNationswouldbeabletoprovide convicted, theCambodianorothergovernments, compensation, asitis be awardedanythingotherthansymbolic is It consideration. suffered damageisamatterthatwillneedcareful every Chambers willmanagetheserightsinasituationwhere be paidbythoseconvicted.HowtheExtraordinary to crimes beingtried.Normallythecourtsawarddamages compensation fordamagestheysufferedfromthe to joinacriminaltrialascivilpartiesandclaim Introduction to the Khmer Rouge Trials Rouge Khmer the to Introduction Cambodian citizencouldpotentiallyclaimtohave (DC-C We urgeallinterestedpeopleandorganisations A WitnessandVictimSupportUnitwillbeset One mustnotethattheword“reparations” F [email protected] 1 r o 4 m

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S arrangements” agreedwiththeUN. process andkeptinformedofthe“separatesecurity issue andhopesthatNGOswillbeincludedinthe creation ofahigh-levelsecuritycommissiononthis allay theselegitimatefears.TheFIDHwelcomesthe completed andwidelydisseminatedinorderto safety before,duringandafterthetrial. that thesegroupshavelegitimateconcernsfortheir the securityofvictimsandwitnessesimplicitlyrecognize (EC) LawandtheagreementwithUNconcerning Indeed, theprovisionsofExtraordinaryChambers said thattheywouldliketotestifyandhadnofear. may beimplicated,butnottried.Otherparticipants that theywereafraidofreprisalsfromotherswho especially iftheylivedinPailin,whileothersspecified participants expressedfearsfromtheaccused– the conferenceinquestionsfromfloor.Some such fearsexpressedbytheCambodianspresentat to thefearsofwitnessesandvictimssimplyreflected victims duringtheKhmerRougetrials. protection ofthesecuritybothwitnessesand commitment ofthegovernmentCambodiatofull Force ontheKhmerRougeTribunalconcerning March 2005statementofthegovernment’sTask amongst NGOsandvictims abouttheneedtoenvisage Penh on2and3March2005 wastoraiseawareness organised byFIDH,Adhoc andLicadhoinPhnom the implementationofthisright. statement theTaskForceexpressesconcernsabout However, FIDH,AdhocandLicadhonotethatinits implemented beforetheExtraordinaryChambers. join criminalproceedingsascivilpartieswillalsobe that therightofvictims,underCambodianlaw,to V PECIAL i c t i m However, thisgeneralframeworkneedstobe Any referencebythespeakersatconference FIDH, AdhocandLicadhowelcomethe14 Indeed, oneofthemainaimsConference It isalsoencouragingtoseeofficialconfirmation ’ E s NGLISH

P a r t i c E i DITION p a V t i o , S n I C ECOND T I Q M UARTER D A OCUMENTATION 2005 N D W C NE OF ENTER I T N C AMBODIA E witnesses andvictims found guiltyshallbereturnedtotheState(art.39). all unlawfullyacquiredpropertybythepersons reparation orders,sincetheECLawstipulatesthat cooperate andfacilitatetheimplementationof will playanessentialrolethroughitsobligationto forms ofreparation,thegovernmentCambodia Tribunal willdecideontheextentandappropriate school textbookscoveringthisperiod. revelation ofthetruth,includingpreparation organisation ofreligiousceremoniesorburials,and Some suggestionsincludedconstructionofmemorials, forms aswellaccesstopsychologicalassistance. compensation, butmayalsotakecollectiveorsymbolic It doesnotnecessarily,norexclusively,meanmonetary indeed restitution,compensationandrehabilitation. taking reparationintoaccount.Reparationincludes Licadho welcometheTaskForcestatementthatitis counsel, witnessesandexpertsappearingforthem. to victimsintheircapacityascivilpartiesand experts [UNAgreement,Art.22],willapplyequally of counsel[ECLawArt.42(3)]andwitnesses and witnesses[ECLawArt.33],theindependence that theprovisionsconcerningprotectionofvictims FIDH, AdhocandLicadhowouldwelcomeclarification reference tocivilpartiesintherelevantlegaldocuments, remedy throughparticipationandlegalrepresentation. trials andwillguaranteetheirrighttoaneffective will givethemagreatersenseof“ownership”the massive crimesbeforetheInternationalCriminalCourt. to buildupontheexistingmechanismsforvictimsof mechanisms foreffectiveparticipationofvictimsand R S e p S a r a (DC-C Paris –PhnomPenh,29 March 2005 FIDH, AdhocandLicadho Statementon Whereas thejudgesofKhmerRouge With regardstoreparation,FIDH,Adhocand In particular,giventheabsenceofanyspecific Guaranteeing therightofvictimstoparticipate t i P o n s AM R

) O 52 T E C T I O N when sayingthatIhopeitwillallowthesurvivors ofDemocraticKampucheatohelppreservethesite. government stronglyadvocatesaJapanesecompany takingoverChoeungEk,IfeelspeakformanyCambodians relationship withCambodiansovertherelativelysmall amountofmoneythekillingfieldswouldearn?Andifyour in ChoeungEk.WouldJapan,whichhasbeensuch agenerousdonorinthepast,bewillingtojeopardizeits or ontheInternet.Knowingstatusofthiscompany wouldhelpallaythesuspicionsofmanyCambodians. you arenodoubtaware,onehasbeenabletolocate thecompanyoranyofitsofficersinCambodia,Japan, this timefortheJapaneseGovernmenttoletitsvoiceanddesiresbeheard. of thegovernmentorpoliticalpartiesareabouttodosomethingunpopular.Thus,itmightbeappropriate at “Japan mightstophelpingourcityifwecancelthe[ChoeungEkprivatization]contractwiththem.” will bebuiltandregimeslikethatoftheKhmerRougeexistonlyinsadannalshistory. It isonlythroughrespectfortheruleoflawandexistenceeffectiveinstitutionsthatbarrierstoimpunity Government ofCambodia,theUnitedNations,andinterestedcountriestoachievethisgoal. recognized standardsofjustice.Astheformationtribunalmovesforward,wewillengagewith contribute tothisprocess,webelieve,asU.S.lawstipulates,thatthetribunalmustmeetinternationally between theUnitedNationsandCambodiatoestablishKhmerRougetribunal.ForStates Cambodians, Cambodian-Americans,andothersinrememberingthevictimsofthisdeplorableregime. estimated thatupto3millionCambodiansdiedinthekillingfields.TheUnitedStatesjoinsmillionsof Dear Mr.Ambassador, H A A E P Deputy Spokesman of the US Department of State, and by the US Embassy in Phnom Penh on April 22, 2005 22, April on Penh Phnom in Embassy US the by and State, of Department US the of Spokesman Deputy m h m p . R E n r b . b i

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a F a m 1 u s s M Director oftheDocumentation CenterofCambodia Youk Chhang Yours truly, Second, itwouldbeproductiveifyourgovernment weretostateitspositiononJCRoyal’sinvolvement First, Iwouldhopethatyourgovernmentclarify itsrelationshipwiththeJCRoyalCompany.As Such vaguethreatshaveafamiliarringinCambodianpolitics,andareoftenemployedwhenmembers We willalsocontinuetofocusontheimportanceofandneedforanindependentjudiciaryinCambodia. The UnitedStatesbelievestheremustbeaccountabilityfortheseatrocities,andwelcomedtheagreement This weekmarksthe30thanniversaryofseizurepowerbyKhmerRougeinCambodia.Itis In today’s 2 s s m

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p a C R a k a A n a Cambodia Daily Cambodia This statement was released in Washington DC on April 21, by Adam Ereli Adam by 21, April on DC Washington in released was statement This m h N b a s o C h d E i i a O F T C H D , MunicipalFirstViceGovernorMamBunNeangwasquotedassayingthat H OCUMENTATION E O F E A U L L N G O C NE OF ENTER F E P K H N P C AMBODIA O R M I V A P (DC-C T E I Z N A AM H T ) I T O S O 53 EARCHING N T H E F OR K T H HE M T RUTH , E R R P UBLIC O U G D EBATE E

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S the ruleoflaw.Thedelay alsoseemedtoencourageofficialsinstillfear inCambodiansthatJapaneseaid deal waslongdonetoissue itspressrelease,theembassymissedanopportunity tohelpCambodiapromote law inCambodia. 4) theJapanesegovernmentisactivelysupporting theKhmerRougetribunal,whichwillpromoteruleof consulted onit,3)thereisnorelationbetweenthe concessionandJapanesedevelopmentassistance, Choeung Ek’sdisposition,2)theGovernmentof Japan isnotinvolvedintheconcessionandhasbeen Embassy issuedapressrelease.Itsaid:1)itisup tothecompetentCambodianauthoritiesdecideon its positiononturningChoeungEkovertoaprivate company(theSunFund).Amonthlater,theJapanese May 16,2005 which willmeettheinternationalstandardsofjusticeandthuspromoterulelawinCambodia. of theKhmerRouge,andaresupportingproactivelyCambodia’sefforttorealizeRouge Tribunal, continue todoso.Especially,wearefullyawareofthedeepscarleftinCambodiansocietyby crime in Cambodiaandassistingreconstructionnation-buildingeffortsoftheCambodianpeople, itwill separate mattersisfutileandbaseless. concession, whichwethinkisclearfromwhatstatedabovein1)and2).Anyattempttolinkthese two between thepolicyofGovernmentJapanonitsOfficialDevelopmentAssistancetoCambodia andthe adverse effectontheJapaneseeconomiccooperationtoCambodia.However,thereisnorelationwhatsoever any personconcernedonthismatter. Municipality ofPhnomPenhtoanyentityorperson.Ithasneverbeenconsultedbyorganization orby related totheconservation,developmentandmanagementofChouengEkGenocideSiteby people abouttheSite. be conserved,developedandmanaged,takingintoconsiderationofsensitivefeelingstheCambodian Office ofCouncilMinisterson7April2005,theEmbassyJapanwouldliketostatefollowings: Ek GenocideSitebytheMunicipalityofPhnomPenhtoJCRoyalCo.,Ltd. Cambodian mediathatinthematterrelatedtograntingofrightsdevelopandmanageChoueng May 12 P PECIAL R R E S E S Most Cambodiansaredeeply appreciativeofJapan’ssupportthetribunal. Butbywaitinguntilthe On April12,2005,theDocumentationCenterof Cambodia askedtheJapanesegovernmenttoclarify 4) TheGovernmentofJapanhasbeentakinginitiativesintheinternationalcommunityrealizingpeace 3) Somemediareportedthatthecancellationofagreedcontractonconcessionwouldhave an 2) TheGovernmentofJapanisnotinvolvedinanywaythematterconcerninggrantingconcession 1) ItisuptothecompetentCambodianauthoritiesdecidehowChouengEkGenocideSiteshould As thesereportsinvolveinaccuratespeculationandstillpersistinspiteoftheclarificationissuedby Recently, hintedataninvolvementoftheJapaneseGovernment,thereweresomereportsin S E NGLISH th P R O , 2005 E L N E A E S DITION S E E :

: T , S H ECOND E J Q A UARTER P A N D OCUMENTATION E 2005 E S E M M B I A S C S S NE OF ENTER E S D Y A N C O AMBODIA O F P J P (DC-C A O R P T A AM U N N ) I T 54 Y T O H E L P C A M B O D I A of gunsfiring. alone, sittingonmyverandawhenIheardthesound of ourgenocidememorialswillbethenextvictimgreed. the governmentbeaccountable?Afterall,lookwhathappenedtoChoeungEk.Wecanonlywonderwhich who approvedthedealcannotremembernameofcompanythatboughtland.Andwhyshould giving moreconfidencetothosewhowouldselloffourculturalheritage. becoming achampionoftransparentgovernance.Butinstead,itchosetodistanceitselffromtheaffair,only would dryupunlesstheSunFundwasgivensite. and grandfatherweresick, andmygrandmother staggered alongwiththe helpofsticks.Myuncle as theywereunabletowalk. Somedisabledpersons sick people.Anumberofillpeoplewereputoncarts their children,whileotherswalkedwitholdand/or Some pulledheavilyladencarts,somewalkedwith to evacuate.Thingswerechaoticanddisordered. said theKhmerRougesoldierswhenforcingpeople Angkar wouldberesponsible.“Go!Go!Hurryup!” to bringalongmuch,especiallyfood,forwhich return withinafewdays,andthereforedidnotneed soldiers, whotoldpeopletheywouldbeallowedto of peoplefromthetownsbyblack-clothed over theprovince.Iwitnessedmassevacuation months, theKhmerRougetookcompletecontrol surrendered totheKhmerRouge,mymothersaid. the provincialtownofKampot.LonNolhadforces they arrived.Myfamilypackedeverythingandranto what todo,Iranlookformyparents.Providentially, several bomberswereflyingover.Withoutknowing hit thewallofmyhouse.Iwasextremelyscaredas 1 9 7 4 I wasfouryearsoldin1974.Oneday Documentation CenterofCambodia Youk Chhang Now, theVietnam-KampucheafriendshipmemorialinSiemReapisbeingdismantled,andofficial Japan couldhaveuseditsstronginfluencetomakeofficialsbackdownfromaclearlyshadydeal,thus After wehadbeenlivinginKampotforthree Phaing! Phaing! Phaing! I sawacoupleofbullets D OCUMENTATION M Y C Prum Samun Prum NE OF ENTER

F A C T AMBODIA stayed athomewithmy fifth sisterand85year-old third brothertoamobile unitthattendedcows.I brother toworkinamobile unitatKohSla,andmy under thesameroof. sense ofwarmnesswhenmyfamilylivedtogether had athatchedroofandcoconut-leafwalls.Igot a built asmallcottageonhillinthejungle; it Angkar. Wecleareda3by4meterplotoflandand Kampot district,provinceasorderedby moved toTrapaingKakvillage,KaunSattsubdistrict, was desertedandinsecure.Somyfamilyothers Angkar saidwecouldnotreturnhomeasourvillage But onourwaybacktoKampongNungPagoda, cart. Threeofmybrothersshoulderedourbelongings. neighbors. Theyhurriedlypackedthingsinabullock joyful, hopingtoseetheirbirthplace,relativesand could gototheirhomevillages.Myparentswere of Kampot,wasseparatedfromourfamilyatthatpoint. who wasamessengerofRosSavong,thegovernor district, KampongTralachdistrict.Myeldestbrother, eastern partofSaleiMountain,KohPha-daosub- people andusedabusivelanguage. was crippled.Thesoldierswerepointinggunsat H E (DC-C Four monthslaterAngkarsentmysecond After sixweeks,Angkarannouncedthatpeople On April19,1975,myfamilyreachedthe R AM ) S 55 EARCHING F OR T HE T RUTH F AMILY T RACING

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S and wentbacktosleep. the veranda.WhenIfound her,Iwashappyagain more scared,andIwhengotuptofindher,felloff up againtofindmymotherwasnotthere.Ieven potato patch,”mymothersaid.Afterawhile,Iwoke worry! Don’tfear!Awildboarisburrowinginour hitting thewall.Iwastremblingwithfear.“Don’t next tomymother,Iheardasoundofsomething I wasverylonely.Onenightwhensleeping because shehadrecovered.Atthispointofmylife, wiped themaway,afraidofbeingseen.I,too,cried. could notholdbackherowntears.Shehurriedly as hewasriskinghislifeifAngkarfoundout.Butshe grief. Mymothertoldhimtoholdhisemotionsinside he embracedherbody,expressinghisoverwhelming unconscious andpassedaway.Myfathercriedwhen her aninjectionandIV.Fourhourslater,shebecame medics aboutherdaughter’sconditionandtheygave ill. Mymotherwassoconcernedthatshetoldthe sister, whohadbeencaringformymother,wasalso old sisterwastolookafterher.Atthattimemyelder critically ill,andwassenttothehospital.My9year- an hour;shedidnothavethepowertodefythem. cadres orderedhertoburymygrandfatherwithin see himforthelasttimeathospital.Medical told thatherfatherhaddied,andthenshewentto told mymother.At4p.m.thatday,motherwas Angkar alreadyhasmedicstotreathim,”theunitchief hospital, butwasnotallowed.“You’reamedic. 1976. Mymotheraskedtotakecareofhimatthe at KaunSattPagodaonthefullmoonnightofApril seriously illwithahighfeverandwashospitalized at 12:30p.m. every timeIsawher.Shehadtohurrybackwork she wasfedaladleofwaterygruel.Iveryhappy My motherhadtoworkfrom5a.m.11before at ReabMountain,some3kilometersfromhome. grandfather. Myfatherwasorderedtoguardfields PECIAL One dayIwascryingwhile runningaftermy A coupledayslater,mymotherreturnedhome After anothermonthmymothertoobecame Two monthslater,mygrandfatherbecame E NGLISH E DITION , S ECOND Q UARTER D OCUMENTATION 2005 C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA me,” Ianswered.“TaSan, TaTuy,andothercadres gulps, sheaskedmeifIhad stolenthecorn.“Itwas grave,” shesaid.AfterIfinished thegruelinafew some ofwhichhasspilledwhenItrippedover a felt mymother’ssoftfingerstouchingme. that mymotherwasbesideme.Afteramoment, I old blanket,andcomfortedmyselfbypretending Mother! Whereareyou?”Icoveredmyselfwithan over mybed;itisthebirdImostfear.“Mother! come back. p.m. Ibecameworriedbecausemymotherhadnot away. Iwenthomeandstayedtherealone.At7 to Angkar.”Westoodstillforalittlewhileandwalked “Did youtwostealthecorn?Iwillconveyproblem just corn.Thekeeper,withthecorninhand,asked, At thattime,wewereafraidofnothingsinceitwas was sittingrightatthespotwherewehidcorn. came back,though,wesawthatthefieldkeeper to bringwaterPatt’sgrandmother.Whenwe we hiditneararicefielddikeandthenpretended will doit,”Pattassuredme.Afterpickingthecorn, Patt said.“Iamscared,”Ianswered.“Don’tworry! with my5year-oldrelativePatt.“Let’spickcorn!” his headtoexpressdisapproval. give himmypotato.Hedidn’tsayaword,butshook tears werefallingfrommyfather’scheeks,Ididnot is young,letherhaveit,”saidmymother.Although take itfromher.Weareoldandcanendureit.She very hungry.Givemethatpotato,”hesaid.“Don’t Eat it,dear!”Meanwhile,myfatherarrived.“Iam so everyonehasbeengivena20centimeterpotato. asked mymother,“Todaythereisnotenoughgruel, white hatandrushedtowardher.“Areyouhungry?” a.m. Alittlewhilelater,Isawawomanwearing gibbons, whichcontinuedtochatteruntil11:30 Still crying,Ireturnedhomeandheardthesoundof and willbebackinawhile,”shesaidtocomfortme. a goodchildathome.Motherhastoworkfaraway mother: Iwantedtogoworkwithher.“Dear!Be Nhanh! (DC-C A tawnyowlcalledout A monthhadpassed.OnedayIwaswalking [my petname]Wakeupandeatthisgruel, AM ) 56 Chak-hiv...Chak-hiv! “Nhanh! pretending nottoknow my brother’sfate.Hearing a fewdaysago.Haven’t you seenhim?”saidTha, son. “Idon’tknow.Iallowed himtogohisfamily group leadernamedLyThaandaskedabouther brother didnotcomewithus;hehadtotendcows. held 20orsofamilies.Ifeltverybadbecausemythird Ta-Sou villageat4p.m.andsettledinashelterthat killed becausetheywerelate.Myfamilyarrived at Angkar. Anumberofpatientsandoldpeoplewere those whodidnotwouldbeconsideredenemiesof announced thatpeoplehadtoleaveday,and a smallbag(Ididn’tknowitscontents).Angkar we hadthatAngkarnotconfiscated,andIcarried buffaloes; mothershoulderedsomeofthethings subdistrict, Kampotdistrict.Myfatherwalkedthe that wehadtomoveTa-Souvillage,KaunSatt fruits. Iwasextremelyhappyandatethemall. my father.Suddenlyheturnedupwithseveralguava for awhile,Iwillbebacksoon.Don’tcryme,”said home tofeedwaterbuffaloes.“Mydear!Stayhere his eyes.Acoupleofdayslatermyfathercameback holding myhand.“Yes,”Isobbed,andsawtearsin to learntakecareofyourself,”saidmyfather, I disappear,youdon’thavetolookforme.You guard cropsthere.“Mybeloveddaughter!Ifoneday mountain atnightdespitethedarknessinorderto enjoy theirwaterygruel;itwasalready11p.m. cadres noddedtheirheadsandallowedpeopleto mother, describingherapology.TaSanandother will nevermakethesamemistakeagain,”saidmy her again.Forgiveher!She’sjust4yearsofage,and for mydaughter’smistakesandpromisedtoteach pulled himdownandtoldnottoresist.“Iapologized disagree withmycondemnation,butmother mother. Myfatherhadstoodupatthemeetingto otherwise gruelwouldnotbeserved,”saidmy attended. Weallhadtocondemnyouraction; collective andtheparty.Nearlytwohundredpeople convened ameetingcriticizingyouforbetrayingthe Three dayslatermymotherapproachedthe Three monthslaterin1977Angkarannounced Several dayslatermyfatherhadtohikeupthe D OCUMENTATION C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA back home,buttheyweren’t there.Afraidofbeing nice greengrass.At4p.m., wewenttotakethem caught, mymotherandI tookthemtobefedwith up thetwoandtiethem.Afterbuffaloeswere crying whileaskingsomebasepeopletohelpbreak Only myfathercouldmanagetocalmthem.Iwas were unleashedandattackedeachotherviolently. has gone.Iwillmisshimverymuch,”whispered. If theydiscoveruscrying,we’llbeinbigtrouble.”“Dad again,” mymomtearfullytoldme.“Don’tcry,baby! be killed.“Yourdadisdead;youwillneverseehim knew thatthosesenttotheregionhospitalwere he wasnotabletowalk.BothThimandmymother the previousafternoon.Hehadbeenputinacartas my fatherhadbeentransferredtotheregionhospital we metanoldladynamedThim,whotoldusthat rice. Whenwewereabouthalfwaytothehospital, collected formyfatherwhenshewastransplanting at 5a.m.andcookedthemolluskscrabsshe off tovisitherhusbandatthehospital.Shewokeup to thefield.Shehadaskedunitchiefforaday off becausemymotherhadtotransplantriceseedlings. Angkar didnotallowmymotherandmetoseehim father packedclothesandapot,platespoon. and othercadressenthimtoKaunSattPagoda.My then askedtheunitchieftobehospitalized.The became soswollenthathewasunabletowalk.He day withoutenoughfood.Afterawhile,hislegs work againat1p.m. lunch, hehadtofeedthebuffaloesandresumed to 11a.m.whenhewasallowedhavegruel.After father wentouttothefieldandworkedfromdawn of anothersibling. feel herbrokenheart.Icouldbarelystandtheloss She embracedmewithoutsayingaword,butIcould in check.“Angkarkilledyourbrother,”shetoldme. this, mymotherwasabouttocry,butheldhertears M y

F a (DC-C t When Iarrivedhome,thewaterbuffaloestied The nextmorningmymotherdidnotgoout He routinelyperformedthesametasksevery With aplow,harrowandwaterbuffaloes,my h e r AM ) S 57 EARCHING F OR T HE T RUTH F AMILY T RACING

Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S beaten uplikethatifany ofmybrothershadbeen but cry.Ithoughttomyself thatIwouldnothavebeen explain, Kounbeatmeup. Iwasabletodonothing ate itherself,”theotherssaid.Withoutaskingmeto pointing tothefourchildren.“Don’tbelieveher!She where ismysoup?”“Theyateallthesoup,”Ireplied, Koun arrivedamomentlaterandasked,“Nhanh, beat youtodeathiftellKoun,”theythreatened. and ateitwiththeotherthreechildren.“Wewill eating thesoup.ThenKha-Moeungrabbedbowl talking aboutgrabbingthebowlandaccusingmeof I hadwalkedafewsteps,overheardthefourchildren other childrentouchmybowl,”Kountoldme.After to takecareofthissoupforme.Makesurethatno Koun wasafraidtheywouldeathersoup.“Youhave and Chroeb,anothertwochildrenwerethere, kitchen. Althoughtwoofhersiblings,Kha-Moeun a teamleader,mademecarrybowlofsouptothe “the gauntdaughterof17-Aprilpeasants.” became sickandemaciated.Thechildrencalledme I feltlonesome,andbecausewasmalnourished, mother tosuffergreatly. day andthenhangedthem.Thisnewscausedmy food. Inreality,Angkarlockedthemupthewhole would begivenanewsetofclothesandadequate them totakeofftheirclothes,andthateachof meeting atKampongTralachPagoda.Angkartold that his130-membermobileunitwascalledfora neighbor. Severaldayslater,mymotherwastold return, butmissedus.Healsoleftamachetewith at thetime,soheleftusanotesayinghadto from hismobileunitatKohSla.Weweren’thome took thebuffaloes.Wewereveryrelieved. buffaloes. Notlongafterthat,aunitchiefcameand she wasnotcapableofhandlingsuchviolentwater Angkar’s cadresandinformedthemthatasalady we foundthemandtookbackhome. executed, welookedfortheanimals.Anhourlater, PECIAL One dayabiggergirlnamedKoun,whowas After eightofmylovedoneshadgonefaraway, Ten dayslatermysecondbrotherreturned The nextmorningmymotherapproached E NGLISH E DITION , S ECOND Q UARTER D OCUMENTATION 2005 C NE OF ENTER C AMBODIA to stayononesideofthe villageandnewpeople Angkar regroupedthepeople –basepeoplewere gave usplentyofricewith salttoeat.Laterthatday belongings, whichwerealreadypacked,andthenfled. told her.Wewentbackhometotakeourfew here havefled,andwedon’tanyricetoeat,” I sobbed. “Stopcrying,”saidmymother.“Allthepeople me behind.Ihavetoworkreallyhardsurvive,” I on hershoulder.“Alltheothershaverunaway,leaving dressed inblack,wearingastrawhat,andwithhoe mother. Afteraboutanhour,shefinallyappeared, but shewasnot.Ikeptaskingvillagersaboutmy walking towardsme.Ithoughtshewasmymother, mother. Iwastremblingwithfear,thensawawoman belongings, andfledtotheforest. collected theirchildren,packedclothesandother flew overheadandmanymotherscametothehall, people afterwefinishedeating.Butthen,aplane rumor thatAngkarwouldkillbothApril17andbase in threeyearsthattheyhadsuchfinefood. enjoyed themealverymuchasitwasfirsttime that Cambodiannoodleswouldbeserved.People the cookgavemesameamountofgruelasothers. a severeheadache,”Ianswered.wasveryhappythat “Didn’t yougotowork?”acookaskedme.“Ihave Ignoring them,Iwenttothetablegetsomegruel. to harvestrice.Everyoneinthehallstaredatme. for mymother.Butshehadbeensent35kmaway me, soIstaggeredtothedininghalleatandlook my eyeslateonemorning,therewasnobeside responded andcontinuedtosleep.WhenIopened “I haveasevereheadache.Icannotgotowork,” cook nottogiveyoufood,”achildshoutedme. don’t yougotowork?Ifgo,Iwilltellthe that Iknewwasn’tstrongenoughtofightback. there. Iwaseightyearsoldatthetime,butsoemaciated L a t e

1 (DC-C When wearrivedatTrapaingKak,thevillagers But Iwastheonlyonewhocouldnotfindmy During themeal,basepeoplespreada One dayatthedininghall,Angkarannounced I becamesickandunabletowork.“Nhanh, 9 7 8 AM ) 58 the ideasofMr.YoukChhang-urginggovernment toreconsiderthelease. one thatwillnotmanagethesitetoextentexpected bythegovernment.Iherebytremendouslysupport people nowgotopaytheirrespectthesoulsof deadvictims.Tome,thecompanyisaprivateandforeign killing fieldswheresome12,000prisonersfrom TuolSleng(orS-21)wereexecuted,andaplacewhere Choeung EkGenocidalCentretoaJapanesecompany tomakeitatouristattraction.ChoeungEkwasthe malnutrition anduntreateddiseases. led toimmensedisaster-thelossof3million livesamongstatotalpopulationof7millionbysevere although itishasbeenmorethan25years,Istillthinkofwhatinflictedonus. a dogwhoseownerwasRosSavong,andthathe eldest brother.Shewastoldthatheseenwalking mother wantednothingmorethantosearchformy only asmallbagofpossessions.Atthetime,my 1978. Mostofthemwerewidows. had 700familiesin1976,andonly70late the KhmerRouge’sdirtyplantosmashpeople. others saiditwasthunder.Infact,thismiracledisrupted resonance ofVietnamesetanks,othersmagic,andstill their waytoanearbyforest.Someguesseditwasthe and ranindifferentdirections–someevenmade Voar Mountain.Itwassoloudthatpeoplepanicked for shelterfromVietnamesebombers.” Khmer Rougecadres.Theirresponsewas,“Theseare “What arethepitsfor?”somepeopleasked I sawthatmany3by5meterpitswerebeingdug. blow allofusupafterwards,”oldpeoplewhispered. us. “Angkarisgoingtofeeduswithricefirstand clothes withlinesofKhmerRougesoldiersguarding on theother.AttimeIsawalargepileof[black] L L E E T T T T E E R R Hin Sarun In thisregard,Ihaverecentlybeeninformedby thepressthatgovernmenthasprivatized I thinkwarinourwretchedcountrywasnotacoincidence.Infact,itgravepoliticalmisconductthat I amaCambodianlivinginsocietywidelyknownasan"un-walledprison"ortheKillingFields.To me, We returnedtoourhomevillagein1979with My familymovedbacktoKaunSatt.Thisvillage At 5:30p.m.averyloudsoundcamefrom F F R R O O M M A A R R E E A A P D D E E L R R E : : A S E D , OCUMENTATION

R E C O C NE OF ENTER N S I D C AMBODIA E ______people? the situation? circumstances, wherewereyou?Didyouknowabout to theleadersofKhmerRougeregime: headaches andamstillemaciated. him ateveryBuddhistceremony.Irepeatedlyhave of yourself.”ThisoftenmakesmesadandIprayfor have tolookforme.Youlearntakecare beloved daughter!IfonedayIdisappear,youdon’t I oftenthinkofthewordsmyfathersaidtome,“My the regime. became atwo-memberfamilyafterthecollapseof Kiri district,Kampotprovince. was slainatStungTraimAm-PrangPagodainChum P t R r h u e m

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 50 50 50 50 S ______We hopethateitherChryBunHeangorTuonChhanwillmakeanothercalltoSannKalyanofDC-Cam.Thank You. from BunHeang(011929600),butreceivedareplythephonesystemthatthisnumberdoes notexist. could getdetailsaboutTuonChhanorChryBunHeanghimself.Ourstafftriedtocallthenumber obtained that heknowsTuonChhan,whoisnowlivinginRattanakKiri.However,thecallwasdisconnectedbefore we Soeun, andSemSom. province. MyfatherisSou SemandmotherisCheamMeas.Ilivewiththree ofmysiblings:SemYoeur, Center ofCambodiaviaphone:(855)23211875orFax:210358P.O.Box1110,Phnom Penh. was criticallyill.Ilosttheletterafterfuneral,andhaveneverobtainedanyinformationonChhansince. home village;however,Ididnotpaymuchattentiontotheletterbecauseattimemyhusband,Chhan'sfather, return home,butherefused.Duringthe1990sIreceivedaletterfromChhanlookingforfamilymembersinhis to ______of Cambodia.Thankyou. days andthenleftwithotherKhmerRougesoldiers. Hehasnotreturnedsince. M M M PECIAL i i i s s s S N s s s S h i i i a n17 r,wolvdi h ilg,tl eta emtChni apn hnn and as In 1979Sry,wholivedinthevillage,toldmethathemetChhanKampongChhnang On May20,2005,ChryBunHeangfromRattanakKiriprovincemadeaphonecalltoDC-Cam.Hesaid I amSemPhal,age59.Today IliveinThnalvillage,Dam-Besubdistrict, district,KampongCham If anybodyknowsaboutTuonChhan,pleasecontactmethroughtheaddressaboveorDocumentation If mysonoranotherpersonhasheardaboutthis, please contactusthroughtheDocumentationCenter n n n a E E n n NGLISH g g g

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S S B h K i o o r R n o o n n E u t DITION C h e H r , S and joinedtherevolutionwithoutinforminghisparents. Cham province.Threeyearslaterwhen at hisbirthplace.He joined therevolutionin1973andhasnotbeenseentodate. I Kandal province. the Vietnamesecamein1979,Phalalsoto thevillage,buthestayedonly4or5 in theblanketfactoryPhnomPenh,tookhimto workin17AprilHospital.Soonafter In 1976,AngkarorderedhimtoherdcowsinU-Dong.Later,hissisterwho,wasworking 1979. In1975,theKhmerRougesenthim named Tun,akaPhal,whohasbeenmissingsince subdistrict, U-Dongdistrict, I ECOND N My nameisNhanhKou,age77andlivinginTumLoabvillage,ChannSenLeu Before servingtherevolution,ChhanwasordainedaBuddhistmonkinSvayPoPagoda I, SanKhin,age70,liveinRorkavillage,Chunlingsubdistrict,KsachKandaldistrict, G Q UARTER F D O OCUMENTATION 2005 R would liketosearchformyeldestson,TuonChhanakaKhoeun,who later furtheredhisstudyinTa-naotReusseySrokPagodaKampong R M e s p C o NE OF ENTER Kampong Speuprovince.Iwouldliketosearchformyson I n S s e S

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AM M ) the fallofKhmerRougeregimein 60 I L Y M ntinDukSratvillage. unit E M B E R ked him S mother oftensaidwithsadness, "Yougowithoutinformingmeaword,where areyounow?" information onDarainyourdocuments.Hisyounger sistersarelookingforwardtoseeinghimhome.His tractor foranagriculturalunitinThmarKol,Battambang district.IrespectfullyaskDC-Camtosearchfor has 3siblings(2sisters).IfDaraisalive,henow 47yearsofage.In1976,Angkarorderedhimtodrivea studied withme.Dara'sfatherDuongPhangdied in1963,andhismotherHemHorn,83,died2005.He not hesitatetoassistyouwithanythingandatany time. any interestfromyou.Ifyoutwoneedourhelp,your aunts,unclesandgrandmotherwill,asmuchpossible, Battambang province. Some oftheirunclesarelivinginplacebirth-Taseyvillage,Tameunsubdistrict,ThmarKol district, house No.65,Group11,PrekMohatepvillage,SvayPoasubdistrict,Battambangdistrict, province. grandmother aresurvivingandhaveanaveragelivingcondition-enoughtosupportthem.Ouraddress is both workedinthetrainunitPhnomPenhandwereimprisonedToulSlengduringKhmer Rouge. 1½ yearsold(1976),bothofwhomaredaughtersmybrotherChhuonChhoeunandhiswifeChann Say.They thanks toallofyoufordocumentingandproperlypreservingtheKhmerRouge-relateddocuments. ______of Cambodia.Thankyou. look fortheirfamilymembersthreetimes,buttheywerenotabletofindus. Men Khom,whohavebeenmissingsince1974.On28August2000,Iwasinformedthattheyhadtriedto Chhum, MenChhun,Chhuong,andChhouy.Wearesearchingfortwoofthem,Kheng subdistrict, KeanSvaydistrict,Kandalprovince.Wehave7children:MenKheng,Khom,Rum, ______Center ofCambodia.Thankyou. that person,butIcannotreachhimasdonothavehisaddress. suggesting thattheycontactsomeonelivingatCh-BarAm-Peou,PhnomPenh.Ihavebeentryingto that PhanmadeaphonecalltoKampongChamprovincialhall,searchingforhisfamilymembersand Zone 21.Oneyearlater,hebecamechiefofagroupworkersatglassfactory.In1999,Iwasinformed M T w i s o s

i Makara Best Regards Also I,withthisletter,wouldliketosearchformy missing cousinDuongDara,male,whohadlivedand We justwanttomakesurethatyoutwoarealive, and tellyouthatwedonothaveanyintentiontogain If anybodyknowsthem,pleasekindlyconveymymessagetotellthemthattheiraunts,uncles and With thisletter,Iwouldliketosearchfortwolittlegirls:SreyTauch,3½yearsold(1976),andMao, I amwritingtoinformyouthathavereceivedyourverydetailedletter.wouldlikeextendmydeep Dear Mr.YinNeanandrespectedstaffoftheDocumentationCenterCambodia, Battambang, January7,2005 If anyonehasanyinformationregardingthesetwo,pleaseinformusthroughtheDocumentationCenter I amMenBo,age74,andmywifeisUyKan,74.TodayweliveinCheuTealvillage, If anyoneknowsSouPhanorifmybrotherhimselfhearsaboutthis,pleasecontacttheDocumentation I wouldliketosearchformybrotherwhosenameisSouPhan.Before1975,hewasacombatantin M n g i s

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Cyan Magenta Yellow Black 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 50 50 50 Cyan Magenta Yellow Black DC-Cam MainOffice:#66,PreahSihanoukBlvd, Tonle Basac,ChamkarMorn,PhnomPenh,Cambodia.Tel:(855)23211875,Fax:(855 A

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