About the Organisations

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is an independent ‘Mountain Learning and Knowledge Centre’ serving the eight countries of the Hindu Kush-Himalayas – Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Bhutan , China , India , Myanmar , Nepal , and Pakistan – and the global mountain community. Founded in 1983, ICIMOD is based in Kathmandu, Nepal, and brings together a partnership of regional member countries, partner institutions, and donors with a commitment for development action to secure a better future for the people and environment of the extended Himalayan region. ICIMOD’s activities are supported by its core programme donors: the governments of Austria, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, and its regional member countries, along with over thirty project co–fi nancing donors. The primary objective of the Centre is to promote the development of an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem and to improve the living standards of mountain populations.

European Commission Humanitarian Aid (ECHO) The European Union as a whole (i.e., the Member States and the Commission) is one of the world’s largest humanitarian aid donors; the Humanitarian Aid department (ECHO) is the service of the European Commission responsible for this activity. ECHO funds relief operations for victims of natural disasters and confl icts outside the European Union. Aid is channelled impartially, straight to victims, regardless of their race, religion and political beliefs.

DIPECHO stands for disaster preparedness in ECHO. It supports projects aimed at increasing the resilience of communities at risk of natural disasters by funding training, capacity building, awareness raising, early warning systems, and advocacy activities in the fi eld of disaster risk reduction.

2 The LostMessengers? Local KnowledgeonDisasterPreparednessinChitralDistrict,Pakistan Herders ofChitral: International Centrefor Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD) Kathmandu, Nepal Julie Dekens April 2007

i LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Copyright © 2007 International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) All rights reserved Published by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development G.P.O. Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal

ISBN 978 92 9115 026 7

Photos Front cover, page 14: Large boulder deposited during a major fl ash fl ood in Reshun Gole, Upper Dhitral – Mats Eriksson Page 2: View from Brep showing boulders deposited in a line by a fl ash fl oods – Mats Eriksson Page 22: View of the Tirich Mir (7,708m) from Chitral town – Mats Eriksson Page 60: Herders with goats in Upper Chitral – Mats Eriksson Back cover: The old and the new generation, Reshun Gole, Upper Chitral – Mats Eriksson

Editorial team Printed and bound in Nepal by Mats Eriksson (Series Coordinator) Hill Side Press (P) Ltd. Greta M. Rana (Consultant Editor) Kathmandu A. Beatrice Murray (Senior Editor) Dharma R. Maharjan (Technical Support and Layout Design)

Reproduction This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profi t purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. ICIMOD would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from ICIMOD.

Note The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the author. They are not attributable to ICIMOD and do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product. ii Rfrne 69 64 ofthe Key Summary Findings References hpe : niiaigFahFod 29 15 3 49 37 23 x 4:Conclusion Part viii Chapter 6: Communicating AboutNaturalHazards Chapter 5: Adapting to FlashFloodsandOtherHazards Chapter 4: Anticipating FlashFloods Chapter 3: andExperiencingFlash Floods Observing SomeKey Terms Acknowledgements 3:TheCaseStudy Part Chapter 2: Collecting Data vi iv 2:Key Part CollectionandAnalysis StepsinData DidYou Know? 1:Introduction Part Preface Foreword Contents hpe : icsin 61 Chapter 7:Discussion hpe : akrud 5 Chapter 1: Background

iii LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Foreword

Inhabitants in the Himalayan region are exposed to many natural hazards. The mountain ranges are young with an unstable This publication is one of a series produced under the project geology, steep slopes, and a climate that is diffi cult to predict. ‘Living with risk – sharing knowledge on disaster preparedness As a result, the region is highly susceptible to natural hazards in the Himalayan region’, implemented by ICIMOD during a such as fl oods and fl ash fl oods, landslides, and earthquakes. In 15-month period in 2006 and 2007. The project was funded populated areas, these can lead to disaster. Vulnerable groups by the European Commission through their Humanitarian Aid – the poor, women, and children – are often hit hardest. department (DG ECHO) as part of the Disaster Preparedness ECHO programme (DIPECHO) in South Asia, and by ICIMOD. Since its establishment in 1983, the International Centre for Through this project, ICIMOD has endeavoured to encourage Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has dedicated knowledge sharing and to strengthen capacity among key much of its work to examining ways to reduce the risk of practitioners in the fi eld of disaster preparedness and disasters from natural hazards, thereby working towards the management. This has been done through training courses, decreased physical vulnerability of the people in the Hindu workshops, knowledge compilation and dissemination, and Kush-Himalayas. This work has encompassed training courses, the establishment of a website (www.disasterpreparedness. hazard mapping, landslide mitigation and control, mountain icimod.org). risk engineering, watershed management, vulnerability assessment, and much more. ICIMOD has also fostered regional The publications resulting from this project include baseline and transboundary dialogue for improved management of both assessments of the disaster preparedness status in the four the resources provided and the risks threatened by the big target countries (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan); rivers in the Himalayan region; sharing of hydro-meteorological case studies and a framework on local knowledge for disaster data and information among the countries in the region is of preparedness; and gender and vulnerability aspects in particular importance for mitigating the risk of riverine and disaster risk reduction. The publications, training sessions, fl ash fl oods in the major river basins. iv acceptable level of disaster riskhas only justbegun.The The long-term missionto bringtheHimalayan regionto an and capacitybuildinginthefi eld ofdisaster riskreduction. research,reduction status;andundertake training,education, andpublishbaselineassessmentsofdisasterundertake risk regional organisationsshouldpromote sharingofinformation; Framework for Action 2005-2015’ whichrecommendsthat and workshops were inthecontext undertaken ofthe‘Hyogo Dr. AndreasSchild ICIMOD Director we arecommitted to serve. will helpimprove disaster riskreductioninthemountainregion improved. ItisICIMOD’shope that ourcollective endeavours canthissituationbe commitment, hard work, andjointefforts casualties, andimpact onnationaleconomies.Onlyby strong in theworld interms ofnumberandseverity ofdisasters, countries intheregionareamongmostdisaster prone General

v LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Preface

The cost of disregarding local “We told them twice!”, said the leader of a nearby village. “We knew that the retaining walls were too small to channel the knowledge water during the rainy season and that they should have been raised.” “External agencies, including government offi cials and technical people, never listen to local advice!” The villagers had learned from previous experience: they could Workshop participant, Chitral town, October 2006 remember how two people died in the same place about 40 years ago in a major fl ash fl ood. Unfortunately, the engineering company, interested in settling in an easily accessible and Flash fl oods are frequent events in the Chitral District of cheap area, neglected local advice. Pakistan. Most of the time, villagers manage to save their lives. They know how to interpret local environmental signals and In remote mountainous places like Chitral District, as elsewhere, where hazardous places are. But on July 14th 2006, a foreign road construction is associated with development – and engineer lost his life at a tunnel construction site. That day, short-term employment for the locals. However, it can also be an intense rainstorm occurred between 4:00 and 5:30 pm. associated with increased vulnerability to natural hazards. In The extreme rainfall event triggered a fl ash fl ood, which rapidly Shainigar, a village in Lower Chitral, greater fl ood impacts have washed away the engineering company’s equipment and been experienced since road construction started. The river residential quarters on the fringe of the river bed. This tragic bed, which used to form a deep channel, has now been fi lled event, which took the life of one person and damaged a million up to construct a cross-way for a road. The new road has altered rupees of equipment, was not a surprise to the locals. the natural channel of the stream and when a fl ood occurs now,

vi as was thecaseonJuly30 agencies atboth nationalandinternational levels. Agencies natural hazards, inparticular, isnormallyignoredby external that localknowledge, ingeneral,andlocalknowledge on oftheHimalayanother region.They parts illustrate thefact Many stories like thesecanbefound inChitralDistrictas houses whenitrainsheavily for fear ofbeingwashed away. result peoplelivingnext to theriver inthisvillageleave their build abridge.Unfortunately, theirrequest was ignored.Asa into thenearby fi askedelds. Thevillagers theGovernment to th 2006,thewater quickly overfl ows Julie visible, andbeincludedindecision-makingprocesses. Dekens term. Whatlocalpeopleknow shouldbecollected, mademore humanandeconomiccosts,especiallyinthelong to important hazards intheirlocalities.Ignoringknowledge may lead the time,localsareaware ofnatural ofthenatureandhistory disasters, butthey arealsothe fi torst respondto them.Mostof Local peoplearethefi torst from suffer thedirectimpacts of deal ofwhichisnot intunewithlocalcontexts andrealities. tend to favour scientifi c andspecialisedknowledge; agreat

vii LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Acknowledgements

This study is part of a 15-month project (April 2006 – June (AKRSP Chitral); Dilshad Pari (AKRSP Booni, social organiser/ 2007) entitled, Living with risk – sharing knowledge on gender); a climate change specialist, Arun B. Shrestha (ICIMOD); disaster preparedness in the Himalayan region, supported and two local translators. by the European Commission through its Humanitarian Aid Department (DIPECHO). Local Partners: The study was made possible with the help and collaboration of many people among whom were I am grateful to all those who guided the project through its the villagers of Ashret, Baradam, Birir, Brep, Drosh, Gurin, various phases: the project manager Mats Eriksson; the Harchin, Isfangol, Jao Guru, Krakal, Mastuj, and Reshun. network offi cer Vijay Khadgi; the steering committee members Organisations and personnel contributing to this study were at ICIMOD: Madhav Karki, Jianchu Xu, Michael Kollmair, the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) – especially Zbigniew Mikolajuk and Beatrice Murray; as well as the Sardar Ayub (Regional Programme Manager, Chitral), Sherzad programme offi cers at ECHO Indira Kulenovic and Jyoti Sharma Ali Hyder (Manager, Resource Development Section, Chitral), in New Delhi, and Béatrice Miège in Brussels. and Qazi Ahmad Saeed (Institutional Development Offi cer); Focus Humanitarian Assistance, Pakistan – Syed Harir Rapid Assessment Team: The team members during the Shah (Programme Manager for community-based disaster fi eld trip included a geographer and geomorphologist/ risk reduction, Chitral); Government Degree College, Chitral water specialist, Mats Eriksson (ICIMOD); a social scientist/ – Inayatullah Faizi; and IUCN-Pakistan, Chitral Unit – Aziz Ali institutional specialist, Julie Dekens (ICIMOD); Ali Sher Khan (District Manager).

viii and AshaKaji Thaku. finalised, GretaRana,BeatriceMurray, DharmaRatnaMaharjan layout for persons theirdedicated work to getthispublication andProductionTeamEditors and ArunB.Shrestha(ICIMOD). (ICIMOD), MuhammadIsmailXuJianchu Assistance, Pakistan),Farid Ahmad(ICIMOD),MatsEriksson Degree College,Chitral),Syed HarirShah(Focus Humanitarian University ofManitoba, Canada),Inayatullah Faizi, (Government Gardner (Professor Emeritus, Natural Resources Institute, Reviewers: Thanks for usefulcommentsaredueto James : Iamgrateful to theeditors and

ix LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Some Key Terms

Capacity – A combination of all the strengths and resources Mitigation – Structural and non-structural measures available within a community, society, or organisation that can undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster. environmental degradation and technological hazards.

Disaster – A serious disruption of the functioning of a community Preparedness – Activities and measures taken in advance to or a society causing widespread human, material, economic, or ensure effective response to the impact of hazards, including environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and the community or society to cope using its own resources. temporary evacuation of people and property from threatened locations. Disaster risk reduction (disaster reduction) – The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to Resilience/resilient – The capacity of a system, community minimise vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) or changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of of functioning and structure. It is determined by the degree sustainable development. to which the social system is capable of organising itself to increase its capacity for learning from past disasters for better Hazard – A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or future protection and to improve risk reduction measures. human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.

x to reducethepotential negative consequences ofrisk. conditions ofvulnerabilityandinsufficient capacityormeasures of theriskprocess. Itresultsfrom thecombinationofhazards, the physical aspectsofvulnerability. Adisaster isafunction also includetheconceptofexposure to to refer particularly the notation Risk=Hazards xVulnerability. Somedisciplines vulnerable conditions.Conventionally riskisexpressed by interactions between naturalorhuman-inducedhazards and activity disrupted orenvironmental damaged)resulting from losses (deaths,injuries,property, livelihoods, economic Risk –Theprobability ofharmfulconsequences, orexpected hazards. increase thesusceptibilityofacommunityto theimpact of economic, andenvironmental factors orprocesses, which Vulnerability and theenvironment onwhichthey depend. pose apotential threatorharmto people,property, livelihoods and evaluating existing conditionsofvulnerabilitythatcould the natureandextent ofriskby analysingpotential hazards Risk assessmentoranalysis –Theconditionsdetermined by physical, social, –Amethodologyto determine Adapted from UN/ISDR(2004)

xi LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN xii Introduction Part 1 Part

1 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN 2 C Did You Know? and households alsoadoptlong-term adjustmentstrategies. especially atnight,andrunning to higherground. Communities belongings withrelatives moving orneighbours, to safer places storing food, saving administrative andother papers important Households adoptafew, strategies simple short-term such as them andto infl uence theirdecisionsaboutwhereto settle. – onceortwicepergenerationfor to villagers remember Major destructive flash fl oods may not take enough placeoften tell aboutpeopleforgetting priorexperiences with fl ash fl oods. and unusualpresencemovements ofwildlife. Localstories fl ow, intensity andfrequency ofrainfall, andunusualsounds signals associated withthem:changesincloudcolour, water experience to identifyandinterpret environmental signsand people diefrom fl ash fl oods becausethey have learnedfrom settlement andcultivation to active alluvialfans. However, few limits landscapeoften are damagedbecausethearid,vertical August. Property, agriculturalland,andirrigationchannels Part I–Introduction valleys. Flashfl oods occurregularlyfrom Juneto region ofglaciated mountainrangesanddeep,narrow areaofPakistan,isa hitral, thenorth-westernmost houses built in thisway aredisappearing becausethere is and clay arebelieved to resistant.However, beearthquake houses madeofasophisticated combinationofwood, stones, Chitral Districtisalsoprone to Locally, earthquakes. traditional local materials to protect settlementsand fi elds from water. to housesby rockfalls, andtraditionalretainingwalls using aspects like buildinggrainstores, terraces to prevent damage Long-term strategies alsoincludetechnical andstructural degradation, especiallydeforestation andovergrazing by goats. Many peoplebelieve fl ash fl oods arecaused by environmental regulate grazinganddeforestation through rules. customary natural resource management. InChitral,somecommunities Examples oflong-term strategies alsoincludeadjustments in natural hazards preparedness,butcontribute to itindirectly. any copingmechanisms.Many strategies arenot designedfor from naturalhazard events morequickly thanthey would without This gives peoplesomefl exibility andhelpsthembounceback impact offlash floods amongtheirphysical andeconomicassets. sourceslandholdings, anddifferent ofincometo spreadthe For instance,buildinghousesinsafe areas,having dispersed

3 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN not enough wood and new trends favour separate rooms and warning systems and new ones, leaving most communities in larger windows. an institutional vacuum. The early warning system as of 2006 mainly relied on new, centralised technologies, and these do Folklore, songs, proverbs, and traditional ceremonies are not reach many isolated communities. Overall, many changes repositories of collective and family memories of past events. are occurring in the district: a combination of factors (historical, Again, they may not be entirely about hazard preparedness but environmental, socioeconomic, demographic, institutional, may incorporate elements of it. Local religious and other key and political) infl uences community knowledge and practice of leaders, elders (both men and women), and other social actors natural hazard preparedness in a complex way. Some factors are often the key knowledge-carriers about past hazards and have helped to reduce people’s vulnerability to natural hazards the ones who make sense of imminent hazards. Traditional (e.g., better access to water by developing irrigation channels early warning systems for fl ash fl oods include a diversity of with the help of non-government organisations); others have decentralised strategies used on an ad hoc basis. However, the increased their vulnerability (e.g., population growth forcing district is now in a period of transition between traditional early people to settle in more vulnerable areas).

4 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? how thethemesarerelated to, andinfl uence, eachother. the analyticalframework isto lay outthekey themesandshow knowledge aboutdisaster preparedness(Figure1).Thegoalof and developing andtesting ananalyticalframework onlocal preparedness invarious villagesprone to naturalhazards, documenting localknowledge andpractices related to disaster described herewas carriedoutwiththeaimofidentifyingand understanding ofthevalueunderstanding oflocalknowledge for thesuccess many implementing organisations(1)donot have aprimary practices related to disaster preparedness.However, inpractice, begun to acknowledge theexistence oflocalknowledge and In theory, since the1980s, implementing organisations have Who shouldreadthisreport? T Background Chapter 1 be usedindisaster managementactivities identifi ed inrelationto disaster preparednesssothatthey can of, localknowledge,understanding practices,andcontexts Part I–Introduction non-government organisations)in,andimprove their of implementing organisations(governments, and isto securetheinterest he generalpurposeofthisreport . Thecasestudy power!). Moreimportantly, the lackoflegitimacyattributed to mistaken assumptions, andpower relations(knowledge is concerned, mainlybecause oftheirown lackofknowledge, local knowledge stilllackslegitimacyasfar are asoutsiders from localpeople.Another reasonfor theteaching biasisthat from butsimultaneously, outsiders, canalsolearn outsiders does not imply lackofknowledge. Communitiescanlearn is theconfusionbetween educationandknowledge: illiteracy a two-way process. Oneofthereasonsfor this‘teaching bias’ an external organisationisteaching ‘acommunity’)instead of whereby communication isrestricted to aone-way process (i.e., bias prevails even organisations withincommunity-based Suffi ce itto say here,for example, thattoo ateaching often the scopeofthispublicationto describethem allindetail. local knowledge andpracticesbeingoverlooked. Itisbeyond project/organisational, community, household)thatresultin based onbiasesandconstraintsexisting atalllevels (donor, related andpracticeis to it.Thisdiscrepancybetween theory really meansand/orhow to identifyandcollectinformation idea ofwhatlocalknowledge related to disaster preparedness and sustainabilityoftheirprojects; and(2)donot have aclear

5 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Local knowledge on disaster preparedness is based on the following

(1) Observe (2) Anticipate (3) Adjust (4) Communicate

People’s experience of the local People’s identification and People’s access to assets People’s ability to transfer surroundings monitoring of environmental knowledge among themselves and indicators between generations

Early warning signals Human assets Oral & written communication History of natural hazards Examples: interpretational knowledge Examples: specific skills such as Examples: local songs, poems, Examples: knowledge on the location, of changes in animal behaviour, traditional carpenters and masons proverbs which help the younger time, duration, frequency, intensity, vegetation patterns; knowledge of local generation and outsiders to learn about predictability of previous hazards weather forecasts Sociocultural assets previous hazards; stories of previous Examples: knowledge of different social hazards encoded in the names of groups depending on occupational, specific places physical ability, ethnicity, gender, caste, Time thresholds Nature of natural hazards class, and age characteristics Examples: knowledge of when it is time Early warning systems Examples: knowledge on the onset, to buy and store food in advance, leave Examples: use of visual signals such origin, and velocity of water flow; Institutional assets the house, move the cattle, and remove as mirrors, fire or audio signals like knowledge of different types of rain important belongings Examples: knowledge generated by local institutions and cross-scale drums; having dreams of natural linkages hazards in advance

Escape routes and safe places for Evolution of social and physical Financial assets Other practices humans and cattle vulnerabilities to natural hazards Examples: micro-finance arrangements Examples: taboos which prevent Examples: knowledge of the safest and Example: life stories explaining the such as credits and savings people from going to certain hazard- fastest routes impoverishment processes of prone areas; ceremonies, local art households following recurrent natural Natural assets which helps the community to hazards and other stresses Examples: natural resource understand and remember past natural management strategies such as hazards, and relieve the anxiety related Key actors and skills intercropping and agroforestry that to the threat of future hazards Examples: knowledge of who knows conserve biodiversity and protect soil what, who does what and when, who erosion and can contribute to reducing stays behind, who goes first the impacts of natural hazards

Physical assets Examples: infrastructural safety arrangements such as boats, housing, embankments

Figure 1: The four pillars of local knowledge on disaster preparedness

6 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? level. Buildinguponlocalknowledge andpractices,whenit can facilitate identifi cation ofwhatcanbepromoted atlocal localknowledge scales.Understanding different andpractices on theassumption things better thatpeopledodifferent on a socialpointofview. Firstly, economiesofscalearebased to cost-effectiveness inthelong-term, from both a financial and accounting for, andrespectinglocalknowledge cancontribute acceptance, ownership, andsustainability. Understanding, help to improve project ingeneral;thatis,project performance and implementation ofdisaster preparednessactivities.Itcan can helpimplementing organisationsimprove theirplanningfor knowledge into considerationinterms ofpracticesandcontexts and henceimprove theirdisaster preparedness.Taking local international organisationsempower thecommunitiesserved of localcommunitieswillhelpbothunderstanding nationaland underlying assumption behindthiscasestudyisthatimproving local knowledge into disaster preparednessactivities.The by providing methodologicalguidanceonhow to integrate toThis casestudycanhelppractitioners buildconfi dence Why you shouldreadthisreport can beuseful. organisations) thatthey have knowledge andthatsomeofit be convinced (maybe by governments andnon-government within asitisfrom without local andindigenousknowledge isasmuchaproblem from Part I–Introduction : communities themselves needto activities; andunlessyou respectthisknowledge? and contexts; unless you areaccountingfor theminyour project andyouunderstand have identified localknowledge, practices, incorporate localreferences. How canyou dosounlessyou such asoffi cial warning messagesorhazard maps,needto at locallevel. Disaster preparednesscommunicationtools, releaseinformationagencies often thatisnot understood marginalised groups –receive theinformation?). Government information? doallsegmentsofsociety–women, poor, and source ofinformation? are the localseven ableto receive the the locals?(Otherkey questions are:dothelocalstrustthis in thenext 24 Butisitenough?Whatdoes itmeanto hours”. communities: “theriver isgoingto riseby oneto two metres meteorological agencymightreleasethefollowing messageto in away andcredible.For thatisunderstandable instance,a to translate messagesfrom government level to communities organisations to organisationsthatareable actasintermediary termed).often Italsoenablesdevelopment andresearch (or‘benefito needsoflocalpartners ciaries’ asthey are to tailortheirproject activitiesandcommunicationstrategies contexts canhelpdevelopment andresearch organisations Specifi cally, localknowledge, understanding practices,and the community’ssenseofownership andself-confi dence. mutual trust,acceptability, and commonunderstanding, knowledge andpracticesinto accountcanhelppromote aid. Secondly, andfrom asocialpointofview, taking local is relevant to doso,candecreasedependencyonexternal

7 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Figure 2: Major roads and place names in Chitral District, Pakistan

8 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Figure 3:Women’s group discussion,Chenarvillage, UpperChitral to disaster preparednesshasbeenpoorlydocumented inthis disaster preparednesssince1999. Localknowledge related only onenon-government organisationhasbeenfocusing on formulating adisaster preparednessplan/strategy, andsofar government officials. Thelocalgovernment ofChitraliscurrently relatively unknown phenomenonamongthegeneralpublicand case studyareafor acombinationofreasons.Flash floods area collected inthefi eld. TheDistrictof Chitralwas selected asa issupplemented data by secondary (Figure 2).Thereport Chitral DistrictofPakistaninOctober andNovember 2006 datacollected duringaten-dayprimary fi eld survey inthe isbasedtoThe information agreatextent inthisreport on wasHow compiled thisreport Part I–Introduction

Julie Dekens government organisations, non-government organisations, field. Theworkshop was from attended local by 38participants Programme andfollowing discussionswithkey informants inthe Khan Ruralorganised incollaboration withtheAga Support The villageswere selected following aone-day workshop in thetown ofChitral. [IUCN-Pakistan], andFocus HumanitarianAssistance-Pakistan) Programme [AKRSP],theWorld Union Support Conservation government, and non-government KhanRural institutions(Aga complemented by interviews withkey informants inacademic, (pictures andvideo).Theinformation was verifi ed and walks inandaround thevillages;andvisualdocumentation transect group directobservation; discussionswithvillagers; collected through one ononesemi-structuredinterviews and and duringtheflood seasoninparticular. Qualitative datawere preparedness strategies duringtherainy season,ingeneral, Interviews focused onboth communityandhousehold ofthedistrict. parts southernmost upto thenorthernmost werewith elders, carriedoutin11 villageslocated from the Semi-structured interviews andgroup discussions,especially hazards andcommunities. hazards, especiallyfl ash fl oods, andtheinteraction between District provides for aunique laboratory thestudyofnatural Further, dueto itsextreme physical environment, theChitral of theplaceandother politicalandsocioculturalbarriers. region for acombinationofreasons;viz.,thephysical isolation

9 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN and community members. The objectives of the workshop voice. Additional comments are given to put people’s voices were (1) to present the goal and context of the fi eld work, (2) to into context and to refl ect their contradictions, repetitions, improve understanding of local contexts, especially in relation and complexity. Examples of key questions that implementing to natural hazards, and (3) to identify key informants, study organisations should use to improve their understanding and sites for, and stories on local knowledge related to disaster to integrate local knowledge into their disaster preparedness preparedness. During the workshop, four group discussions projects are also provided (Box – ‘Did you ask?’). took place with participants from different sectors. Each group was asked to relate stories about local knowledge on disaster The lessons learned from the study are discussed in the preparedness and to give presentations. These presentations concluding section, which also provides a summary of the key and a brainstorming discussion enabled us to identify study fi ndings in tabular form and a bibliography. sites and collect some stories. Generally, it also established a common understanding and raised awareness about local The case study itself by defi nition is not and cannot be knowledge related to disaster preparedness. complete (i.e., integrating all aspects of local knowledge related to disaster preparedness). The topic is complex and each case is context specifi c. However, as mentioned already, How to use this report the case study is organised around an analytical framework The report is in four parts: this introduction followed by the that can be used anywhere (Figure 1: the four pillars of local methods, the fi ndings of the case study and a conclusion. knowledge on disaster preparedness). Most importantly, this The methods section explains the four major steps one has to case study can help implementing organisations to use and follow in order to collect and analyse data on local knowledge develop the analytical framework to their own requirements. related to disaster preparedness. These four steps can be Understanding the process of data collection and the type of used as a checklist by implementing organisations. information collected in this report is even more important than the outcomes per se, as it helps similar exercises documenting The third part of the report, the case study itself, provides local knowledge to be carried out in other contexts. As such, implementing organisations with a concrete example of what the intention is that this should be a learning case study: it is local knowledge on disaster preparedness is and how it can be designed to raise questions and stimulate practitioners to fi nd documented. The case study is based on people’s anecdotes their own answers (Hussain-Kaliq 2004). The report can be most and stories. The report uses citations to give local people a useful in the project development and implementation stages,

10 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? specifi whether they arerelevant ornotinaspecifi The assumptionhereisthatlocalknowledge andpractices, about localknowledgeunderstanding ondisaster preparedness. curriculum). Thepresentcasestudyaimsonlyto facilitate integrate itinto your own activities(e.g.,streetdrama,school local knowledge related to disaster preparednessandhow to how to usetheinformation collected –thatishow to use What is surveys), andduringthedesignofproject activities. especially duringanalysisoflocalcontexts (e.g.,socioeconomic Part I–Introduction c project,cannotandshouldnotbeignored.Local not cvrdi hsrpr?Ti eotde o cover doesnot Thisreport covered inthisreport? c context for a providing policyrecommendations). activities (i.e.,contextualising localpracticesanddisasters and practices canhelpto improve your disaster preparedness preparedness; andwithinwhichcontext localknowledge and how itcanbecombinedwithother knowledge ondisaster and for whichobjectives; how to integrate itinto your activities; withinyour timeframe;forpractices you cansupport whom case study–includes:assessingwhichlocalknowledge and Therefore, ofthis step thenext –whichisnot important part local knowledge andpracticesareappropriate orsustainable. account. knowledge andpracticesalways needtobetaken into However, andimportantly, itdoesnot meanthatall

11 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN 12 Collection and Collection Analysis Key Stepsin Data Part 2 Part

13 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN 14 livelihoods, reduction. andpoverty between localknowledge, disaster management,sustainable thewidercontext,and (4)understanding thatisthelinkages the four oflocalknowledge pillars ondisaster preparedness; produced, used,transmitted, andadapted; (3)understanding howunderstanding localknowledge isbeing(ornot being) local knowledge onehasto andaccountfor understand people’s do andnot do,andwhatpeoplebelieve in.To understand What peopleknow isinfluenced by, andinfl uences, whatpeople specifi c group ofpeople. andexperience ofthelocal environmentobservation by a “ of localknowledge thenature Step 1:Understanding C Collecting Data Chapter 2 Part 2–KeySteps inDataCollectionand Analysis Local knowledge hereto refers knowledge generated through understanding the natureoflocalknowledge;understanding (2) disaster preparednessinvolves four majorsteps: (1) ollecting information onlocalknowledge related to ” (Berkes 1999) such asagroforestry and polyculture whichcancontribute instance, localecological knowledge provides localmethods exist (e.g.,ecological,social,andhistorical knowledge). For and soon.Additionally, many other typesoflocalknowledge specifi c localmaterials for houses, retainingwalls, terraces, local methodsofconstruction, useandcombinationof knowledge. Technical localknowledge includes,for instance, because itisthemostvisible/concrete aspectoflocal associatedis often withlocaltechnical knowledge probably Firstly, withrespect toknowledge types cultureorsociety unique to agiven “ of‘localknowledge’: itrefers‘Indigenous knowledge’ to, ispart the sensethatitishighlyembeddedinpeople’slivelihoods. tends to bemoreholisticthanother forms ofknowledge in are closelyinterrelated. Assuch,thenatureoflocalknowledge practices, andbeliefs(Berkes 1999) becausethesedimensions broadest senseto includeeachdimension:knowledge types, we usetheterm ‘localknowledge’beliefs. Inthisreport, inthe various ways ofknowing asmuchpeople’spracticesand oa nweg heldby indigenouspeople,orlocalknowledge local knowledge ” (Berkes 1999). – Localknowledge

15 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN to conservation of ecological diversity. Local non-technical kind of assets (i.e., natural, sociocultural, economic, political) knowledge is often not easily identifi able by outsiders because at what time and under what circumstances. At the local level, it is closely embedded in people’s livelihoods and worldviews. various types of institutions exist. For instance, institutions can Local knowledge is scattered and institutionally dispersed: it is be classifi ed in terms of social, religious, political, judicial, and located at the individual/household level as well as collectively economic institutions (Appiah-Opoku and Hyma 1999) or in through community stewards and other key social actors (e.g., terms of familial, communal, social, and collective institutions shamans, elders). One can also make a distinction between (Bingen 2001). Examples of local institutions are: the family, everyday knowledge about the environment and specialist the household, marriage, the caste system, kinship exchange knowledge retained by a few individuals or local experts. Local networks, traditional rural reciprocity networks, schools, and knowledge also tends to derive more from memory, intuition, so on. Institutions shape every aspect of a livelihood system1 and the senses than from the intellect. Finally, another from the type and amount of assets individuals, households, distinction can be made between experiential knowledge and organisations can build upon, together with the creation, (i.e., knowledge gained through experience) and transmitted transformation of, access to, returns from, and accumulation or knowledge (i.e., knowledge gained through transmission from reduction of assets (Bingen 2001), to their livelihood strategies stories, poems, songs, and religious practices, for example). (e.g., whether people manage to diversify, innovate, intensify), Obviously local knowledge is always a mixture of the two. their livelihood outcomes (e.g., whether people manage to However, transmitted knowledge does not meet with the increase social services or promote a certain type of rights), same problems of legitimacy in the community as experiential and the ‘vulnerability context’ (e.g., crisis, shocks, trends) that knowledge (personal communication, Dr. James Gardner). people face. Ostrom (1992) identifi es several reasons why institutions matter. First, “institutions shape the patterns of Secondly, with respect to local practices, institutions, and human interactions and the results that individuals achieve” skills – In the literature, local practices are also referred to as through monitoring, sanctioning, and confl ict resolution ‘risk-spreading strategies’, ‘preventive measures’, ‘adaptation mechanisms for instance (Ostrom 1992). Second, institutions strategies’, ‘coping strategies’, ‘adjustment strategies’, ‘safety can increase and/or decrease the benefi ts from a fi xed set of nets’, and so on. Local practices are mediated by local institutions inputs. Third, “institutions shape human behaviour through and associated power relations. Local institutions constitute a their impact on incentives” (Ostrom 1992). Incentives are rules, set of formal and informal rules, norms, values, organisations, 1 A livelihood system refers to a combination of modes of livelihood at one time - e.g., and patterns of behaviour that defi ne who is allowed to use what farming, migrant labour, and informal activities (Murray 2001).

16 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? systems areunderstood hereasthecombinationofpeople’s beliefsystems Thirdly, withrespect tolocal them to bepreparedandto adaptinthelongterm. term;with naturalhazardswhileothers may intheshort help preparedness. Finally, somepracticesmay helppeopleto deal making aliving)butmay contribute indirectlytowards disaster preparedness; others may bedesignedfor other purposes (e.g., Some practicesmay bedirectlydesignedfor disaster viable whenothers areinplace.” deepened whenitisrecognisedthatsomestrategies areonly or any mixtureofvariables. […]Thispictureofcomplexity is others arespecifi c to socioeconomicstatus,age,orcaste, within thevillage.Somestrategies may bevillage-wide,while concluded that,“not allstrategies areviablefor eachgroup related to householdlivelihoods intheWestern Himalayas and Sinclair andHam(2000)documented adaptive strategies frombe different onesocialgroup to another. For instance, found atthecommunity/villagelevel. Further, practicesmay only befound atthehouseholdlevel whileothers may onlybe instance, somelocaldisaster preparednesspracticesmay Practices may from bedifferent onelevel to another. For Local practicesandinstitutionsencompass various dimensions. fl ows, andtherefore livelihood decisionsandstrategies. norms, values that control material, energy, andinformation Part 2–KeySteps inDataCollectionand Analysis – Localbelief (Diamond 2005). environmental degradationandthecollapseofentiresocieties are sustainableorrelevant. Somevalues have ledto massive individual choiceandpower. At thesametimenot allbeliefs and psychological copingresponsefor peoplewholack As suchwhatisperceived ofasociocultural asfatalism ispart of theirpositionvis-à-visdominantresource relationships”. refl ects not resignationandpassivitybutarealisticperception (2003) putit,“theperceived powerlessness amongthepoor associated withpassivityandapathy. AsHutton andHaque equivalent to thewestern connotation offatalism, whichis hazards asthe‘willofGod’cannot beunderstood simply as fatalism oftheruralpoorinHimalayas inacceptingnatural the outcomeperse.Forunderstanding instance,theperceived other words, than theprocess understanding ismoreimportant interpreted inmany ways unlessyou thecontext. understand In what they say” (Berkes 1999) becausetheoutcomecanbe context they say than things–author]may bemoreimportant sense, “withsomegroups, how people say things[andinwhich one insightinto why peopledothingstheway they do.Inthat perceptions, andvalues iscrucialtherefore becauseitgives response to naturalhazards. localbeliefs, Understanding systems perceptions, shapepeople’sunderstanding, and (e.g., respect,reciprocity, sharing,humility),andethics.Belief (i.e., ways ofperceiving theworld), values/moral principles beliefs (e.g.,sociocultural,religiousbeliefsystems), worldviews

17 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Step 2: Understanding the knowledge with other types (Nonaka 1991). For the purpose of this report, two important points need to be highlighted. First, processes surrounding local the internalisation of practices means that, “local people often knowledge have diffi culties identifying specifi c practices or institutions as specifi cally oriented toward coping with hazards, even though All three dimensions of local knowledge (knowledge types, those same practices do play a role in reducing risk. This practices, and beliefs) are interrelated and infl uence one makes sense given that most of these practices have been another constantly. Local knowledge and knowledge in general developed over centuries of trial and error. Also, some of the emerges from a dynamic process of knowledge creation, use, very practices that do reduce risk can be remarkably oppressive management, and transmission. In fact, local knowledge is in other ways. In some cases […], for example, the need to disappearing and being created all the time (Berkes 1999). create social obligations outside of the community (that can Before trying to build upon local knowledge and practices, protect households in the event of disaster) leave little options one needs to understand the processes involved. How is local for women when it comes to choosing a marriage partner. They knowledge disappearing and being created? How is local have virtually no voice in the matter, but their enforced silence knowledge used in a specifi c context and by whom? How is helps to ensure the security of their natal household (and the local knowledge being transmitted within the community and household they are married into)” (personal communication, between generations and who is transmitting it? How is local Dr. Ken MacDonald). knowledge managed at the household and community levels? What are the key local institutions that infl uence knowledge Sometimes, prior experience of a natural hazard is forgotten management? Who has access to local knowledge, how, and because the event does not happen frequently enough for under which conditions? people to remember and internalise it. The combination of local knowledge with external knowledge is not new. Communities The process of knowledge creation itself is complex and includes totally isolated from outside infl uence are rare. Local knowledge aspects of internalisation, socialisation, and externalisation is not isolated: it has always been connected to other places of knowledge, as well as the combination of one type of and other types of knowledge.

18 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Secondly, withrespect toanticipation Rahmat 1996). as adecision-makingtool for farming activities (AkbatKhan ofthemovement observation serves ofthesunand stars surroundings. For instance,intheChitralDistrict,careful natural hazards through theirdailyexperiences oftheirlocal disaster preparednessrelates of to people’sobservations Firstly, withrespecttoobservation anticipation, adjustment,andcommunication. relates to four majordimensionsofknowledge: observation, implementation. Localknowledge ondisaster preparedness and take into considerationduringproject planningand can beusedasachecklistofthekey characteristics to identify four oflocalknowledge pillars ondisaster preparedness.It The framework inFigure1canbeemployed to identifythe preparedness disaster oflocalknowledgepillars on thefour Step 3:Understanding imminent hazards aswell astimethresholds,escaperoutes indicators suchasearlywarning andenvironmental signsof of naturalhazards through identifyingandmonitoring local disaster preparednessalsorelates to people’santicipation Part 2–KeySteps inDataCollectionand Analysis – – Local knowledge on Local knowledge on processes. to pay attention to informal educationandinternal learning knowledge on disaster preparedness therefore requires us transferred orally, butnot exclusively local so.Understanding hazards. Intraditionalruralcommunities,knowledge isusually sharing ofinformation related to pastandimminent natural and between generations.Herecommunicationrefers to the strategies aboutnaturalhazards amongcommunitymembers on disaster preparednessalsorelates to thecommunication Fourthly, withrespecttocommunication not alladjustment strategies aresustainable inthelongterm. external institutionsandglobalfactors and trends. Importantly, previously –ismediated by localinstitutionsandinfl uencedby political, physical, andnaturalaspects)which–asmentioned human, sociocultural,institutional,fi nancial, economic, assets (orpeople’sstrengths,orcapitalendowments including have faced. Theircapacityto adjustisbasedontheiraccessto natural hazards andhow they learnfrom previous hazards they people cope,adapt,experiment, andinnovate intheface of strategies through trialanderror. Itincludesaspectsofhow disaster preparednessalsorelates to people’sadjustment Thirdly, withrespecttoadjustments and theroles they play withinthecommunity. and safe placesfor humans andcattle,key skills,actors, – Local knowledge on – Local knowledge

19 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Step 4: Understanding the wider and, more generally, the dominance of a sectoral approach to disaster management. Did we forget that disaster risk reduction context: the relationship of local is also poverty reduction? The issue of local knowledge on knowledge, disaster preparedness, disaster preparedness needs to be understood and integrated into the wider issues of sustainable livelihoods and poverty and livelihoods to poverty reduction. Ultimately, improving implementing agencies’ understanding of the linkages between local knowledge and reduction disaster preparedness can help implementing organisations Local knowledge is infl uenced by the type, frequency, and to promote livelihood security and build resilient communities. intensity of past and present natural hazards, as well as by Local knowledge can be used as a key entry point for this. other shocks and global trends and factors — for instance, the impacts of climate change, globalisation, road construction, The four steps outlined above can be used as a checklist and national policies on natural resources. Indeed, in many to verify that you have incorporated the key aspects of local cases, natural hazards, although constituting an important knowledge on disaster preparedness into your project. The stress, are not the major stressor faced by communities. From next part of the report presents the information collected in a local knowledge perspective, as suggested by Battista and the Chitral District on local knowledge related to fl ash fl oods Baas (2004), it is more interesting to, “look at shocks that and earthquake preparedness. The case study is organised are recurrent and chronic and that contribute to gradually according to the framework in Figure 1. Chapter 1 focuses on increasing the vulnerability of the community instead of local knowledge related to the observation and experience of exceptional natural events which require emergency operations fl ash fl oods. Chapter 2 focuses on local knowledge related to from outside”. the anticipation of fl ash fl oods. Chapter 3 focuses on adjusting strategies. Finally, Chapter 4 focuses on how local people The lack of an explicit connection between local knowledge communicate and share information about past and imminent and disaster management in the literature refl ects the lack of hazards. linkages between poverty reduction and disaster management,

20 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? The CaseStudy The Part 3 Part

21 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN 22 vulnerability to fl oods haschangedover time. fl ash fl oods. They canalsodescribeandexplain how theirown to interpret theirlandscapeandthephysical indicators ofpast of theirenvironment through generations.They have learned environment for andanaccumulated survival, understanding oftheirlocalsurroundings,observation closetiesto their nature offl ash fl oods intheirown localitybasedondaily The peopleofChitralhave and knowledge aboutthehistory fl oods, adjustmentstrategies, andcommunicationstrategies. “It was 4pmonJuly 14 Cloud andglacieroutbursts offl Nature andhistory L andExperiencingFlashFloods Observing Chapter 3 not raininghereinthevillage. Itwas onlyraining higherupin in Chitral Part 3–TheCase Study observation andexperienceobservation of flash fl oods, anticipationof District ofPakistanincludesaspectsrelated to people’s ocal knowledge ondisaster preparedness intheChitral th 2006 whenthefl ood started. Itwas ash fl oods because itwas not rainingbefore thefl ood. Butpeoplein houses. Inthevillage,people wondered how ithadhappened started to cover thelandandpeoplehadto runaway from their houses were destroyed. OnJuly9 started to andto buildupinthemaincourse spillover. Some till July9 during thatperiodto anearby village.OnJuly7 destroyed. Themainfl ow cameduringthenightofJuly9 channel onJune14 water“The slowly started to fl ow continuouslyover thestream ofMastuj,UpperChitral) (Chenar village,North when eightdays ofdiscontinuousheavy rainfell from June30 were“We readyto take ourgoatsupto thehigherpastures Gurin Gole,ShishiKoh valley, Lower Chitral) Jan, Rashidullah,KhanZarinandGhulamJafar, Gurinvillage, valley.” continued until9pm.Somebigstones arestill stuck inside the and itbecameabiglake anddestroyed awater mill.Thefl ood the mountains.[…]Thefl ood blocked theriver for 10 minutes (Narrated by Islamuddin,AzizUrahman,GulMuhammad th 1978. We ouranimalsandfamily members shifted th 2005.[…]OnJuly9 th even morehouseswere th at9pmthewater th , theriver th ”. th

23 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN the high pasture had seen a huge hole/cave formed in the and fl ash fl oods, and these often destroy the little agricultural soil beneath the glacier from which the water came.” (Group land there is. discussion, Resettlement area close to Brep, Upper Chitral) Local communities have a lot of experience of where fl oods Spring snow melt occur and which areas are fl ood prone (experiential knowledge). Local stories highlight the different types of fl ash fl oods in the “It was a very nice and sunny day around June/July in the high region. Some fl ash fl oods are triggered by cloud outbursts; mountain. I was herding some goats. The weather was very others by glacial outburst or the snow melting in spring. Flash hot. I was staying close to a stream and I started to see the fl ow fl oods in Chitral have become part of people’s lives: “When growing more and more. No glacier or lake is up there. I was the rainy season comes, people are mentally prepared.” too high to give any signal that a fl ood was coming.” (Narrated (Workshop participant, Chitral Town, October 2006); “it’s a by Zerbali Khan, an old herder, Harchin, Upper Chitral) continuous process” (Qazi Said Ahmad, Ashret village), and The deep narrow valleys and glaciated mountain ranges of Chitral District were surely the most effi cient ramparts against invaders. But today the associated dynamic geomorphological and climatic processes are probably the major enemies for the growing population. Shrubs mostly with very few trees grow in this arid and steep landscape. Barely 3.5% of the Chitral area is suitable for farming (Khattak 1999). Cultivation is almost entirely limited to active alluvial fans which are transformed into oases when people construct irrigation channels. These rainfed, irrigated lands are very fertile because of the constant deposition of eroded sediment. Farmers grow cereals, fruit trees, and some vegetables mainly for subsistence purposes,

using buffaloes to plough the land. However, the oases are Mats Eriksson often temporary. Any intense and prolonged rainfall, especially Figure 4: Irrigated land (left) with clear demarcation of the vegetation due to the irrigation channels (centre left), and non-irrigated land during the months from June to August, induces debris fl ow (right) in Morilasht region, Upper Chitral.

24 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? district, the story ofthelast fldistrict, thestory ood indicates how aslow glacial ofthe part arealocated inthenorthern for dry instance,avery fromaccumulate; afew varying days to afew InBrep, hours. inthetimetaken differences forthere areimportant a fl ood to precise date andtimewhenaflood occurred.Stories show that they have they witnessed.Often, canrecallspontaneouslythe village). Informants have goodmemoriesoftheevents very whatever happens large areasofagriculturallandinJuly2006Brep,Upper Chitral. Figure 5:Aglaciallyderived debrisfl of previous fl oods on livelihoods andproperty. factors inthelocality, locationofprevious fl oods, andimpacts levels, changeinwater levels, typesofflash fl ood andtriggering show how localknowledge provides insightinto previous water lake release took outburst aboutthree weeks. Localstories Part 3–TheCase Study “life goeson” ow destroyed 106 housesand (Munawar Khan,Baradam

Arun B. Shrestha

Julie Dekens village, ShishiKoh Valley, Lower Chitral,inJuly2006. Valley, Garachashma, ChitralDistrict) away allthehouseswith it.” many other people. In July1978, thestream fl ooded andtook attention to theelder’s suggestion. Hebuiltahouseandsodid path’ (oghthanzhaghono rakhchur). Butmy father didnot pay back in1905. Theoldsaying isthat:‘water never forgets its (‘shotar bokhtu’)becausetheBegushtRiver usedto flow there based ontheargumentthatsite hadlots ofriver bedrocks not site. to Thesuggestion buildahouseonthatparticular was cametoOne ofthevillageelders himandsuggested to him “In 1961, my fatherdecidedto buildahouseinthevillage. Interpreting the landscape ofcultivableFigure 6:Destruction landby afl (AmirHazar, Izhvillage,Lotkoh ash fl ood inGurin

25 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN “The ruler took our land in Buni [local town, Upper Chitral] of past fl ash fl oods in the landscape and can interpret these and gave us this land. When we moved here, the villagers of signs from their knowledge and previous experience of fl ash Chenar told my husband about the fl ood that had occurred in fl oods. Large rocks are a major indicator of past fl ash fl oods. the village 100 years ago. Big rocks were deposited. In 1978, Some people can recognise the location of past water stream/ the stream took a new path. The whole village was destroyed fl oods by interpreting the shape, location, and nature of slopes, but nobody died.” (Chenar Village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral) rocks, geology, and morphology.

Not only do past hazards leave psychological traces in people’s memories, often also they leave traces on the physical Life histories landscape. As such, the landscape becomes a precious source of Forgotten experiences information of what happened in the past; a physical repository “We didn’t know the fl ood was coming because it was our fi rst of past events. Some people understand environmental signs experience!” But one man remembers: “Such a fl ood happened during our grandparents’ time but we never expected such an event.” (Group discussion, Brep, Upper Chitral)

“After that major fl ood in 1978 we began to run out of our houses as soon as it was raining but now we have stopped doing that.” (Chenar village, Upper Chitral)

Most people have scant knowledge of fl oods they learn about second hand, especially if they happened before they were born, if oral tradition is weak, and if knowledge is not transmitted frequently enough. Stories demonstrate how, in some cases, prior fl ash fl oods have been forgotten because fl ash fl oods of great magnitude do not occur frequently enough Mats Eriksson Figure 7: Man sitting on rocks deposited by a fl ash fl ood on the in one place (i.e., more than once in a generation) for villagers road from Chitral towards the Lawari Pass, Lower Chitral. Notice the to remember them (from one generation to another) and for wooden log also deposited by the fl ood (centre).

26 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? we couldeasily seekrefugeontheother sideofthe river. to beanadvantage because in caseafl ash fl ood happened today ‘OshulDeh’ anddividedthelandamongthem.Itused dugirrigationchannels inwhatiscalled great-grandfathers “Some peopleherehave land onboth sidesoftheriver! Our Buni) Mohammed andSardar Azam,villagebetween Mastujand their land.Sotoday thosepeoplearemorevulnerable.” fl oods, becausetheformer localrulerofChitraltook someof side oftheriver, themost vulnerableto landslidesandfl ash to theother side.However, afew familiesonlyhave landonone from temporarily water areabletowho suffer shift shortages advantage because inwinter peoplelivingcloseto theglacier have builthousesonboth sidesoftheriver; andthisisagreat started to occupy thisareaaswell. Sincethen,most people built water channels ontheother sideoftheriver andpeople people hadaccessto drinkingwater there.ThentheBritish “Initially ourvillagewas located below theglacierbecause fl Evolution ofvulnerabilitiestofl This shows how frequency offl ash fl oods infl uences people’s this to infl uence theirdecision-makingregarding settlement. is probably more‘porous’ thanexperiential knowledge. capacity to rememberhazards andhow transmitted knowledge Part 3–TheCase Study oods ash (Dost

Mats Eriksson 2006 destroyedwhich 106 housesintheoriginalvillageBrepJuly Figure 8:Woman the fl livinginaresettlementareaafter vulnerability to fl ash fl oods. Landscarcity andwater access political factors have played amajorrole inchanging people’s illustrate how environmental, demographic, andhistorical/ people’s vulnerabilityto flash fl oods. For instance,somestories and infl uencing andre-enforcing infl eachother) often uences A combinationofexternal factors (actingsimultaneously, ornot, Reshun, UpperChitral) not ourown houseanymore.” our relatives. We canstill fallback onourrelatives butitis Nowadays, theland isbeingmoreanddividedamong (Panan DehandOsheelDeh, ash fl ood

27 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN often compel people to stay close to the streams and glaciers resettlement during the times of former local rulers, or currently (environmental factors). With the growing population, land following construction of infrastructure (e.g., hydropower fragmentation reduces people’s options and their fl exibility to stations), are common in the region. Life stories can provide choose safe locations and to resettle during the rainy season useful information about local perceptions about fl oods and (demographic factors). In some cases, people used to live in changes in people’s physical and social vulnerability to fl oods. safe places but the local rulers confi scated their land.2 They This information can help to identify vulnerable groups and were resettled in a vulnerable place and/or they simply lost individuals that might otherwise be ‘invisible’.

part of the land upon which they used to fall back during the 2 Land confiscation happened for various reasons (inefficiency of services at the household rainy season (historical and political factors). Stories about land level, intrigues with the neighbours, politics, intrigues with the court, religious factors) – Prof. Faizi, Chitral College

Box 1: Did you ask? Observation and experience of flash floods

History of fl oods – What do people know about the history Evolution of physical and social vulnerabilities – What is of floods in their locality – e.g., when and where did the people’s understanding of their own vulnerability (e.g., in last flood occur? What was the water level of the last flood? pre-disaster situations) and of the factors that influence How many people died? What damage was caused by it? Are they living in a more vulnerable house now than the flood? How do people understand and interpret the before? Why? What happened? Do people have different situation or the landscape using their knowledge and/or priorities than they had before and how does this influence previous experience of floods? their vulnerability to natural hazards? To what extent are people able to identify the problems and to what extent are Nature of fl oods – What do people know about the nature they able to solve them on their own initiative? How does of floods in their locality – e.g., onset, origin, velocity, types disaster change, increase, and/or create new vulnerable of rain, etc? groups (i.e., emerging vulnerability or vulnerable groups)? Interpreting the landscape – How do people understand What other natural hazards and stresses do the community and interpret the situation and the landscape from their face and how does this influence local knowledge on knowledge and/or previous experience of flash floods? disaster preparedness?

28 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? advice and support withinthecommunity.advice andsupport knowledge ofsafe settlementareas andfrom whomto seek for moving outandhigherup,for instance.People alsohave and to identifytimethresholdsfor saving key belongingsand notches in the cliffs havenotches and marks beencloselyobserved inthecliffs the hillsandrays ofthesun comingoutearlierthrough the rainy season.Inamountainous country, thesunrisesover work. Experienceenabled peopleto receive guidanceeven in crops andotherin connectionwiththecultivation ofdifferent their dailylives. […]Thesun’sjourney […]hasalso beenmarked provided longobservation, visualguidancetoafter themin and thestars. Thepaceofthemovements ofthesebodies, the movements ofastronomical bodieslike the sun,themoon, peopleofChitralhave“The asmattering of knowledge about for fl Forecast andearlywarning signals P Anticipating FlashFloods Chapter 4 Part 3–TheCase Study ash fl They alsomanageto make basicemergencyplans interpreting warning signalsinthelocalenvironment. eople manageto anticipate flash fl and oods by observing oods Gurin village, Gurin Gole,Shishikoh valley, Lower Chitral) Muhammad Jan,Rashidullah, KhanZarinandGhulamJafar, come down to thevillages.” was goingto happenbecause mountaingoatsnormallydon’t unusual apparitionofwildlife gave usasignal thatsomething the avalanche, amountaingoatwent down to thevillage.This ago, asnow years avalanche“Forty affected ourvillage.Before Gurin Gole,Shishikoh valley, Lower Chitral) Jan, Rashidullah,KhanZarinandGhulamJafar, Gurinvillage, away to safety.” We understood thatabigfl […] ood was comingandwe ran and we fallingandrolling heard down. thenoiseofboulders above usinthe mountains.Somedust to was alsostarting rise saw“We black clouds,lightning,andhugethunderstorms 1996, Rahmatis aneminentlocalpoet) orwet arealsomade.” seasons willbedry astronomical bodies,predictions aboutwhether thecoming hisab’, ‘thepeasants’account.From thesemovements of of farmwork according to thesecalculationsiscalled‘dehqan made to record theadvance ofaseason.[…]Thescheduling (Islamuddin, AzizUrahman,GulMuhammad (Islamuddin, AzizUrahman, Gul (Akbar KhanRahmat

29 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN “The whole valley started shaking like it does during an number of men working outside the village is increasing (see earthquake before the fl ood came.” (Islamuddin, Aziz Urahman, Chapter 6, section on local early warning systems in 2006). Gul Muhammad Jan, Rashidullah, Khan Zarin and Ghulam Jafar, Gurin village, Gurin Gole, Shishi koh valley, Lower Chitral) Time thresholds and emergency “People know when it will rain. They look at the direction of the measures wind.” (Qazi Said Ahmad, Ashret village, Lower Chitral) “Since this event, when it rains heavily we know we have to get ready to run away with our luggage. Most of us have a bag “We also knew that the fl ood was coming because of the typical prepared with clothes and shoes. We have already shifted smell.” (Old lady, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral) all our important documents to safer places” (i.e., relatives’ places). (Abdullah Khan Shakir, Shainigar village, Drosh) People can identify and monitor natural phenomena related to fl ash fl oods such as the colour of the clouds, intensity of “Now every time it rains we move out of our houses!” (Imam of rainfall, unusual sounds, and changes in water fl ow. As such, the village, Isfangol village, Upper Chitral) they have some level of hydrological and meteorological knowledge. Some people are able to identify the unusual “When it rains heavily we climb higher up because we know movements and appearance of wildlife (ants, birds, rats and that a fl ood will occur.” (Elder, Panan Deh, Reshun Gole, Upper mice). Long observation of the sun, the moon, and the stars Chitral) used to help people make decisions about farming activities (Rahmat 1996). Overall, few people die in fl ash fl oods because “If it is raining heavily at night we stay awake.” (Shapir Khan they have learned from experience to identify and interpret and Muhammad Yousaf, Panan Deh, Reshun, Upper Chitral) environmental warning signs and signals of fl ash fl oods. However property, agricultural fi elds and irrigation channels, “After that event, we began to sleep with our shoes on during are damaged often. (“The danger from fl ash fl oods is not so the rainy season.” (Old lady, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper much to life as it is to livelihoods”; “Protecting the land, more Chitral) than life itself, is the big issue.” Workshop participants, Chitral Town, November 2006) Today, this ability to observe and Flash fl oods are very challenging because they occur, by monitor environmental signals is weakening partly because the defi nition, very rapidly and do not leave much time for

30 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Chitral) stones may falldown.” We don’tbuildhousesintheway offloods andinplaceswhere take“We two thingsinto account whenwe buildourhouses. Safe placesfor buildinghouses away from thehouseasafl ash fl ood was comingbutthen, For instance,amaninterviewed describedhow hiswife ran rationality islimitedtotheirown information andbeliefs. that peoplehave boundedrationality;thatis,people’s torecognise sense’ or‘universal knowledge’, itisimportant mightseemlike ofthesesimplestrategies ‘common most sleeping withshoeson,andhaving a‘go-bag’ready. especially atnight,runninghigherupandstaying awake or relatives moving orwithneighbours, physically to safer places saving administrative andother papers belongingswiththeir before orduringheavy therainy rainfall suchas seasonstarts crucial. Householdsadoptafew strategies simple short-term environmental signalsandthe occurrence of floods istherefore ofkeypreparedness. Useofthetimebetween theobservation practices for instance. common sensedependingonreligiousandculturalbeliefs and risingmightnotwhen thewater always starts beaccepted as illustrates Thisstory thepointthat‘runningaway’than arisk. flthe ood; seeingherreturnto getitasaprotection factor rather Her husbandlikes to believe thattheveil saved hiswife from her veil. Shewas thentrappedinthehouse,butdidnot die. seeing many peopleonthestreet, decidedto gobackto get Part 3–TheCase Study (Elder, Krakal village,Kalash Valley, Although participant) “Houses arebuiltin the wrong places!” village, Lower Chitral) “Our homesnever get washed away!” Chenar village,Chitral) what canwe do?We don’thave another placeto live.” fl ood event A mighthappen againbut “I don’tfeel safe here. somewhere else.” wholeareaisfl“The costlyood prone, to but itisvery buyland Ghulam Jafar, Gurinvillage,Shishikoh Valley, Lower Chitral) Urahman, GulMuhammadJan,Rashidullah,KhanZarin and year thefl ood didnot destroy any houses.” houses higheruponthemountainslopeinsafer places.This fl major ood, accessto water improved andwe rebuiltour place becausenowater was available that higherup.After the village.At thattime,ourhouseswere located inavulnerable “Twenty agoamajorfl years ood washed away allthe housesin Humanitarian Assistance,Chitral) DisasterManager inCommunity-based RiskReduction, Focus river beddueto lack ofland.” with theincreaseinpopulation,peoplearelivingcloserto the not allowed to buildsettlements closeto theriver. Butnow, the locationofsettlements inhazardous places.They were Valley,“In theParsan peopleusedto have strict rulesto prevent (Shainigarvillage,Drosh, Lower Chitral) (Syed HarirShah, Programme (Qazi SaidAhmad,Ashret (Islamuddin, Aziz (Workshop (Lady,

31 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Mats Eriksson Figure 9: The physical geography of Chitral District does not, in general, provide many safe places to live. The mountain slopes often consist of steep, barren land unsuitable for settlement. The river plains are exposed to recurrent fl oods making them equally unsuitable for settlement. The only land left is on the numerous alluvial fans occurring at the mouths of stream gorges, or valleys, descending from the high mountains. Often, living on these alluvial fans is connected with a high level of risk, since they are exposed to recurrent fl ash fl oods and debris fl ows. In fact, alluvial fans are formed from such events. Hence, people are often in a situation in which they have to fi nd the least vulnerable spot within the alluvial fans. In general, such places are at the sides or at the very edges of the fan.

32 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? away from debrisfl ows, fl ash fl regions isfor peopleto locate theirhousesinsafeoods, andsnow places, avalanches. fi steprst The towards disaster preparednessinmountain of factors: includingenvironmental (avoiding areasprone to Generally, the locationofhousesdependsonacombination fl ows arereduced. centre asthechanceof fl oodsandthevelocity ofwater/debris alluvial fans aresafer thanthose located onthetop andinthe pressure. Houseslocated atthebottom andonthesidesof risky) alluvialfans dueto lackofavailable landandpopulation settlements arealsolocated onactive (andtherefore very suitable landfor agriculture.However, many new, dispersed access) not only to besafe from fl oods butalsoto save the slopes (butstillrelatively closeto theriver bedsfor water built inclusters andslightlyhighuponexcavated mountain is formed by progressive streamerosion. Othersettlements are safer thanonmorerecentalluvialfans becauseadeepchannel coming from themountains.Insuchcases,settlementsmay be fans thathave beenprogressively by amajorstream cutoff possible. Somehousesarebuiltonrelatively ancientalluvial minimise risksby choosingthelesshazardous placeswhenever tobe borneby thelocals.Inmostcases,peoplecanonlytry for settlement,andthisinvolves additional coststhathave to irrigation channelshave to bebuiltto make thelandsuitable the river channeltakes upthewholevalley. Most ofthetime, Settlement optionssafe from fl oods arefew. In many places, Part 3–TheCase Study

Mats Eriksson location ofhouseshasimproved over timebecause water has Interviews reveal, placesthe for instance,thatincertain codes –orlackof!),and historical (e.g.,land requisition). of previous fl oods), political(e.g.,landregulationandbuilding rules,nomemory population), institutional(e.g., customary and onone’sfather’s land),demographic(e.g.,increaseof getting landfrom relatives, willingnessto live closeto relatives (e.g., landfragmentationbecauseofdivisionamong the sons, build theirhousescloseto theriver bed),socioeconomic irrigation water; equally, lackofwater forces often peopleto fl ash fl oods andchoosingareaswithaccess to drinkingand Figure 10: Buildingslocatedontopofanalluvialfan,UpperChitral

33 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN been made available in safer areas and people have learned previously?)3. Schools are built by the government but the land from previous experience of a fl ood (e.g., Gurin village, Shishi is generally donated by the local communities so the worst land koh Valley). Elsewhere households newly affected by fl oods and is often provided because of the pressure on land and lack of with prior experience of them are rebuilding their houses in the suitable areas for cultivation and settlement. Members of local same area or very close to the damaged area because of lack on-government organisations are convinced that “communities of assets/options and because of people’s desire to remain need to be made aware of natural hazards again”. close to their relatives – and this trend is common in the region (e.g., Chenar village, Mastuj area). Critical actors and skills An apparent contradiction transpires from the last two quotations Religious leaders and elders in terms of whether or not houses are built in safe places. This “Local religious leaders and other pious people used to predict apparent contradiction refl ects the current changes that are disasters and in many places it was true.” (Group discussion, happening in the district. “We have lost the local knowledge. workshop on local knowledge, Chitral Town, October 2006) Houses are now being built in vulnerable places”, comments Professor Faizi of Chitral College. Some settlements, including “In ancient times, we used to get advice on where to build newly-constructed public schools, are even located at the new houses from two or three elders in the village, but now hydrographic apex of active alluvial fans, the most vulnerable we make decisions at the household level.” (Elder, Panan Deh, area. The district currently lacks statistical data and analysis Reshun Gole, Upper Chitral) to validate fi eld observations and community perceptions on this topic properly. Different forces are also interacting at the “In the past the ladies were the custodians of local knowledge. same time, and this makes the situation quite complex. On The women used to memorise all the traditional things the one hand, the increasing population means that access because they were stuck at home and because they were to safe places is decreasing. On the other, access to drinking also the direct target of natural hazards. They had to be at the and irrigation water has also probably increased, especially forefront of natural hazards because they were sometimes on following interventions by non-government organisations in the 80s. New land has been cleared for new houses and people 3 According to Prof. Faizi, Chitral College, the Methar system (the last ruling dynasty of have been able to settle down in new places (maybe safer than Chitral as an independent state until 1892, Ali and Khawaja 2004) was more efficient than the current one, for example it had a better way of constructing water channels.

34 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? group discussion,Chenarvillage,Mastuj,UpperChitral) witnessed theprevious flood –convinced usto leave.” of thevillageattime– aforester, whose grandfather had ladies were“The not readyto leave theirhousesbutthehead and skills Key othersocial actors artisans, leaders, their own andthey hadto fi nd ways to copewiththehazards. Risk Reduction, Focus HumanitarianAssistance,Chitral) Shah, Programme Managerfor Disaster Community-based howvillagers to plantheirnext year‘s harvest the traditionalknowledge heusedto inform thefamilyand seasons andtheapplicationoftraditionalwisdomwere among ofprevious astrological andobservations observation, beliefs, hydrological forecasts, for instance, regarding pests. Solar watershed etc. Heknew how to make meteorological and ofreforestation,day-to-day importance anduseof affairs, severity, philosophy ofworking together, riskreductionin crop protection, water season‘s management,theforthcoming “My grandpapawas well aware abouttheharvesting season, (Professor Faizi, ChitralCollege) the onesresponsiblefor crop managementandharvests.” are moreknowledgeable thanthewomen becausethey are Inthecaseofweather forecasts oldmen to naturaldisasters. womenAged arekey informants for localknowledge related Part 3–TheCase Study .” (Syed Harir (Women’s 4 ones.” their ancestral professions withoutbeingableto adopt better aregivingup in thefamiliesoftraditionalcraftsmen/women unemployed youth instead ofskilledpeople.New generations nopurpose.Theresultisthat oursociety hasproducedserve direction. Itproduces peoplewithcertificates anddegreesthat The educationpolicythatreplacedtheoldsystem hasno iron, wood, andskinwere themainsourceofsubsistence. ofwool, clay, skills.Chitralihandicrafts training indifferent “In thetraditionalsociety ofChitral,youngsters were given Chenar village,Mastuj,UpperChitral) a littlebitmorethanbefore.” because they travel morethanwomen. But women travel now “Men know stories offl oods thathappenedinnearby villages Chitral) Reshun whoknow.” like thisone,butthereareoneortwo localcarpenters from “Nobody inthevillage,knows how to buildatraditionalhouse (Durdana Khan,anoldretiredherder, Harchin village) size andshapeofhornsyou needto know how to whistle.” “Not everybody canmake andusea‘booq’. A horn made out of a yak or local goat horns used by herders asacommunicationtool madeoutofa yakorlocalgoathorns Ahorn and sometimestogive signalsaboutimminentdanger. (NWFPandIUCN-Pakistan 1999) (Elder, PananDeh,Reshun Gole,Upper (Women’s group discussion, 4 You needtheright

35 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Different people in the same community have different types are trusted by the community and their advice is followed. of knowledge. People’s status within the community also This means that people manage to anticipate fl oods because gives their knowledge different values and meaning. Some of their trust in local advice and predictions (e.g., elders, local people are more knowledgeable about natural hazards than religious leaders, and other pious people). However, changes others because of their profession, their age, their status, in the education system and the fact that the decision-making their family history, their skills, and/or specifi c gifts etc. Some process is now based mostly at the individual and household people, because of their specifi c skills and ability to ‘read’ the levels result in the weakening of traditional knowledge and landscape, the sky, and other elements of the environment skills.

Box 2: Did you ask? Anticipating fl ash fl oods

Early warning signals – How can local people manage to about to happen? Where will people go? Why are people anticipate and identify environmental warning signals of building houses in vulnerable places? Is it because of a flash floods? What do people observe, hear, and sense lack of knowledge and/or a lack of options? What main before a flash flood happens? Do people have traditional/ obstacles are people facing in trying to build their houses local weather forecast systems? How do people know that in safe places? it is time to leave their house? Critical actors and skills – Who is doing what within the Time thresholds and emergency measures – When do community? Who holds or owns the relevant knowledge people know that it is time to leave their houses and move about floods? Who has specific skills that can directly or on to higher ground? What should they take with them? indirectly contribute to improved disaster preparedness? How can these skills be nurtured? Escape routes and safe house locations – How are communities and households preparing for a flood that is

36 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Valley, Lower Chitral WoodenFigure 11: food intheKalash store villageofJaoGuru,Birir stores, terraces to reducedamageto housesfrom falling rocks, S Hazards Adapting toFlashFloodsandOther Chapter 5 Part 3–TheCase Study Technical strategies includetheconstructionoffood various technical andnon-structural measures. trategies for adaptingto fl ash fl oods inChitralinclude

Mats Eriksson and economicresilience. per se.Nevertheless,alladjustment mechanismsaddto social cope withmany kindsofstressandnot only flood preparedness non-structural strategies have beenestablishedfor peopleto is especiallytruefor long-term adjustments.Infact mostofthe ofpeople’s culture andday-to-daythey becomepart life. This Indeed, over timepeopletend to internalise theirpractices; and against naturalhazards, not many elements cometo mind. asked directlywhatthey are doing to improve theirpreparedness previous mistakes andcommunityinitiatives. Whenpeopleare resource managementregulations,andtheabilityto learnfrom and economicdiversifi cation mechanisms,traditionalnatural risk ofnaturalhazards assetsthrough amongdifferent spatial on strong family andsocialnetworks, theabilityto spreadthe resistant structures.Non-structuralstrategies especially rely retaining walls for flood protection, andtraditionalearthquake-

37 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Technical and structural strategies never happened before!” (Narrated by Aziz Urahman, Gurin village, Gurin Gole, Shishi Koh valley, Lower Chitral) Food stores, terraces, and retaining walls “The fl ood took place on July 14th 2006 from 4 pm to 9 pm. “Through our work with communities here in Chitral we have […] It destroyed all our fi elds but our houses were safe and so seen cases in which people built terraces at the back of their were our grain stores kept inside the houses. We can store up housing plots to reduce damage from rock fall on their houses.” to two to three months of grain but the quantity depends on (Syed Harir Shah, Programme Manager for Community-based how much land each person has and on the time of the year. Disaster Risk Reduction, Focus Humanitarian Assistance, We also have houses in the pastures with food stores (butter Chitral) especially) but the fl ood washed away three of those. It had “Before, the community used to construct protection walls but now it is too costly so we rely on the government.” (Abdullah Khan Shakir, Drosh, Lower Chitral)

“In the old days there was no system of preparedness in place to ensure food supplies for the inhabitants during the 6-month winter period. The people themselves ensured they had enough essential commodities for the block period. Even today, local people, the business community, and the local government arrange essential commodities and wheat for six months in summer in preparation for winter, and the business community as well as the households stock their daily needs for a four to fi ve month period to overcome the season’s harshness. People still use indigenous wisdom to harvest seasonal crops Mats Eriksson Figure 12: Retaining walls along a stream in Birir village (Kalash) according to the changing climatic situation, and they know fi nanced by an external organisation using local materials. Traditional how to protect their crops, plants, and livestock from the harsh fl ood-protection walls are made out of stone and wood. But nowadays, in many places, wood is becoming very expensive, or is weather conditions. A very famous saying is: “if you are not even unavailable because of excessive deforestation. caring for yourself, who will care for you” (Thansoro key khiyal

38 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Lower Chitral.The fl TraditionalFigure 13: Kalash houses,Krakalvillage,Bumburet Valley, houses aremany“There rich peopleherebutthey don’tbuildtraditional – Kalash areanethnicminorityinLower Chitral) (Kalash elder, Krakal village,BumburetValley, Lower Chitral we“If anearthquakealways starts, runinto ourhouses!” Traditional houses earthquake-resistant Humanitarian Assistance,Chitral) Manager for Disaster Community-based RiskReduction, Focus no arrow, ka takhiyalkoy Part 3–TheCase Study .” (Reshun, UpperChitral) at roof also serves asanoutdoor livingspace. at roofalsoserves ).” (Syed HarirShah,Programme

Mats Eriksson openings/windows, andcorrugated thenew roofs. Certainly modern trendsfavour houseswithseparate rooms, larger including thesocialstatusattachedto modernbuildings trends anymore either–for reasonsother than fi nancial ones, expensive. Richhouseholdsdonot always follow thetraditional of theother housesaremadeofmudbrick,becausewood is anymore andinstead have to usemorestones andclay. Most 20 bigtrees.Thepooresthouseholdscannot afford wood deforestation. Atraditionalhousemightrequire about10 to access to wood isbecomingmoreanddiffi cult dueto because thesestructuresdonot have any wood. Butnowadays, walls alongtheroadside aredamagedby bigearthquakes thatonlythecattleshedsand The Kalash elderreports of stone, mud,andclay withthickwooden logs(25inches). from theentrance.Thewalls aremade in lightandairapart smoke outofthecentral fi replace istheonlyopeningbringing layers. Dueto thecoldclimate, aholeintheroof to letthe 5 wooden pillars single room withoutwindows ( of wood, stones, andclay. Atraditionalhouseconsistsofa resistantduetoare earthquake asophisticated combination West FrontierChitral andtheNorth Province (NWFP)ingeneral, about them.Traditional housesintheKalash valleys, andin andmanyearthquakes smallones,butthey arenot too worried Most Kalash have elders witnessed atleastoneortwo major Thefivewoodenpillarsare foundinmosttraditionalChitralihousesandhaveaspecial Fatima, Asan,andHussain. (Group discussion,Brep resettlement area,UpperChitral) meaning intheIsmailireligion.Eachpillar symbolisesaprophet: Mohammed,Ali, 5 support afl support at roof madeofstone andmud baipash ) andaveranda. Five . The

39 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN style provides a healthier environment because it has better of controversy regarding the roots of the problem and how to ventilation than the traditional style and the materials used are tackle it. Some people perceive traditional (wooden) houses as less prone to fi re, but the structure is not as energy effi cient not being ‘environmentally friendly’ because they take a lot of and earthquake resistant as the traditional structure. The wood to construct. Others perceive that the forest policy is not decreasing use of traditional houses is also related to the adequate and does not allow people to manage the forests in lack of labour due to the increasing number of men seeking a sustainable manner – this is discussed below in the section jobs outside their villages. Building traditional houses is on ‘natural resource management’. extremely labour intensive and requires specifi c skills. Overall the changes in house construction raise an interesting point Non-structural strategies Social capital “We help each other. We are people descended from one ancestor here. We are one people. It’s natural to help each other.” (Qazi Said Ahmad, village leader, Ashret village, Chitral)

“The villagers from higher up used to warn us and we used to spend nights outside in this other village. The people of this village used to help us to save our belongings. They help us a lot!” (Aged woman, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral)

“Now we are building a new house here [on the fringe of the last debris fl ow]. We don’t have any other options. We are Mats Eriksson Figure 14: Kalash girl in front of a traditional Kalash house, Bumburet not going to the resettlement area because our relatives live Valley, Lower Chitral. Traditional houses are stronger because they here and we still have a small plot of land. Whether or not the are made out of a sophisticated combination of wood, stones, and clay. But nowadays, access to wood is becoming more and more resettlement area is safer from fl oods, our relatives are here diffi cult due to deforestation – especially for the poorest households so it is more convenient for us to live close to them. We can’t who cannot afford to buy it. leave this place because it is our family land. No one can leave their ancestral land!” (Woman, Brep, Upper Chitral)

40 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Gole, UpperChitral) three monthsduringthesummer.” (both menandwomen)household members go therefor two to inthevillagehaslandpastures andsome “Everybody Diversifi affected by floods stillprefer to resettleinthesamevulnerable future hazards. Despite knowing aboutthedanger, somepeople contributes to underestimationordisregard ofthepossibility Moreover, astrong senseofplaceandfamily tiessometimes the villagesto earn cash,therefore increasingindividualism. of threatmay weaken to work outside asmenarestarting of helplessness.However, thissenseofsolidarityintheface networks orsystems which helpreducetheirsense support Households have strong family/lineage/clan tiesandsocial go backto theirparents’homesduringthe fl ood season. insurance before, fl during,andafter oods. Somewomen also Relatives provide andneighbours socialandpsychological Chenar village,Mastuj,UpperChitral) to live withmy relatives thanto live inasafer place.” inmy land andIamcomfortable own area.Itismoreimportant could Iwould not leave thisplacebecauseIamattached to this lost“We seven fi elds inthelast majorfl ood in1978. Even ifI area to maintain,andstillbenefi t from, family support. Part 3–TheCase Study cation strategies (Elder, PananDeh,Reshun (Women, forced upon the farmers andthusthetraditionalcultivationforced uponthefarmers rotation ofcrops was abandonedandtheone-crop system was not beincreased ineitherquantity orquality. For example, the “ Chitral) migration.” “No oneleaves thevillagepermanently. Itisonlyseasonal Koh Valley, Lower Chitral) Rashidullah, Kahn Zarin,GhulamJafar, Gurinvillage,Shishi possible.” [that hadjustbeendamagedby the fl ood] on ouragriculturalland.We to willstart cultivate thisland work isnot easyto get outside.Sowe dependent arestill very diffi cult becausewe have lessandwood available and to themarket for 100 Pakistani rupeesperkilogramme. Itis the cities.They alsocuttreesinthemountainsandsellwood “People now have grain from thewarehouses andgoto work in Deh, Reshun Gole,UpperChitral) pastures, butthere arealsoriskshigherup.” “All ourlivestock (goats,sheep,andcows) aretaken upto the Upper Chitral) rainy season.” “It issafer to keep thelivestock upinthepastures duringthe Due to lack ofmanagement,the cultivated areainChitralcould (Islamuddin,AzizUrahman,GulMuhammadJan, (Qazi SaidAhmad,villageleader, Ashretvillage, (Women’s group discussion,Chenarvillage, againassoon (Elder, Panan

41 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN system of growing maize, barley, millet, and pulses was diversifi cation) allowing people to take advantage of the abandoned. As a result an amount of 60 million is annually ecological niches, depending on seasonal climatic changes spent on food subsidies for the district from the national by moving livestock between different grazing lands (using exchequer”. (NWFP and IUCN-Pakistan 1999) the fast-growing and nutritious higher altitude plants, while the sites at lower elevation rest or are used for cropping and Pastures, agricultural land, and houses – three (gendered) vice versa). However, generally, this resource optimisation habited worlds wherein herders/nomads, men, and women are strategy also increases some risks. In the transfer of livestock, at the heart of a complex agropastoral system, a combination the herds and fl ocks and herders are at risk from avalanches, of irrigated cultivation and animal husbandry. Livelihood storms, blizzards, landslides, and so on – more so than they diversifi cation has been a key coping mechanism for facing the would have been had they stayed put. In fact, blizzards in late harsh environmental conditions (including physical isolation spring and early fall have probably caused more deaths and and natural hazards) and economic hardship. Chitral remains damage to transhumance fl ocks and livestock than any other closed to the rest of Pakistan for about six months of the year natural hazard (Personal conversation, Dr. James Gardner). during the winter because of snow, which can be several metres’ This means that transhumance might be a useful strategy for deep (and temperatures can reach minus 15 degrees Celsius). spreading the risk of possible death of livestock in fl ash fl oods Certain strategies spread the risks of fl ash fl oods among but on an ad hoc basis only. people’s physical and economic assets, allowing the system to maintain a level of fl exibility and to bounce back in the face In some areas, the animal sheds are located away from the of change in general (and natural hazards in particular). Long- houses (horizontal spatial diversifi cation). Indirectly this can term strategies include vertical transhumance and economic contribute to spreading the risk of physical damage from fl ash diversifi cation, but also the separation of houses from animal fl oods over a geographical area. However, the practice is very sheds, and landholdings dispersed over a wide area. All four context-specifi c and varies from place to place depending, for aspects may contribute towards disaster preparedness in instance, on political/religious, economic (labour effi ciency), certain contexts and indirectly only: apart from transhumance, institutional (access to user rights), and climatic factors and they are not common practices in the region. illustrating the complexity of the system. For instance, in some places, it is a new trend infl uenced by religious, political factors. Transhumance can be described as a resource optimisation The religious leader of the Ismaili Muslims recommended to its strategy between the lowland and the pastures (vertical spatial followers, mainly located in Upper Chitral, that they separate

42 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? especially atnight.(Personal communication, Farid Ahmad) sheds closeto theirhousesto beableto watch theircalves, conditions duringwinter, somepeoplemay want to buildtheir his shedoutsideofthevillage. Finally, due to climatic theharsh for hiscattle.Avillagerwithnouserrightsiscompelled to build congested villages,specific routes areassignedto eachvillager to them.Inthecaseof the shedscaneasilybetransported whereas shedsarebuiltcloseto the fields sothatmanurefrom for doingsovary. Insomecases,housesarebuiltonslopes, Chitral, separatingshedsfrom housesisnot new, butreasons their shedsfrom theirhouses for hygienic purposes.InLower Chitral District YoungFigure 15: herderbringingafl Part 3–TheCase Study ock of goats to the pastures, ofgoatstothepastures, ock

Mats Eriksson deforestation. This isbecauseofthelack ofjobsandleadsto increased livelihood diversifi cation process includesthesaleofwood. In Chitral,asinmany other placesinthe Himalayas, the not alldiversification strategies areappropriate orsustainable. diversifi Obviously intertwined. cation mechanismsareoften their villagespermanently).Inthatsense,spatialandeconomic outside(onereason why peopledonot leaveopportunities still centralto people’slivelihoods becauseofthelackjob livelihoods through remittances,theagropastoral system is although morepeoplethanbefore arediversifying their selling wood andgettingjobsoutside the village.Today, diversification). Mostrelyonsubsistence agriculture,livestock, People sources relyondifferent ofincome(economic specifi c. spreading strategy againstnaturalhazards isquite context- theabilityto landholdings asarisk-Again, relyondispersed people’s/family’s pastrelationshipswiththeformer rulers. In other landholdingsmay cases,dispersed alsodependon cases, onlytherichestpeoplehave landholdings. dispersed many peopledonot have landholdings.Inmost dispersed still fall backonother fi eldslocated somewhere else.However, landholdings. Ifafl ood damagesonefi eld, thelandowner can A third strategy for spreadingrisksisto relyondispersed

43 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Natural resource management lack of education are big problems.” (Qazi Said Ahmad, village Access to landownership leader, Ashret village, Lower Chitral)

“We are not homeless. Everybody has a piece of land. We “The government destroyed the forest higher up and to hide inherited our land from our ancestors.” (Qazi Said Ahmad, the degradation they set the forest on fi re. This is why we had village leader, Ashret village, Lower Chitral) this big fl ood recently.” (Villagers, Lower Chitral)

“One hundred and three households lost some land and 57 “The community ban cutting down trees and pulling shrubs to households lost everything due to the fl ood. Eighteen families reduce the fl oods. If we do cut trees and pull out shrubs we are are now living in the resettlement area [land provided by the fi ned. I know many people who have been fi ned. People report government]. The others are living on their relatives’ land. Now whenever they see somebody cutting down trees. Now we have we don’t want anything from the government. We only want the to buy fi rewood from lower down in Chitral.” (Dost Mohammed land that is around our houses and drinking water.” (The land and Sardar Azam, village between Mastuj and Buni, Upper around the resettlement area is owned by the Government.) Chitral) (Group discussion, Brep, Upper Chitral) “In Garumsheshma [local place] the community imposed a “Our land is more fertile now! Most of the damaged fi elds from ban on cutting down trees at a specifi c time of the year.” (Syed the last 1978 fl ood are now cultivable and very fertile.” (Aged Harir Shah, Programme Manager in Community-based Disaster women, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral) Risk Reduction, Focus Humanitarian Assistance, Chitral)

Community regulations on grazing and deforestation “In order to prevent furrows (small gullies) being formed, “People here have too many goats! To stop the fl oods people need communities used to ban the practice of dragging wood to stop the goats from grazing and to start forest regeneration. down the slopes. Gullies may aggravate fl ash fl oods in case of I have witnessed lots of changes in the forest cover over time extreme rainfall events. This type of ban reduced the impact and many timber mafi as are working here. Rich people hire of fl oods but had a big impact on people’s livelihoods because contractors to cut down trees for sale in Chitral. People are they were left with no alternatives. Now this practice is being overgrazing their herds and cutting down trees because they revived in some places due to deforestation problems.” (Aziz do not have other means of livelihood. Unemployment and Ali, District Manager, IUCN-Pakistan Chitral Unit)

44 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? forests. Nowadays, theseinformal community rulesallowing for have strong rulesto securethesustainableuseofpasturesand fewas very jobsareto be found outside.Communitiesusedto meansofsubsistence, as agricultureisstilltheirmost important important Most peopleinChitralDistrict own land.Thisisvery 1999) IUCN-Pakistan formedof gullyingalongthetracks by thedraggedlogs.(NWFP and practice hasbeenbannedinordertoreducesoilerosionas aresult they havethe hillsidesafter This beencutinhighaltitudeforests. activityisthepracticeofdragginglogsdownperiod. Onesuch rangelandfor aparticular of undesirableactivitiesonaparticular localityorbansonanumber as bansoncuttingwood inacertain verbal laying codeofconduct(‘dastoor’) down various principles such Chitral town. Traditional resourcemanagementincludeda forest Figure 16: Tracks causedby draggingwood ondenudedhillsaround Part 3–TheCase Study

Arun B. Shrestha it to buildembankments.Writing these letters iswhat we are “Now we are alsowritingletters to the government requesting external help Community initiatives andattitudestowards Lower Chitral) in caseofacrisis(saving money).” or socialorganisationto which everybody could contribute flthe ooddon’tcometogether. Now we arethinkingofavillage it away. Thepeoplewhohave not hadanything damaged by just rented itoutfor afew days whentheflood cameand washed instance andhad boughtahouseonloan,didalltherepairs, arenow“Some villagers completely indebted. Thismanfor discussion, resettlementarea,Brep,UpperChitral) store for grain,andanimalshedsinsafer places.” government banks.Now we arethinkingofbuildingacommon should bestored insafe places.Ourmoney shouldbein slopes. Ourhousesshouldhave fewer rooms. Ourvaluables have“We learnednow thatwe shouldbuildourhouseson Learning fromprevious mistakes Other attitudestowards fl Pakistan 1999) are alsonow beingrevivedareas.(NWFPandIUCN- incertain nationalisation offorest resources in1975, butsomeofthem the sustainableuseofforests have eroded becauseofthe ash fl (Shainigar village,Drosh, oods (Group

45 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN doing to prepare ourselves because we are expecting fl oods started to organise themselves at the community level; for every year.” (Abdullah Khan Shakir, Shainigar village, Drosh) instance, to request external help from the government and “Before, people were solely dependent on their own resources. non-government organisations. Some attitudes seem to But now their mindset is different. People are becoming indicate an increasing dependence on external help. The last dependent on the government.” (Prof. Faizi, Chitral College) quote illustrates how political and religious factors can come into play in infl uencing people’s vulnerability to fl oods. The “We managed to arrange four million Pakistani rupees from villagers’ complaint reveals that local political and religious the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme to construct retention powers can inhibit community initiatives and institutional cross- walls against recurrent fl oods, but the local mullahs (religious scale linkages. This example also reveals how religious beliefs, and political leaders) prevented us from having any kind of and in this case the division between the Ismaili Muslims in arrangement with Aga Khan Rrural Support Programme. Lower Chitral and the Sunni Muslims in Upper Chitral, can We received threats that we were engaging in anti-Pakistani infl uence local practices in disaster preparedness. The Ismaili actions and we fear that whenever we make a request for Muslims believe that the Aga Khan, the founder of the Aga Khan action we may be arrested.” (Villagers group discussion, Lower Foundation, is their religious leader. Therefore, some religious/ Chitral) political Sunni Muslim leaders refuse any intervention from the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, which is linked to the Aga Other general attitudes towards fl ash fl oods reveal that some Khan Foundation as a way of denying or opposing the Ismaili people manage to learn from previous mistakes and have Muslims.

46 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Part 3–TheCase Study villagers bestusethemfor disasterpreparedness? (e.g., family, social,professional,political)andhow canthe relatives located?Whatnetworks arepeopleembeddedin households’ socialnetwork looklike? Wherearetheir their relativesand neighbours like? Whatdoesa Social capital adopting earthquake-safe practices? changes inthepoliciessupportorpreventpeople from and land)policiesinfluencinglocalpractices?How can on localknowledgeandpractices?Howarecurrent (forest forces, includingnaturalresourcepolicies,haveanimpact not buildingtraditionalhousesanymore?Howdoexternal houses andwhichonesarenot?Whythosehouseholds sustainable? Whichhouseholdsarebuildingtraditional intensive)? Howcantraditionalstructuresbemade more labour reduce thesustainabilityofsuchbuildings(e.g.,very resistant thannewones?Whataretheelementsthat elements thatmake traditionalbuildingsmoreearthquake learned fromtraditionalhousingstructures?Whatarethe Traditional houses earthquake-resistant doing atthecommunityleveltocontrolstream? food store? food? For howmanydaysormonthscantheyrelyonthe When dotheystartstoringfood?Where?Whatkindof season? Dotheyhavespecificfoodstoragetechniques? are communitiesandhouseholdspreparingfortherainy Technical –Food strategies andstructural storage Terraces walls andretaining – What arepeople’srelationships with Box 3:Didyou tonaturalhazards ask?Strategies ofadaptation : whatarepeople : whatcanbe : how local knowledgeandpractices ondisasterpreparedness? Islamic beliefsysteminfluence, promote,and/orhinder not beenlivingintheregion forsolong?Howdoesthe practices indisasterpreparedness thanpeoplewhohave time (e.g.,theKalash)have differentknowledgeaboutand longperiodof Do peoplewhohavebeen settledforavery practices indisasterpreparednessthanIsmailiMuslims? do SunniMuslimshavedifferentknowledgeabout and in disasterpreparedness?For example,inthiscase study, background influencelocalknowledgeaboutandpractices class, caste,physicalability, andethnicity]religious the context(e.g.,historical,sociocultural[age,gender, people havelearnedfrompreviousfloodevents?How does attitudes towardsflashfloods?Whataretheindicators that Other attitudestowards fl equitable? floods? Whatarethelocaladjustmentstrategies?Arethey ownership disputesarisefromlossoflandduetoflash and entrepreneurialattitudesorbackgrounds?Doland arrangements business? Dotheyhavemicro-finance What backgroundandmindsetdopeoplehaveregarding activities? Dotheyalsorelyoncash-income in differentlocations?Dotheyhavelivelihood (physical, economic,social)?Dotheyhavelandholdings spread theimpactsofflashfloodsamongtheirresources management Diversifi andnaturalresources cation strategies – How do communities and households try to How docommunitiesandhouseholdstry ah fl ash oods – What arepeople’s

47 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN 48 events, including flood events, areembeddedinindividualand assimilation. Inmany societieswithoraltraditions,past G NaturalHazards Communicating About Chapter 6 means andto consideritpossible inthefuture. and therefore itisdiffi cult for themto whatit fullyunderstand The younger generation may not have faced amajor fl ood, turn abstractevents into somethingmorevividandconcrete. and convincing manner. Local songsandproverbs alsohelpto events butalsohelpthemto convey messagesinanattractive songs, andproverbs not onlyhelppeopleto rememberpast ecosystem management.Worshipping ceremonies,storytelling, intotransformation practicalresource ofsocialmemory and 2002; Berkes 1999) have shown how ritualsandtabooarethe studies inanthropology andhumanecology(e.g.,Folke etal. generations) andinspace(from placeto place).Various asawayserve ofcommunicatingintime(between different worshipping activities,ceremonies, andrituals.Theseactivities throughcollective storytelling, songs,poems,proverbs, memory Part 3–TheCase Study knowledge from generationisdifferent knowledge is understood, memorised,andused.Inother words, enerating knowledge doesnot meanthatknowledge “Knowledge generationinitselfwillnot besuffi cient for buildingadaptive capacityinsocial-ecologicalsystems.” Gurin village,ShishiKoh Valley, Lower Chitral) Gul MuhammadJan,Rashidullah, Kahn Zarin,GhulamJafar, was higherthanthe previous ones.” happened inthepast. say Theelders thatthepast 2006fl ood keep repeatingstories related to thebiggerfl oods thathave year whenever“Every asmallfl inthevillage elders ood occurs, Muhammad Siyar Khan, Brepvillage,UpperChitral) and knew thatsomething was goingto happen.” that thenightbefore thefl ood, they heard amysterious noise to time.In2005,aflood washed away 103 houses.Peoplesay streams would bewashed away by floods inturnandfrom time ofthevillagewhichpredicted were underthree thatthreeparts used to live inBrepvillageUpper Chitral.Theholyman “An oldstory says thatareligiousleadercalledMetar Qalandar andfamilies elders, leaders, Stories fromlocalreligious (Islamuddin, AzizUrahman, (Folke etal.2002) (Narrated by

49 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN “One hundred years ago a similar fl ood event to the one in Proverbs, songs, and traditions 1978 took place. Our grandparents used to tell us about it! (Local Everybody knows about it in the village. After what happened “The fl ood comes the way it has come in the past.” proverb narrated by Dr. Inyatullah Faizi, Chitral College) in 1978, we have told our kids that whenever there is heavy rain they have to escape.” (Woman, Chenar village, Mastuj, Upper Chitral – the 1978 fl ood is very much alive in every day “A river always remembers its way.” (Local proverb narrated by discussions. Dr. Inyatullah Faizi, Chitral College)

“We used to have a song related to the fl ood that took place 100 years ago. It described how the fl ood destroyed the beautiful land of the village. Nobody remembers it now.” (Elder, Panan Deh, Reshun gole, Upper Chitral)

“Folk songs and stories are less documented here than in the rest of Pakistan because of the lack of political backing and the diversity of local languages.” (Prof. Faizi, Chitral College)

“‘Lavak natek’ is part of an important Kalash festival held in December called ‘chitermas’. Men and boys go down the mountains shouting and making a noise. If they see a fox, it is a sign of a good year. During that time, women watch the Mats Eriksson Figure 17: Elder wearing traditional Chitrali cap, Reshun village, scene from the village.” (Kalash elder, Birir village, Birir Valley, Upper Chitral. Asking people, and especially elders, to tell stories Lower Chitral) about what happened during major natural hazards they experienced or that they heard of from other people who witnessed hazards is an effi cient way of collecting information related to local knowledge on “When it rains a lot or when it does not rain at all, Kalash men, disaster preparedness – especially in cross-cultural contexts. In many including young boys, go up to the mountain to sacrifi ce a cases, it takes time for people to tell stories. It is therefore more goat.” (Kalash elder, Birir village, Birir Valley, Lower Chitral) effi cient to visit people more than once to gain their confi dence and revive their memories.

50 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? people’s daily practices and beliefs overpeople’s dailypracticesandbeliefs generations. been deeplyinternalisedinto knowledge, because ithasoften the sameproblemsoflegitimacy inacommunityasexperiential fl witnessed generations, includingtheyoungest generationwhomay nothave knowledge allows for thetransfer ofknowledge between different poems,songs,andreligiouspractices). Transmittedas stories, knowledge (knowledge things gainedthroughtransmissioninsuch (knowledge gainedthroughone’sexperience) andtransmitted Local knowledge isalways amixturebetween experiential knowledge BumburetValley, Kalash elder and child, Figure 18: Lower Chitral. Part 3–TheCase Study ood hazards.Transmitted knowledge doesnotsuffer

Mats Eriksson shouting) and act as cathartic eventsshouting) and actascathartic for thewholecommunity. through symbolicactions (e.g.,runningdown from thehillsand Collective ceremonies may simulate elements ofnaturaldisasters generation. the oldergenerationmightnot feel relevant to theyounger with theincreasingrate ofchange,whatiscommunicated by illustrated by thelossofsonginReshun Gole.Further, time, especiallyifsomethinghappenedalongtime ago,as However, ofprior fl social memory ood disasters isfading over repositories ofcollective communityandfamily memories. to other generations(transmitted knowledge). They actasreal do ornot to do(rules)andthey helpto passontheinformation to rememberingpast events inthecommunity aswell aswhatto and family stories, songs,proverbs, andceremonies contribute folk isshort: warning signsthrough symbols).Humanmemory elements aboutthem(e.g.,references to hazards or hazard may not beentirelydedicated to hazards butmay incorporate flood, andsoon.Folk stories, songs,proverbs, andceremonies they occurred,whatwas thelevel ofthewater duringthelast they ofprevious know thehistory disasters, whenandwhere from previous experience how to readenvironmental signals; songs. Therole iscrucialassomehave oftheelders learned hazard events through localandfamily stories, proverbs, and in thecommunitytransmittheirexperience ofpastnatural other key knowledge (e.g.,localreligiousleaders) carriers and shareinformation aboutthem,mainlyorally. and Elders At villageandhouseholdlevels, peoplelearnabout flash fl oods

51 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Ceremonies, such as the ‘lavak natek’ in the Kalash community, This example demonstrates how local beliefs and practices are a symbolic means of dealing with anxiety. This festival can can have both positive and negative effects in terms of disaster be interpreted as a collective forecasting ceremony; a way of preparedness. helping the community overcome the anxieties associated with future uncertainties (including uncertainties about the weather and natural hazards). The ceremony helps to reduce stress and Traditional early warning systems the psychological distress associated with living with risks and Mirror and traditional fi re systems uncertainties. It is a means of incorporating these times of great (phumbarash) stress and loss into a community’s collective memory in such a “The mirror system was a visual signal system used before way that they are rendered more manageable on an individual the British period. Local people used the refl ection of the sun human scale. Such ceremonies permit the incorporation of on a mirror to convey warnings (including warnings of fl oods) hazards into daily life within the structure of people’s everyday to other people and villages.“ (Workshop participant, Chitral cultural construction of reality, and they can contribute to town, October 2006) the normalisation of natural hazards (Bankoff 2004). At the same time, some beliefs and related practices can also act “A local system of signalling by beacons is organised by the in a negative or dysfunctional way. For instance, the ritual of local inhabitants from the Baroghil Pass to Mastuj and from slaughtering goats to prevent fl oods in the Kalash communities the Dorah Pass to Chitral. They are prepared on war becoming may prevent the community from carrying out some essential imminent or if a serious fl ood is expected. The village nearest to tasks for fl ood preparedness. This ritual also confers on goats the beacon’s site is responsible for its preparation and lighting.” a cultural and symbolic value and function, but might place (British Military Report and Gazetter on Chitral 1928) limitations on having suffi cient food and a means of securing fi nances during and following hazard events. According to a “This system was used before the British period. Until the local saying, “the death of a Kalash is the Kalash destruction”; thirteen century, the fi re system was effi cient and quick. The which refers to the tradition of slaughtering the entire fl ock for system worked well in case of fl oods due to the breaking of ceremonial purposes when a Kalash person dies. Basically in lakes formed by the glacier tongue blocking the river (‘chatiboi’) the Kalash culture, goats are kept for ceremonial purposes but the system was not quick enough for fl ash fl oods triggered and are never sold (no economic value is attached to goats) by heavy rainfall. After the thirteenth century (when Islam (Personal communication, Mr. Aziz Ali).

52 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? fl ash fl oods to communitieslower down. They would shoutthe the rightmomentto communicate theimminentdangerof Sometimes happenedto theherders beattherightplace itself andhadstrong socioeconomictieswiththecommunity. reciprocity. Theherder usedto from thevillage beaperson months from June-August. Itwas acollective system based on charge oftakingthelivestock to thepastures duringtherainy “Each clanwithintheChitralDistrict usedto have aherder in (pazhal) Herder system 2006) (Personal communication,Prof. Faizi, ChitralTown, November fl ood warning).(including Thissystem isstill inusetoday.” the regulardailyprayer timesisusedasawarning system “Most villageshave amosque. Any callfor prayers outsideof Call for prayer (azan) system communication, Prof. Faizi, ChitralTown, November 2006) code system) introduced in1895 by theBritish.” [see below] defence (includingwarning signals):thecallfor prayer system parallel system andwas slowly replacedby other meansof came to theregion),thisvisualsignallingsystem becamea rzn ad hswy hycudas anec te.A grazing land. Thisway, they couldalsowarn each other. places inorder to spreadthefl ocks evenly ontheavailable would herders choosevillage ifpossible.Different different message to another herder inalower pasture orto thenearest Part 3–TheCase Study andlater onthewirelesswarning system (i.e., (Personal something in common: they areallset up onanadhocbasis These traditionalwarning systems ofimminenthazards have local knowledge, Chitral,October 2006) became avictimoftheflood.” and washed away fourwarning theothers people. Theperson people started collectingfuelwood ahighintensity fl ood came fi rst camewith moderate intensity. Thenthefl ood stopped. As “In thevillageofUchusht afl ood occurredin1993. Thefl ood Shainigar village,Drosh, Lower Chitral) shouting thatthefl ood was coming.” “People from villageshigherupwarned usby whistling and downstream andrunning Shouting, whistling, November 2006) fl of oods andavalanches.” would alsowarn ofthedangerpredators andofthedanger return ofthefl ock to thevillage.Insomecases,specifi c tunes should releasetheiranimals;another tune would indicate the ready to take thelivestock upto thepastures andthatvillagers tunecouldindicateFor instance, thattheherder acertain was to-village, andherder-to-herder conveying meanings. different Rhythms from valley andtuneswould vary to valley, village- like instrument madefrom thehornofayakorwildgoat. few ofthemalsoknew how to blow the‘booq’,atrumpet- (Personal conversation, Prof. Faizi, (Group discussion,Workshop on (Group discussion,

53 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN (not systematically) and they are all used indirectly as fl ood Local early warning systems in warning systems. For instance, the mirror and fi re systems were fi rst and foremost traditional ways of defence and the call 2006 for prayers is fi rst and foremost related to religious activities. “The old system is gone and the new system is not working!“ Thus, the traditional warning system was based on a diversity (Workshop participant, Chitral Town, November 2006) of strategies related to military, religious, and pastoral or herding activities. This combination of systems was probably a “The Reshun River in Reshun village is prone to recurrent weakness as well as a strength of the system. One advantage fl oods every year. On one sunny day, the stream started to fl ood is that the diversity of strategies using both visual (mirror high up on to the pasture. No one in the village lower down had and fi re systems) and audio (mosque and herders) means of any idea that a fl ood was coming except one of the villagers communication allows the system to be kept fl exible enough to who had taken the goats for grazing on the high pastures. adapt to a diversity of contexts. He warned the villagers lower down with his cordless phone. People were able to move to safe areas. Nobody died but the Different warning systems are required for different types of fl ood washed away people’s crops and property.” (Narrated by fl ash fl oods and for different types of environments. In some Sher Murad, Reshun village, Upper Chitral) places and contexts, one warning signal will work better than “Technology has taken over but not in Chitral!” (Workshop another according to the nature of the hazard, the distances participant, Chitral Town, November 2006) between the lower and high pastures and between villages, the shape of the valley, the density of the vegetation, the “There are still a few herders on the pastures but they are relationship, location, or distribution of other villages, day time vanishing. People lower down are not listening to them or night time, and so on. For example, many stories report how anymore. Youths go to school and men work at the market.” the herders were too far away from the villages to give the (Mr. Aziz Ali, District Manager, IUCN-Pakistan Chitral Unit IUCN warning and/or the event happened too quickly. The traditional Chitral) warning systems were also very well adapted to and in tune “The traditional early warning system was perfectly fi ne. The with the local sociocultural context ensuring some level of herders used to pass on the message to the communities. They acceptability and trust and cost effectiveness (e.g., use of the used to shout and it was very effi cient.” (Workshop participant, mosque). Chitral Town, November 2006)

54 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? the pastures dueto overgrazing by goats. Goatsareoften assume thattheherders contribute to thedegradationof places, peoplehireaherder for thewholevillage.Many people the livestock to thepasturesfor two to threemonths. Inother example, insomevillages,thepeoplethemselves accompany now varies from villageto villageandvalley to valley. For a householdbasisreplacedtheherder system. Thesituation Town). Progressively, arotational grazingsystem (‘sotseri’) on the communities ytm twsmr individualistic andbasedonlooseties with system, itwas more degradation ofthepastures. Compared to thetraditional Afghansystem“The was itself ahazard. Itcontributed to the Afghan refugeesprovided cheaplabourfor thistypeof job. IUCN-Chitral). Further, following theAfghanWar in1982-83, to work communication,AzizAli, inthepastures(personal (especially through government jobs)menhave lessincentive of cashmoney. Withtheincrease inincomediversifi cation of education,increasedaccessto markets, andintroduction have70s, new opportunities beenopeningupwiththespread shaping thecurrentchangesinacomplex manner. Sincethe illustrates how eachofthesefactors comeinto play andis of theherder system from the70sonwards, for example, perception factors andchanges.Theprogressive disappearance socioeconomic, geo-political,technological, land-use,and warning systems have disappeareddueto acombinationof in aninstitutionalvacuum. Mostofthetraditionalearly The districtisnow inatransitionperiod,leaving many villages fi quoterst The nicelysumsupthepresentdilemmainChitral. Part 3–TheCase Study ” (personal communication,Prof.” (personal Faizi, Chitral to areduction intheirfl exibility, adaptability, andcreativity technologies andexternal whichmay experts, becontributing are centralised.People arenow more dependentonexternal options hasbeenreplaced by technological solutionsthat signals. Thirdly, thediversity ofcommunicationstrategies and Chitral scoutsaremainlyableto releasepost-hazard warning reach allthevillages.Dueto therapidityof fl ash fl oods, the are onlyposted intheChitralandMastujareas.They donot of communicationusedtoday. Secondly, thescouts’sirens them. Shoutingandwhistlingisstillthemostcommon form from, thenew technologies andinformation delivered by household canhave benefi access to, ormoreimportantly t among householdsandvillagesbecausenot every villageand might even contribute to increasingsocioeconomicdisparity everybody canbenefi t from them.Theearlywarning systems they provide relatively rapidmeansofcommunication,not However, new technologies have limitations.Firstly, although Offi ce inLahorebasedondatafrom andsatellites. radars through theFloodForecasting DivisionoftheMeteorological telephones, andinformation delivered by thecentralgovernment The new earlywarning systems relyuponscouts’sirens, they relyuponexternal technology andhelp. willingness to take risks:they may take morerisksbecause resolve allissues.Ultimately, thisbeliefmay influence people’s common) perception orbeliefisthefaith intechnology to in many placesthereisaban ongoats.Another strong (and associated withdeforestation and increased fl ash fl oods and

55 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN to the development of dependency. People are becoming more dependent on the government; they do not fall back on the traditional systems anymore.

With the end of the traditional herder system, vertical communication (and also monitoring) between the high and low pastures and between the pastures and the villages has probably diminished as less information fl ows between them than heretofore. Further, livelihood diversifi cation through seeking employment outside the villages may also infl uence horizontal communication (e.g., possible changes in roles and/ or relationships between and within villages, between and within households, between men and women). On the one hand, men and women may be travelling more and may therefore be more exposed to other (fl ood) stories from which they can learn. On the other hand, men are away and less present to observe and monitor their local surroundings (while women are still mostly working inside the house). Overall, this subject, and especially Arun B. Shrestha Figure 19: Abandoned scout watching post (centre) above the the importance of the fi re system and of the herder system, is village of Drosh, Lower Chitral. The scouts in Pakistan are a different very controversial and no consensus exists among local people institution from the scouts in western countries. In Pakistan, they are about the relevance of the traditional warning systems. The a paramilitary force. Since 2004/5, all scouts’ watching posts have been closed down due to improvements in security in the district. various hypotheses raised here on the impacts of change show Today, the scouts are only based in Chitral and Mastuj (Upper Chitral). the complexity and the diversity of the situation. More research This centralisation of the scouts in the district also means that they is required to test these hypotheses. contribute more to relief aid and less to disaster preparedness.

56 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Part 3–TheCase Study their anxietyand/orincreaseaboutfuture hazards? what extentdolocalceremoniesandbeliefshelppeople toreduce help peopletoreducethestressrelatedfuturenatural hazards?To (i.e., betweeneldersandyoungsters)?Whatarethe strategiesthat versus women;leadersfollowers)andbetween generations among communitymembers(betweendifferentsocialgroups–men in thevillage?Howisknowledgeonnaturalhazardstransmitted local songs,proverbs,andpoemsrelatedtopastnaturalhazards knows aboutthesestoriesinthecommunity?Dopeopleknow What arethelocalstoriesaboutpreviousfloodexperiences?Who Box 4:Didyou ask?Communicatingaboutnaturalhazards

57 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN 58 Conclusion Part 4 Part

59 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN 60 1. Interpretation of their landscape and the indicators of oftheirlandscapeandthe indicators Interpretation 1. the following: fl vividinChitralinclude ood preparednessthatare particularly practices over generations.Localknowledge andpracticeson past andrecurrentflash fl oods, andtheinternalisation ofsome oftheirlocalsurroundings,daily observation experience of social, andpsychological impacts offl ash fl oods, basedon from fl ash fl oods aswell astheeconomic,environmental, The peopleofChitralhave been ableto reducehumanlosses Lessons learned T Discussion Chapter 7 villages. to documentlocalknowledge ondisaster preparednessin11 intheChitralDistrictofPakistan a casestudywas undertaken contexts inrelationto disaster preparedness.For thispurpose Part 4–Conclusion past fl past understand and identifylocalknowledge,understand practices,and and ideasto implementing organisationsto helpthem isto providehe generalpurposeofthisreport inspiration ash fl oods such as the past location of streams or location ofstreams as the past oods such 2. Identifi 4. Development of technical, structural, and non-structural Development andnon-structural structural, oftechnical, 4. Evaluation oftimethresholdsconcerningwhentorun 3. weather specifi predictionsandinterpretations, fl of but cancontribute toit.) preparedness atdisaster arenotdirectlytargeted which and thelocationofrocks fl and various livelihood diversifi use offorests, informal rulesforsystems, thesustainable todevelopinghouse construction socialsupport strong of rangefrom traditionaltechniques strategies (Such toaccommodatetheirlivesstrategies inthelongerterm sleeping withshoeson,orhaving a‘go-bag’ ready awake,measures duringtherainy asstaying seasonsuch andmoveout (orstay) key belongingsortake emergency appearance andmovement ofwildlife and sounds,locationtypesofrain,theunusual oods by lookingattheshapeandnatureofslopes ah fl ash cation andmonitoringofearlywarning signals indicators, oods basedonenvironmental cation strategies – most of –most cation strategies c smells

61 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN The potential applications of local knowledge for improved raised by the title of this report, if the herders of Chitral are disaster preparedness in Chitral could capitalise particularly the lost messengers of traditional and local knowledge, the on these four key elements. For example, this knowledge herder system of Chitral could well symbolise a lost linkage could help implementing organisations to improve their between the traditional and the new knowledge systems. The understanding of local and regional variability and specifi cities vanishing herder system is a symbol of the current changes associated with natural hazards, and local perceptions of and challenges facing communities in the District of Chitral natural hazards, and therefore people’s response to hazards. – as in many other places in the Himalayas. In Chitral, people’s It could also help implementing organisations to tailor their priorities, which used to revolve mainly around water harvesting, project activities, communication strategies, and policies to hunting, grazing land, and fodder, are changing. The herders local cultural perceptions, values and traditions, and strategies. used to provide early warnings of fl ash fl oods. It was one ad Further, local people can help external organisations to verify hoc, traditional early warning system among others. Nowadays, and improve their own information for hazard mapping and for the district is in a transition period: traditional strategies are the identifi cation of safe locations for construction of buildings, disappearing while new strategies are not yet in place or roads, tunnels, and so on. This kind of knowledge is often bought functional. A combination of factors (historical, environmental, expensively by trained scientists and engineers from outside. socioeconomic, demographic, institutional, technological, and But, as highlighted at the beginning of this report, disregarding political) infl uences communities’ knowledge and practices in local knowledge and advice may lead to important human and relation to natural hazard preparedness in a complex way. Some physical costs for external agencies. factors have contributed to a decrease in people’s vulnerability to natural hazards; others have contributed to an increase in their vulnerability. The vanishing herder system symbolises the Why the herder symbol? weakening of local/traditional knowledge and institutions due There are many challenges to the application of local knowledge to changes happening in the region at large and their impacts to disaster preparedness. One such challenge is the rapid on local knowledge. The vanishing herders, in particular, change occurring at the regional, national, and international mean that changes are occurring in the linkages between levels and infl uencing the relevance and sustainability of local the highlands and lowlands, between pastures and villages, knowledge and practices. In this context, some traditional between old and new generations, and between traditional and local practices are becoming obsolete and irrelevant. and new early warning systems for natural hazards. Can or For instance, and coming back to the original question should the herders try to continue to maintain those linkages?

62 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? based. Rather, local knowledge understanding andpractices local knowledge andpracticespersebecause thesearecontext ‘local goodpractices’,andtheemphasis was not ondescribing was not toThe goalofthisreport provide anexhaustive listof change Local knowledge asatool for the face ofthecurrentchanges? and practices.How canlocalknowledge bestrengthenedin external forces weaken and/orstrengthenlocalknowledge scales infl uence communitiesandviceversa), includinghow thecontexts(i.e., understanding andhow processes ondifferent knowledge, therefore, meanspaying attention to thecontexts knowledge ondisaster preparedness.Documentinglocal confl icts between laws, different andsoon)infl uence local regional context (e.g.,role offorest policy, laws, implementation, study illustrates theneedto how understand changesinthe system thatcanbeusedintoday’s context? TheChitralcase changing context; andyet, whatcanwe learnfrom theherder Probably not becauseitmightnot berelevant anymore inthe Part 4–Conclusion practice ororganisationalsectoral levels. the promotion ofchangeatthelevel ofindividualprofessional willcontributeothers (Visser2006).We to hopethatthisreport local knowledge isstillrelevant and canbedisseminated to oflocalknowledgeunderstanding canhelpto assesswhich imposed ondivergent culturesand societies hazards, humanvulnerabilityandpoverty cannot beuniformly to naturalhazards. […]Western conceptualisations ofnatural cultures perceive, interpretpeople ofdifferent andrespond been madeto achieve an accurate understanding ofhow 2006). AsHutton andHaque (2003)putit and integrate andbenefi the‘users ciaries’ into projects (Visser can helppeopleto adaptexternal knowledge to localcontexts practices, andcontexts canbecomeatool for change.Firstly, it accountingfor,Understanding, andrespectinglocalknowledge, traditional knowledge andthecreationofnew localknowledge. complex, always changingandoperatingbetween theloss of also symbolisesthenatureoflocalknowledge: itisdynamicand maintain sustainablelivelihoods. Assuch,theherder system manage to adapt,ornot, to acombinationofchangesto of knowledge creation,transmission,andhow communities pointto processes understanding should beusedasanentry : “Little effort has : “Littleeffort .” Secondly, an

63 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN Summary of the Key Findings OBSERVATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages History and • Experiential knowledge on different types of fl ash Instrumental • Detailed information related to the nature and history nature of fl ood and triggering factors, location of previous fl ash of fl ash fl oods in people’s localities based on past fl oods fl oods, previous water levels, change in water levels, experience, daily observation, and monitoring of the impact of previous fl ash fl oods on life and property, local surroundings etc. • This kind of knowledge is often bought expensively • Ability to interpret the landscape and indicators by trained scientists from outside. of past fl ash fl oods such as the location of past streams/fl oods by looking at the shape, location, and nature of the slopes, rocks, geology, morphology, etc. Life • Life stories explaining changes in people’s – • Information related to the perceived evolution of histories vulnerability to fl ash fl oods and the perceived factors people’s physical and social vulnerability to fl oods (e.g., environmental, demographic, historical and and the factors related to their vulnerability political) that have infl uenced them Weaknesses, obstacles, constraints Potential applications History and • Prior experience forgotten due to resettlement or • Better understanding of local variability/specifi cities and processes nature of frequency of natural hazards (e.g., important time differences regarding the onset of fl oods from a fl oods few days to a few hours) • Understanding of local perceptions of natural hazards • Ability to provide advice to local people and external people (including engineers) regarding safe locations, construction sites (buildings, roads etc.) • Information can be useful for hazard mapping, survey, and other inventories combined with conventional knowledge • Part of the process of data ‘triangulation’ Life • Complexity: various factors at play and/or acting • Understanding local perceptions of fl oods together with other stresses histories simultaneously or not • Understanding how people’s vulnerability to fl ood hazard is changing over time • Identifi cation of vulnerable groups/individuals

64 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Part 4–Conclusion skills Critical actorsand humans andcattle safe placesfor Escape routesand measures and emergency Time thresholds fl oods signals offl ash Early warning skills Critical actorsand humans andcattle safe placesfor Escape routesand measures and emergency Time thresholds fl oods signals offl ash Early warning x x x x x x x x x x of youngergenerationsdueto changeineducationsystem Loss oftraditionalknowledge and decreasingtrustonthepart pressure) changing factors/increasingpressures (e.g.,demographic Decreasing optionsforsafelocation ofhousesdueto believe nowthattheveilsavedher. coming. Shewastrappedinherhousebutdidnotdie.People go backtoherhousegetveilwhenthefl ash fl ood was information andbeliefs.Forinstance,awomandecidedto Bounded rationality:people’srationalityislimitedtotheirown Prior experienceforgotten village Less localmonitoringasmoremenareworkingoutsidethe elders, localreligiousandotherpiousleaders) Ability totrustlocalguides’adviceandpredictions(e.g., fastest escaperoutes,andwheretobuildhouses Knowledge ofwheretorun(orstay),arethesafestand Having ago-bagready belongings, stayawake,orsleepwithshoeson Knowledge ofwhentorun(orstay),movekey of rain,unusualappearanceandmovementswildlifeetc. interpretations/predictions, smells,sounds,locationandtypes fl ash fl oods basedonenvironmentalindicators,weather Ability toidentifyandinterpretearlywarningsignalsof ekess btce,cntansPotentialapplications Weaknesses, obstacles,constraints nweg,patcs eif Localfunctions Knowledge, practices,beliefs ANTICIPATION x x x x Psychological Instrumental Instrumental Instrumental Psychological Instrumental in schoolcurriculum Reviving theplaceoftraditional knowledgeandskills rationality’ Understanding andaccountingforpeople’s‘bounded sense’ starts risingforinstanceisnotalways‘common and commonsense:‘runningaway’whenthewater Recognise thedifferencesbetweenlocalknowledge information To combinewithother‘modern’techniquesand x x x x x x Trust, respect mainly affectpeople’sproperty Few peoplediefromfl oods. Floods Ability tosavelife Cost effective Trust Rapid assessment Strengths, opportunities advantages

65 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN ADAPTATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages Technical • Traditional earthquake resistant Instrumental • Earthquake resistant houses based on experience and structural structures • Use of local material (stones and wood) and local skills adaptations • Food storage • Food security • Terraces to reduce rock fall damage to houses • Retaining walls for fl ood protection Social capital • Ability to fi nd psychological, fi nancial Instrumental • Sense of shared community, cooperation, strong social and technical support from relatives and Psychological support networks/system neighbours Sociological • Reduce sense of people’s helplessness • Sense of place and family ties • Social and psychological assurance Diversifi cation • Transhumance Instrumental • Having assets located at different places (houses, livestock, strategies • Separated house and animal shed landholdings) contributes to spreading the risk of losing locations assets from natural hazards • Dispersed landholdings • Transfer of livestock from lower elevations to higher • Economic diversifi cation elevations allows people to take advantage of different ecological niches, enables the observation and monitoring of the pastures and sometimes avoids livestock being killed by fl oods lower down Natural • Access to land ownership Instrumental • Most people in the Chitral district have access to land resources • Community regulations on grazing and ownership and agriculture still constitutes most livelihoods management deforestation due to lack of jobs outside • Community used to have strong rules related to the sustainable use of the pastures and the forest. Some of them are now being revived in some areas. Attitudes • Learning from previous mistakes Psychological • Reduces sense of people’s helplessness • Community initiatives and attitudes • Helps people to give meaning to things that they cannot towards external help control and/or understand

66 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers? Part 4–Conclusion Adaptation cont...... adaptations Technical tiue Religiousbeliefscancontributetoinhibitingcommunityinitiatives andinstitutional • Attitudes management Natural resources strategies Diversifi cation Increaseofindividualismasmenarestartingtoworkoutsidethevillageand • Social capital Increasingdependence onexternalhelp,abilitytoblameandholdthegovernment • Informalcommunityrulesallowingforthesustainable useofpasturesandforests • Partofthelivelihooddiversifi• cation processincludessellingofwooddue tolackof Mainlyrichhouseholdshavedispersedlandholdings • Separatinghousesandanimalshedsisaverycontextspecifi• c practice Increasedriskofdeathduringtransferlivestockbynaturalhazards • Diversifi• cation strategiesmightbeusefulonanad-hocbasisonly Re-settlinginavulnerableareadespiteknowledgeofdangerbecausefamily • Dependenceonexternalfoodsubsidies? • Changeintrendsofhouseconstruction • Lackoflabourduetoincreasingnumbermenseekingjobsoutside • Lossoftraditionalskills • Labourintensivetechniques • Decreasingaccesstonatural(forest)andhumanresources • responsible fordisasters? denying oropposingtheIsmailiMuslims. Support Programme,whichislinkedtothe Aga KhanFoundationasawayof political SunniMuslimleadersrefuseanyinterventionfrom the Aga KhanRural of the Aga KhanFoundation,istheirreligiousleader. Therefore, somereligious/ cross-scale linkages. The IsmailiMuslimsbelievethatthe Aga Khan,thefounder have beenerodedduetothenationalisationofforestresources in1975 jobs whichleadstoincreaseddeforestation ties earn cash ekess btce,cntansPotentialapplications Weaknesses, obstacles,constraints Reinforcementofpeople’s self • Awareness raising amonglocal • Policyimplication/accesstoforest • confi dence limitations ofmodernhouses people abouttheweaknesses/ resources

67 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE PAKISTAN COMMUNICATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages Communicating • Stories from local religious leaders, elders and family • Instrumental • Local stories, songs, proverbs enable about past • Proverbs, songs and traditions • Psychological knowledge transfer among people in hazards the community and between different generations. • Ceremonies such as the lavak natek in the Kalash communities is a symbolic means for dealing with anxiety in the face of natural hazards and uncertainties Traditional early • Mirror and traditional fi re systems • Instrumental • Flexible and decentralised system well warning systems • Call for prayer system adapted to the context through use of a • Shepherd system diversity of strategies: different warning • Shouting, whistling, and running downstream systems are required for different types of fl ash fl oods and for different types of environments Weaknesses, obstacles, constraints Potential applications Communicating • Rate of change is increasing so what is communicated by • Better tailor government coping mechanisms and about past older generations may not be relevant in the new contexts communication with local cultural perceptions, values hazards • Beliefs also act in a negative or dysfunctional way. The and traditions and therefore increase trust with external ritual of slaughtering of goats to prevent fl oods in the Kalash organisations communities may prevent the community from carrying out • Better understand and respect and account for local some essential tasks for fl ood preparedness. This ritual also practices and believes confers to goats a cultural/symbolic values and function. This • Try to capitalise on cultural practices and values where might have limitations during and following any hazard event they are strengths and attempt to moderate them where to secure food and fi nancial requirements. they may be obstacles (Bankoff 2004) Traditional early • Systems set up on an ad hoc basis only and used indirectly • Evaluate the strengths of the traditional warning systems warning systems as fl ood warning systems and try to integrate those strengths with the new early • Most traditional early warning systems have now vanished warning system (e.g., fl exibility, adapted to diversity of mainly due to economic changes the physical environment, simple and trusted from the • Traditional early warning systems are becoming obsolete now community) due to the lack of people to carry out the messages because men are working outside the villages

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70 Herders of Chitral: The Lost Messengers?