Ploughshares Monitor AUTUMN 2012 | VOLUME 33 | ISSUE 3

An outdated model Arms race in space Halting gang violence Religion and conflict Canada needs to update Talks to prevent weapons Toronto program helps It is time for an Office procurement processes in space not gaining traction youth caught up in gangs of Religious Freedom

The Ploughshares Monitor AUTUMN 2012 | VOLUME 33 | ISSUE 3

‘For the sake of all humanity’

Arms Trade Treaty negotiations produced a meaningful draft text—now states must push to secure a treaty as soon as possible

by Kenneth Epps

TheA Ploughsharesquarterly publicationMonitor | Sum- of Project Ploughshares • Available online: www.ploughshares.ca 1 Contents

The Ploughshares Monitor Volume 33 | Issue 3

PROJECT PLOUGHSHARES STAFF Autumn 2012 John Siebert Executive Director Kenneth Epps Cesar Jaramillo Maribel Gonzales Anne Marie Kraemer Debbie Hughes Matthew Pupic ‘For the sake of all humanity’ Cover story Tasneem Jamal Wendy Stocker 3 With a draft text in hand, states must now push for a robust The Ploughshares Monitor is the quarterly journal of Project Ploughshares, the peace Arms Trade Treaty. centre of The Canadian Council of Churches. by Kenneth Epps Ploughshares works with churches, nongovernmental organizations and governments, in Canada and abroad, to advance policies and actions that prevent A lacklustre performance war and armed violence and build peace. Project Ploughshares is affiliated with 7 Canada lived up to low expectations at the ATT conference. the Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, by Kenneth Epps Conrad Grebel University College, University of Waterloo.

Office address: Project Ploughshares Beyond the Cold War 57 Erb Street West Canada’s procurement model is outdated, says a Canadian Waterloo, Ontario N2L 6C2 Canada 8 519-888-6541, fax: 519-888-0018 Forces Colonel. [email protected]; www.ploughshares.ca by John Siebert Project Ploughshares gratefully acknowledges the ongoing financial support of the many individuals, national churches and church Arms control beyond Earth? agencies, local congregations, religious orders and organizations across Canada that ensure Talks to curb an arms race in space are not gaining traction. that the work of Project Ploughshares 10 continues. by Cesar Jaramillo

We are particularly grateful to The Simons Foundation in Vancouver An idea whose time has come for its generous support. 14 The Harper government’s promised, but yet to be All donors of $50 or more receive opened, Office of Religious Freedom is welcome. a complimentary subscription to The Ploughshares Monitor. Annual by John Siebert subscription rates for libraries and institutions are: $30 in Canada; $30 (U.S.) in the United States; $35 (U.S.) internationally. Single copies are $5 plus shipping.

2012 Armed Conflicts Report: Summary Unless indicated otherwise, material may be 19 reproduced freely, provided the author and Two conflicts were added in the year of the Arab Spring. source are indicated and one copy is sent to Project Ploughshares. Return postage is guaranteed.

Publications Mail Registration No. 40065122. ISSN 1499-321X.

Breaking the cycle of gang violence The Ploughshares Monitor is indexed 20 A Toronto program aims to help youth caught up in gangs. in the Canadian Periodical Index. by Maribel Gonzales Photos of staff by Karl Griffiths-Fulton Printed at Waterloo Printing, Waterloo, Ontario. Printed with vegetable inks on paper with recycled content.

We acknowledge the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Canada Periodical Fund COVER: A campaigner from Control Arms demonstrates in front of the UN building at the of the Department of Canadian Heritage. start of the diplomatic conference on an Arms Trade Treaty in July. Andrew Kelly/Control Arms

‘For the sake of all humanity’ With a draft text in hand, states can now push to secure a strong and effective Arms Trade Treaty

By Kenneth Epps

“Our common goal is clear: a robust and legally binding arms trade treaty that will have a real impact on the lives of those millions of people suffering from the consequences of armed conflict, repression and armed violence. It is ambitious, but I believe it is achievable.” –United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon in an opening address to the UN Arms Trade Treaty conference, July 3, 2012.

he July conference to ne- been inevitable since December 2009 ABOVE: In July, fake gotiate a global Arms when, during the drafting of the UN tombstones are placed Trade Treaty (ATT) to General Assembly resolution to host the along the East River in New York by members better regulate interna- 2012 conference, the United States, as a of the Control Arms tional transfers of con- condition of participation, insisted that Coalition to coincide ventional weapons could be deemed a the conference reach agreement by the with Arms Trade Treaty T negotiations at the failure because it did not reach agreement. consensus of all UN member states. The United Nations. Many would argue that this result had condition was imposed to allow the Control Arms Photo

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 3 ARMS TRADE TREATY

United States to pull the conference tional weapons are governed by the treaty. plug—an option which at the last minute It also will determine national standards it exercised—but it was always possible and international regulations for arms that any state could have taken similar ac- transfers. To meet the humanitarian objec- tion. In other words, the conference fail- tives of the treaty, improvements in the ure was predictable. The outcome would text on both topics are required. At pres- not have surprised participants going into ent the draft text is weaker on the former. the conference. The draft currently covers the seven What did surprise participants was how major conventional weapons categories of close the conference appeared to come to the UN Register of Conventional Arms, a meaningful final agreement before the plus the additional category of small arms United States and a few other states called and light weapons (SALW). The inclusion

The draft is close to delivering a human security treaty. But the route to this end is less certain.

for extra time. Conference President Am- of SALW is essential to advancing human bassador Roberto Garcia Moritán of Ar- security; these weapons are most responsi- gentina introduced draft treaty text only ble for widespread armed violence. late in the conference, in part to avoid But important weapons categories are providing an early target for treaty “skep- missing from the list, most controversially, tics” such as Algeria, Egypt, Iran, and ammunition and weapons parts and com- North Korea. For many state proponents ponents. Prior to and during the confer- of a robust Arms Trade Treaty, as well as ence, the United States persistently for the international civil society coalition opposed the inclusion of ammunition Control Arms, the draft was flawed, but within the scope of the treaty, although certainly worthy of continued effort. A U.S. export controls cover ammunition. second iteration was on the table when U.S. influence on the draft text resulted in the conference ended. This draft was at- distinct export regulations for both am- tached to the final conference report by munition and weapons parts and compo- the President “under his own responsibil- nents that were weaker than provisions ity,” and is now a tangible conference for the major weapons categories. product to take forward. Latin American, Caribbean, and, espe- The draft text will be at the centre of cially, African states were vocal in their future treaty developments. In the next opposition to the separate ammunition few months civil society proponents of a provision. They argued that, without strong and effective treaty will seek to en- strong regulation of ammunition and mu- sure that the text meets the humanitarian nitions exports, they would continue to and human security goals for an ATT by experience prolonged warfare and armed securing limited but significant amend- violence. They justifiably argued that the ments. The draft is close to delivering a text should be amended to include ammu- human security treaty. But the route to nition and munitions as another category this end is less certain. in the equipment list. The ATT will establish which conven- Other important weapons categories,

4 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 ARMS TRADE TREATY

including military electronics, transport helicopters, and counterinsurgency air- craft, are omitted. There is no mechanism to expand the list to include evolving categories and new weapons such as drones. The draft refers to “the following categories at a minimum” to suggest the list is indicative rather than exclusive, but the text needs to be strengthened to support ongoing expansion of the weapons categories covered by the treaty. Crucially, the draft text makes risk assessment the core of a standard national process to authorize weapons exports. In particular, the draft requires a state to determine whether there is an “overriding” risk that an export could be used to com- mit or facilitate serious violations of international humanitarian law or international human rights law. If so, “the State Party shall not authorize the export.” Although it sets the bar for assess- ing risk too high (it should be based on substantial, rather than overriding, risk), this requirement is fundamental to an ATT that meets humanitarian goals and reinforces state responsibility to uphold international law. The draft text includes important risk assessment criteria long advocated by civil society. But some need to be more strongly worded. For example, states are only required to “consider taking feasible measures” to prevent the diversion of provements. As it stands, Article 3 of the arms to illicit markets. After such consid- draft, which deals with prohibited trans- eration, states could then take no action at fers, would weaken international humani- all and not be in violation of the treaty. tarian law. The draft currently prohibits The draft should be strengthened so that arms transfers “for the purpose of facili- any substantial risk would require preven- tating the commission of genocide” and tive action. Thus, if there is a substantial other grave breaches of the Geneva Con- risk that weapons will be diverted to illicit ventions. Since no state would declare ABOVE: Kenneth Epps, markets or for unauthorized end use, the such a purpose for weapons imports, the pictured here at the ATT negotiations at the exports must not be approved. draft needs to be amended to prohibit an United Nations in July, is To meet basic humanitarian and human arms transfer “where it would amount to a co-chair of the Control security objectives for the treaty, the draft aid or assistance in the commission of Arms Coalition Steering Board. text requires relatively few additional im- genocide.” Control Arms Photo

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 5 ARMS TRADE TREATY

The reporting and record-keeping pro- We are disappointed this process has visions found in the draft are fundamental not come to a successful conclusion to the transparency that is needed to en- today…. We are determined to secure sure that states fulfill treaty obligations. an Arms Trade Treaty as soon as possi- These provisions currently contain loop- ble. One that would bring about a safer holes that would excuse states from keep- world for the sake of all humanity. ing and reporting adequate national Kenneth Epps is Senior records. One provision, supported by States have begun debating the steps Program Canada, allows states to exclude data for needed to deliver a treaty result. In a press Officer with Project unrestricted “commercially sensitive” or statement released on July 27, only hours Ploughshares. “national security” reasons. As well, the after U.S. intervention ended the confer- draft does not oblige states to make na- ence, the U.S. State Department called for [email protected] tional reports public. These loopholes the conference to reconvene in 2013 on must be closed. Reporting and record- the basis of consensus. The conference keeping requirements in the draft should would begin where it left off this July, be tightened to ensure that states are held using the same rules and with a high risk to account for their implementation of of repeating the same inconclusive the treaty. process. India insisted that the draft include a Other states may use the momentum provision that legal experts have inter- from the conference to attach treaty text preted as capable of negating the treaty. It to a UN General Assembly resolution and states that the treaty cannot be used to vote before the end of this year. Yet, quite void “contractual obligations under de- apart from declared U.S. opposition to fence cooperation agreements.” This pro- UN activity that might overlap with the vision would seem to allow states to U.S. presidential election in November, it arrange future contractual obligations that is not apparent that a General Assembly would be exempt from treaty obligations. process could accommodate improve- If not cut entirely, this provision must be ments to the President’s draft text. amended to ensure that it does not pro- Civil society groups are calling for an vide a mechanism to bypass the treaty. improved treaty text to be adopted as soon as possible. There is strong interest Concluding a humanitarian treaty in achieving this by the end of 2012 Despite the failure of the July conference through the UN General Assembly. If a to conclude a treaty, the majority of par- stronger text can only be achieved ticipating states saw the President’s draft through a reconvened conference in 2013, text as very close to a meaningful treaty. then dropping the consensus requirement In the final conference intervention, 901 will be crucial. For those seeking a treaty states, including Canada, acknowledged that meets human security objectives, the this in a joint statement, which said in next few months will be as important as part: any that preceded them.

We came to New York a month ago to achieve a strong and robust Arms Note Trade Treaty. We had expected to adopt 1. If more time had been available, more states such a draft Treaty today. We believe we would have signed on to this statement. were very close to reaching our goals.

6 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 A lacklustre performance Canada’s input at the Arms Trade Treaty negotiations Kenneth Epps was at best unimpressive and at worst harmful

anada’s participation in the the import, export and transfer of curity, commercial confidentiality, or ATT conference could be conventional arms is in the interest personal privacy. Yet these are cate- Ccharitably described as lack- of both individual States and the gories open to state interpretation. lustre. Avoiding any sign of leader- broader international community” Citing national security, a state could ship, its performance during the (UNGA 2007). Its opening statement choose not to report weapons trans- conference was punctuated by occa- to the July treaty conference identi- ferred to its armed forces, for exam- sional interventions that in some in- fied core criteria “which would pro- ple. On the final day of negotiations stances moved negotiations hibit the transfer of weapons” Canada objected to the draft provi- backwards. (Canada 2012)—an important en- sion on brokering, offering alterna- No one had high expectations of dorsement of the principle that states tive text and, more disconcertingly, Canada in advance of the confer- must deny transfers that pose sub- threatening to invoke the treaty’s ence. Throughout the preparatory stantial risk of breaching interna- reservation provision if Canada’s text process Canada had taken a back tional law and norms. were not adopted. seat, participating consistently but But Canada also lost track of the Canada’s final intervention sup- never signaling interest in taking a global plot in its preoccupation with ported the U.S. call for more time. turn at the wheel. It was as though domestic concerns. Canada’s first for- This was a significant misreading of Canada had never recovered from a mal PrepCom statement in July 2011 the widespread consternation in the failed attempt to join the 2008 group provocatively called for the exclusion room following the U.S. statement. of governmental experts that pro- of shooting and hunting firearms Canada concluded the treaty con- duced the first UN report on the from the scope of the treaty—to ference on a more positive note. It ATT. Excluded from this early ATT strong opposition from many states. was one of 90 signatories of a state- activity, Canada found it easier to use A year later Canada dropped the ex- ment expressing disappointment with domestic budget cuts as an excuse to clusion call to propose preamble text the conference results and vowing to avoid action. In the first three weeks to recognize lawful weapons owner- secure a treaty as soon as possible. of Preparatory Committee (Prep- ship and the legitimate trade and use Com) meetings for the 2012 confer- of conventional arms for recreational ence, Canada did not submit a single and other activities. Some states ob- References written statement. jected to this preamble language, but Canada. 2012. Statement by Canada at On some treaty fundamentals it is included in the draft text. the Opening of the Arms Trade Treaty Diplo- Canada was a quiet member of the During negotiations following the matic Conference July 2012. United Nations “progressive” group of states. Its opening statement, Canada made a website. 2007 submission to the UN Secre- few verbal interventions that re- United Nations General Assembly. 2007. tary-General—a high point in Cana- peated points from the statement, in- Towards an arms trade treaty: establishing dian support for a strong cluding support for reporting common international standards for the im- treaty—stated, “Canada believes that provisions that could create loop- port, export and transfer of conventional a comprehensive legally binding in- holes in the treaty. Canada empha- arms: Report of the Secretary-General. ternational instrument establishing sized that the detail of state reports A/62/278 (Part II), August 17. common international standards for should not compromise national se-

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 7 Beyond the Cold War It’s time for Canadian military procurement processes John Siebert to be updated, argues a Canadian Forces Colonel

LEFT: Captain Pete Curtis, a pilot on HMCS Iroquois, observes the landing of the ship's CH124 Sea King helicopter during an exercise off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia. Jeff Neron/DND

ight now criticising Canadian ters is years behind schedule. federal books. military procurement prac- • Contracts for badly needed search- The whole procurement mess Rtices is a little too much like and-rescue planes have not been might even be comical, in a sad sort of shooting fish in a barrel. There are too signed. way, if the stakes weren’t so high. many targets too close together in a DND is the largest federal depart- confined space. If inclined you can The list goes on. ment, with the highest level of federal simply take a number, get in line, and In spring it was confirmed that the capital spending and the largest pool blast away: 20-year financial projections for the of federal capital assets. Canadian capital acquisition program in the Forces depend on their equipment to • The purchase of F-35 fighter jets 2008 Canada First Defence Strategy fulfil a wide array of missions with to replace aging CF-18s has gone (CFDS) was under review (Siebert minimal loss of life and injury. The off the rails. 2012; Robinson 2012). Too little types of missions assigned to Cana- • New surface ships and Arctic pa- money has been budgeted for too dian Forces by civilian governments, trol vessels for the Navy seemed to many projects. Adding embarrassment and how those missions are carried have a promising start in 2011, but to lost resources, in the first two years out, are determined in part by the the generals are complaining that covered by the CFDS, some of the equipment available for deployment. the shipyards haven’t started cut- funds allocated to the Department of As military procurement goes, so go ting steel yet and the Parliamentary National Defence (DND) for capital Canadian military capabilities. Budget Officer has decided to purchases could not be spent quickly Into this malaise an unusual sum- weigh in on costs. enough and lapsed. The 2008 eco- mer read, a 600+-page thesis by an ac- • The recent, last-minute false start nomic recession and slow recovery countant, provides a constructive for contracting to purchase new have strained public coffers and cuts respite. Arming Canada: Defence Pro- trucks for the Army has set that to the previously announced rate of curement for the 21st Century is an in- program back, again. growth of the DND budget are re- side job by not just any accountant. • Delivery of new Maritime helicop- quired through 2015 to balance the Colonel Ross Fetterly is Comptrol-

8 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 CANADIAN MILITARY PROCUREMENT

ler—Chief Military Personnel at Na- and Australia provides the small com- implementation details. tional Defence Headquarters in Ot- fort that comes with knowing that Fetterly makes a strong case for tawa. In 2011 he completed his tome Canada is not alone in this dilemma. radical procurement reform within the to fulfill requirements for his PhD at Potentially helpful innovations im- current Canadian strategic response to the Royal Military College of Canada. ported from the private sector are out- fragile and failed states. His work re- Despite all of the strictures that lined, such as supply chain reforms, veals a clear commitment to finding a would still apply to an active duty offi- new fleet management techniques, more responsible, cost-effective, ac- cer in the Canadian Forces, Col. Fet- and emerging concepts such as “evo- countable, and transparent way to terly lines up his criticisms with lutionary procurement” (getting the equip the Canadian Forces. But with- precision and makes a strong case for thing into service then “regularly field- out a structural change, military pro- a policy and organizational paradigm ing incremental threshold capabili- curement in Canada is destined to shift in military procurement. ties”). These would be part of a broad continue lurching from controversy to His basic argument is that Cana- package to transform the procure- controversy. dian military procurement processes ment and long-term management of A broader question remains unan- were set in amber during the Cold DND assets. swered: Are the correct strategic War. The security environment Fetterly concludes that such choices being made in when, where, changed after 1990, but procurement changes cannot be introduced piece- and how Canadian Forces are de- did not. meal into the inherently conservative ployed overseas? For example, over Static opposing East-West forces military environment without a game- the past decade Canada has virtually called for a certain military posture changing organizational gambit. After abandoned participation in United and the requisite equipment, which reviewing various options, he settles Nations-led peace operations in wore out rather than being used up or on the creation of a Crown Corpora- favour of United States-led coalitions destroyed in combat. Procurement tion established by the Government of choice. Procurement decisions are took a long time but was still relatively of Canada to amass sufficient expert- made within a strategic framework. timely. These “legacy platforms” have ise to competently manage military The best procurement process in the been maintained with increasingly ex- procurement over the long term. He world will not determine whether pensive upgrades. Post-Cold War the anticipates some of the arguments Canada actually needs the F-35 fighter demand—exemplified by the combat against this option and proposes ways jet to be interoperable with its military mission in Afghanistan—has been for to meet them by setting up the Crown partners, or whether alternative op- fast tempo expeditionary operations Corporation with proper lines of fis- tions would enable Canada to more in fragile and failed states, where cal and political accountability. effectively contribute to international equipment is used and used up more Grand change requires grand peace and security. quickly. This new security environ- leadership. A conservative organiza- ment requires more efficient and ef- tional culture in DND and the fective procurement processes that deeply entrenched political drive to References can accommodate constant techno- satisfy regional industrial interests in Fetterly, Ross. 2011. Arming Canada: logical change and interoperability military production and procure- Defence Procurement for the 21st Century. with allies. ment are only two of the forces that PhD thesis. Royal Military College of DND has tinkered with the Cold likely spell doom for Fetterly’s pro- Canada. War procurement model, but such in- posal. A glimmer of hope may exist Robinson, Bill. 2012. An analysis of cremental adaptations will never be in the current government’s willing- Canadian defence capital spending. The able to meet the challenges of the ness to provide political leadership Ploughshares Monitor. 33:2, pp. 16-21. 21st-century security environment. with long-term vision through the Siebert, John. 2012. Examining Fetterly’s extensive research on at- CFDS plan. As Fetterly argues, the Canada’s military budget. The Ploughshares tempted procurement reforms in the CFDS outlined a military procure- Monitor, 33:2, pp. 14-15. United States, the United Kingdom, ment plan for 20 years, but lacked

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 9 Arms control beyond Earth? Talks related to space weaponization and the prevention Cesar Jaramillo of an arms race in outer space are not gaining traction

forums, disparities among spacefaring nations in terms of space capabilities and vulnerabilities, and a discourse that portrays the relation- ship between efforts to address civil and military challenges to outer space as mutually exclusive—favouring the former and downplaying the impor- tance of the latter—have made arms control in space a rather unpopular proposition in current space policy discussions.

One domain, different challenges The growing tension between the he nature of outer space ac- While many space assets have concepts of outer space as a peaceful tivities has changed dramati- peaceful applications, some also sup- global commons and as a strategic Tcally in the more than five port military activities. Satellite-based military domain underscores the ur- decades since the dawn of the space applications such as reconnaissance, gent need for agreed-upon norms of age. The end of the Cold War, the intelligence, and surveillance are inte- behaviour that fully account for both emergence of a highly profitable gral to the military strategies of a aspects of space activity. There is space services industry, and a sharp growing number of states. Moreover, widespread agreement to pursue decrease in the financial and techno- ground-based anti-satellite weapons measures that minimize the likeli- logical barriers to entry have all con- (ASATs) have been tested; several hood of unintentional interference tributed to a dramatic increase in the communications satellites have been with space assets during normal op- number of actors with space-based deliberately jammed; missile defence erations. However, discussions re- assets and to the range of benefits systems have been used as ASATs, lated to space weaponization and the derived from space applications. and precursor technologies that prevention of an arms race in outer Hundreds of satellites provide social, would allow space-to-space offensive space have yet to gain traction. scientific, and economic benefits to capabilities continue to be developed. In the past decade, orbital debris hundreds of millions of individuals. Yet the prospects for an effective has damaged active satellites, nations From satellite navigation to weather arms control multilateral governance have conducted anti-satellite tests, forecasting, treaty verification to mechanism to protect the physical and satellites have accidentally col- news and entertainment broadcasts, and operational integrity of space as- lided with each other. In 2007 China international reliance on outer space sets from hostile action remain re- used a ground-based anti-satellite has been steadily expanding and will mote. Problems of definitional weapon to destroy one of its own continue to grow. precision, dysfunctional multilateral satellites, creating thousands of

10 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 SPACE SECURITY

pieces of orbital debris. The follow- Code of Conduct for Outer Space merit separate policy instruments. ing year the United States used a Activities. Although the proposed Throughout human history, at- modified missile to destroy satellite Code would serve as an important tempts to regulate weapons have oc- USA-193. A year later Russian satel- mechanism to codify much needed curred only after the weapons have lite Cosmos 2251 collided acciden- transparency and confidence-building been used in combat. The interna- tally with U.S. satellite Iridium 33. By measures in space, it is decidedly not tional community now has the 2012 the U.S. Space Surveillance Net- an arms control agreement. Its provi- unique opportunity to proactively work—the most advanced Space Sit- sions conspicuously skirt matters re- control the use of arms in space. uational Awareness system in the lated to the militarization and world—had catalogued approxi- potential weaponization of space.1 The U.S. position mately 17,000 pieces of orbital debris The United States argues that en- Space arms control initiatives have 10 cm in diameter or larger, which vironmental threats such as the risk failed to gain the necessary traction pose an indiscriminate threat to posed by space debris should be the largely because of U.S. opposition. spacecraft of all nations. top concern at international forums As the most advanced spacefaring To minimize the risk of uninten- on outer space. Countries including nation, the United States can seri- tional interference with space assets Russia and China view arms control ously undermine any space arms con- and better coordinate operations in space as most pressing. The reality trol measures put forward by the rest among space actors, the European is that environmental threats and of the international community. Union has proposed an International arms control are both priorities that Every year the United Nations

RIGHT: The Conference on Disarmament was held in Geneva this March. Violaine Martin /UN

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 11 SPACE SECURITY

General Assembly (2011) votes on a best interests. But it has taken the po- items, which underscore the difficulty PAROS (Prevention of an Arms sition that it will only “consider space of undertaking substantive negotia- Race in Outer Space) resolution, arms control proposals and concepts tions on space arms control: which notably states: The lack of a precise definition for ‘space • The “prevention of an arms race in outer space would avert a grave weapon’ is often cited as a primary obstacle danger for international peace and to an effective space arms control agreement. security”; • “The legal regime applicable to outer space does not in and of it- self guarantee the prevention of that are equitable, effectively verifi- 45. The view was expressed that the an arms race in outer space, that able, and enhance the national secu- conclusion of PPWT [Treaty on the regime plays a significant role rity of the United States” (Rose the Prevention of the Placement in the prevention of an arms race 2012). Not only does it seem that the of Weapons in Outer Space, the in that environment”; United States is not ready to lead on Threat or Use of Force against • All states, particularly those with this issue, but it appears that U.S. en- Outer Space Objects], which had advanced space capabilities, should gagement with space arms control been presented by China and the “contribute actively to the objec- discussions is conditioned on the un- Russian Federation to the Confer- tive of the peaceful use of outer likely scenario that another state will ence on Disarmament in 2008, space and of the prevention of an draft a proposal tailored to U.S. na- would prevent an arms race in arms race in outer space and to re- tional security concerns. outer space. frain from actions contrary to that objective”; Multilateral forum wanted 46. The view was expressed that the • The Conference on Disarmament The Conference on Disarmament, Committee had been created ex- (CD) “has the primary role in the the main multilateral disarmament clusively to promote international negotiation of a multilateral agree- body within the UN architecture, has cooperation with respect to the ment or agreements, as appropri- the primary responsibility for peaceful uses of outer space and ate, on the prevention of an arms PAROS. However, for more than a that disarmament issues were race in outer space in all its as- decade the CD has been mired in a more appropriately dealt with in pects.” deadlock and unable to conduct any other forums, such as First Com- substantive negotiations. Because of mittee and the CD. The PAROS resolution is over- the requirement to proceed only by whelmingly supported by the interna- unanimous consensus, the CD has In effect, the prevention of an tional community. But every year, the been unable to agree even on a Pro- arms race in outer space has been rel- United States abstains or votes gram of Work. egated to a multilateral diplomacy against the resolution. In December The UN Committee on the Peace- limbo. COPUOS is inappropriate, the 2011 the PAROS resolution received ful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) major spacefaring nation (the United a vote of 176 in favour and two ab- might be an alternate forum to ad- States) at the United Nations General stentions (the United States and Is- dress arms control in space. How- Assembly (UNGA) First Committee rael) (Reaching Critical Will 2011). ever, any efforts to discuss such is not interested, and the CD is inef- As the most advanced spacefaring issues at COPUOS are routinely dis- fective. nation and, arguably, the state most missed as falling outside the jurisdic- Not surprisingly, the European reliant on space assets, the United tion of this body. For example, the Union has decided to pursue its pro- States should see clearly defined Report of the 2010 COPUOS Ple- posed Code of Conduct for Outer norms for space weapons to be in its nary Session included the following Space Activities through an ad hoc

12 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 SPACE SECURITY

process outside of the UN infra- A starting point impossible. structure. Oddly enough, the two There is an alternative to banning There would still be matters for consultations this year coincide (in certain hardware: prohibiting certain subsequent negotiation, of course. time and venue) with the COPUOS conduct. From this perspective, Perhaps most notably, a state could and UNGA plenaries. spacefaring nations could pledge: research and develop offensive and/or dual-use space capabilities The dual-use problem Not to be the first to use any that might be used against an adver- Other concerns abound. The lack of space- or ground-based capabili- sary’s space assets and still be in full a precise definition for “space ties to disable, damage, or destroy compliance with this arrangement. weapon” is often cited as a primary space assets. This scenario is less than ideal, being obstacle to an effective space arms akin to accepting a pledge not to use control agreement. Space policy ana- Such a pledge—which should be nuclear weapons, even when the lyst Michael Krepon (2010) has said codified in a multilateral policy overarching goal of their elimination that the lack of a satisfactory defini- arrangement—would not require a has not been reached. Nevertheless, tion “is one of many reasons why a precise definition of space weapon. few would argue against the desirabil- treaty banning space weapons is not The primary focus would be on pro- ity of an official moratorium on their in the cards.” tecting the physical and operational use, such as the one prescribed by the The difficulty in defining space integrity of space assets. Verification Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. So weapons relates to the potential dual- of compliance, which is a typical an explicit norm enshrined in inter- use nature of space assets. A satellite stumbling block in space policy dis- national law that precludes harmful not specifically designed to be an of- cussions, would be resolved with ex- interference against space assets may fensive weapon can be used as one. isting technical means that would not be perfect, but would certainly be Otherwise innocuous civil or com- make the destruction of space assets preferable to the status quo. mercial spacecraft, for example, without clear attribution virtually [email protected] could be rammed against an adver- sary’s space asset. On-orbit servicing Note vehicles (still in the early stages of development) could also be used to 1. For an analysis of the EU’s proposed Code of Conduct, see Jaramillo 2011. deliberately damage or destroy a satellite. If it can get close enough to References fix it, goes the argument, it can get Jaramillo, Cesar. 2011, Limited rules of engagement, The Ploughshares Monitor, 32:4. close enough to harm it.

Enriched uranium, for example, Krepon, Michael. 2010. What is a space weapon? Arms Control Wonk, 18 March. can be used to produce fuel for nuclear reactors, but also to develop nu- Reaching Critical Will, 2011. Draft Resolutions, Voting Results, and Explanations of Vote clear weapons—a complex reality First Committee. that continues to strain the nuclear Rose, Frank. 2012. Remarks by Frank Rose, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Defense Policy disarmament and non-proliferation and Verification Operations, Bureau of Verification, Compliance, and Implementation (U.S.), regime. So, while there may be obvi- Laying the Groundwork for a Stable and Sustainable Space Environment. UNIDIR Space Secu- ous space weapons (designed and de- rity Conference, May12. ployed only to be used offensively), United Nations. 2010. Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 53rd the prospect of a broad weapons ban Session, document A/65/20. faces the seemingly insurmountable problem that a space weapon cannot United Nations General Assembly. 2011. 1st Committee Sixty-sixth session, Prevention of an always be readily identified as such. Arms Race in Outer Space, document A/C.1/66/L.14.

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 13 An idea whose time has come

The Harper government’s promised Office of Religious Freedom could offer expertise on the role of religion in foreign policy

By John Siebert

oreign Affairs Minister support religious freedom.” The refugee John Baird is in charge of resettlement process and programming implementing the govern- supported by the Canadian International ment’s commitment to Development Agency (CIDA) are among open an Office of Reli- the tools to be used by various federal de- gious Freedom (ORF) in the DepartmentF partments and agencies to advance these of Foreign Affairs and International goals. Trade (DFAIT). What the ORF will actu- By the summer of 2012 there was still ally do will not be known until it is no firm launch date for the ORF (Duggal opened and an Ambassador named, but 2012). Baird has stated that he is more in- the work of the ORF holds the promise terested in getting the office successfully to advance peace and human security in launched on the right path than opening it regions where religion is a significant fac- quickly. That makes sense. Religious free- tor in armed conflict and armed violence. dom is a sensitive topic. Establishing the ORF requires finesse. Introducing a new The Conservative platform pledge “key objective” for Canadian foreign pol- The 2011 federal Conservative election icy with a modest annual budget of $5- platform contained an entry entitled “De- million and a staff of five within a fending Religious Freedom” (p. 40). It potentially skeptical foreign affairs estab- promised to “create a special Office of lishment will require intensified diplomacy Religious Freedom in the Department of and extensive contact with civil society ac- Foreign Affairs and International Trade to tors in Canada and abroad. monitor religious freedom around the world, to promote religious freedom as a An idea whose time has come key objective of Canadian foreign policy, Providing a focus for expertise within and to advance policies and programs that DFAIT on the role of religion in foreign

14 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 RELIGION AND CONFLICT

policy is a welcome development. Previ- light on religion as a driver of violent con- ous attempts have been made. flict and raised many questions. Was it a holy war? A clash of Christian and Islamic In 1998, Lloyd Axworthy announced civilizations? A contest for access to re- that addressing religious intolerance sources, particularly oil? Does it represent would be a thematic priority for modernity confronting frustrated pre- DFAIT. In 2004, the Parliamentary modern societies, or democracies versus Subcommittee on Human Rights and authoritarian regimes? Or is this “war” a International Development adopted a complex mix of all the above? resolution that urged the Government There is no avoiding the fact that, as in of Canada “to make the protection and the case of al-Qaeda, religion can be a fac- promotion of the right to freedom of tor in starting or intensifying violent con- religion and belief a central element of flict. The resort to violence by some of its efforts to defend human rights inter- the faithful certainly is not restricted to nationally.” (Cameron 2011) Islam. Violence-advocating groups associate themselves with most major religions. In the late 1990s Canadian religious Even in a radical case such as al-Qaeda, leaders were in direct conversation with however, religion is seldom the only con- DFAIT to establish such an office, but the flict driver. Other factors give rise to process did not bear fruit. These efforts grievances and disputes leading to vio- drew in part on the “human dimension” lence, such as economic and social in- activities of the Organization for Security equity, restrictions on real political and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the participation in decisions, and direct state regional multilateral forum embracing Eu- persecution of religious and ethnic mi- rope, Central Asia, the United States, and norities. In some countries, such as Syria Canada (Vancouver to Vladivostok), with under al-Assad, religious or ethnic minori- its roots in the 1970s Helsinki Accords. ties govern majorities. Problems related to religious freedom and Religion also can be a countervailing minority rights, particularly in the newly force to violence, providing the social glue independent states created by the breakup that binds societies when they are buf- of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, re- feted by momentous change, inspiring sulted in devastating violent conflicts, mutual support to weather violence, and often involving ethnic and religious mi- helping guide a society safely to the shores norities. of sustainable peace. The work of the OSCE High Commis- Where religion is a significant factor in sioner for National Minorities was initi- the identity of one or more parties to a vi- ated in 1992 to respond to the link olent conflict, religious leaders and adher- between human rights observance and ents can be mobilized to facilitate peace. human security (Volleback 2012). Post- Taking on a minimal role, religious leader- Cold War, the OSCE became a laboratory ship can publicly refuse to allow religion for innovative and often successful non- to be used to demonize others in a con- military interventions to address the un- flict. A more substantial role for religion derlying causes of conflict. will harness its authority as a trusted insti- tution to reduce tensions, resolve con- Religion and violent conflict flicts, and aid in the reconciliation The post-9/11 “war on terror” put a spot- processes required for peace to endure.

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 15 RELIGION AND CONFLICT

The potential exists for the new ORF dom. Criticising the implementation of at DFAIT to be an effective tool for mo- the U.S. International Religious Freedom bilizing religion for peace and against vio- legislation, first Director of the U.S. Of- lence.1 fice of International Religious Freedom Thomas Farr writes that most State De- The ORF and human rights partment officials approach religion with Minister Baird has primarily spoken about ambivalence, fear, and a belief that reli- religious freedom using the language of gion really is irrelevant in modern society. international human rights commitments.2 Religion is perceived as emotive and irra- He has indicated that he is committed to a tional, or too complicated and sensitive. balanced human rights approach in estab- As a result, consideration of religion in lishing the ORF. At a Religious Liberty high foreign policy is marginalized as a Dinner in Washington, DC in May he humanitarian or cultural issue (Farr 2008, said, “Like the United States, we realize p. 113).4 Whether these criticisms also that we cannot be selective in which basic hold true for Canadian diplomats remains human rights we defend, nor can we be to be seen. arbitrary in whose rights we protect” A more important concern is whether (Baird 2012). A few months earlier at the the prescribed interpretation of religious OSCE Ministerial meeting in Lithuania freedom and human rights observance (Baird 2011b), he indicated that he would will result in diplomatic activity that is lim- not sacrifice some human rights for the ited to documenting and denouncing vio- sake of religious freedom. As he did in his lations and violators of religious freedom. UN speech last fall, he spoke about sexual Unfortunately, naming and shaming alone orientation: “We also need to take steps to rarely provide lasting results. While they ensure that discrimination on the basis of might produce meaningful change for sexual orientation is not allowed under those individuals who are being perse- law. It is unacceptable that people in the cuted for their religious beliefs, broader OSCE region can still be attacked and im- reforms are ignored. prisoned simply for their sexual orienta- Coercion can change behaviour in the tion” (Baird 2011b). short term, but sustained change must In an address at an October 2011 ORF come from within. Carrots (economic and stakeholders consultation, Baird (2011a) aid) and sticks (withdrawal of assistance went further to link respect for religious and sanctions) may influence some freedom in a society to the broader free- regimes, but cannot create the positive in- doms present in stable democratic soci- ternal momentum for lasting change and eties. Where religious freedom is present, reform. As Farr (2008, p. 123) concludes freedoms of all kinds are present. Respect in his analysis of U.S. policy in the Middle for religions plays a foundational role in East, “extremism and terrorism [in Islam] establishing and maintaining secular liberal can in the final analysis only be defeated democracy.3 by Muslims speaking from the heart of There are several dilemmas inherent in Islam.” advocating for the implementation of Promoting genuine religious freedom is human rights commitments related to reli- a much broader endeavour. Religious peo- gious freedom. One is that skeptical Cana- ple and organizations must have the free- dian diplomats may need to be coaxed dom to practise their religion or beliefs onboard the good ship Religious Free- and actively engage in public life to influ-

16 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 RELIGION AND CONFLICT

ence public policy “within the bounds of inclusive, reflective, dialogue-based way— liberal norms” (Farr 2008, p. 116). A otherwise there’s lots of potential to do as broad view of religious freedom includes much harm as good.” Farr (2008, p. 118) the right of religious communities to par- advises to avoid capture by special inter- ticipate in society within the general ests. To succeed over time, the ORF must framework of the rule of law. sensitively address complicated circum- Clearly, the Conservative election plat- stances with a balanced approach to reli- form commitment points in this direction: gious freedom, reconciling human rights to advance “policies and programs that promotion with other Canadian foreign support religious freedom” (Conservative policy goals. Party of Canada 2011). Active peacebuild- No matter how it approaches its task, ing would incorporate a broad approach to the ORF will face inherent limitations as religious freedom in situations where reli- an instrument of government in a field John Siebert gion and religious actors are drivers of vio- dominated by nongovernmental actors.7 is Executive lent conflict: addressing grievances from Faith-based organizations are the largest, Director of Project religious communities before violence best connected, and best equipped civil Ploughshares. erupts, intervening with diplomatic meas- society organizations in the world. They ures and support to civil society and reli- are present almost everywhere. They con- gious organizations in the midst of nect to each other across borders. They [email protected] violence, and supporting post-conflict ini- embody and speak for the hopes and tiatives by religious and civil society groups hurts of those who, systematically denied to ensure that violence doesn’t erupt again. the benefits of religious freedom, may turn to violence to press their point. For The challenges the ORF to effectively advance peace by Canada’s ability to be a game changer for advancing religious freedom, it must con- religious freedom in another state clearly structively engage with a broad cross-sec- cannot depend on military displays of tion of civil society, faith-based and strength, with or without allies, or trade secular. liberalization initiatives. The primary activities of the ORF offer DFAIT the possi- Conclusion bility of reengaging in its traditional Minister Baird and the Conservative gov- persuasion skills in bilateral and multilat- ernment have indicated that they aspire to eral diplomacy. fulfill a broad mandate for Canada’s Of- To establish and embed religious free- fice of Religious Freedom—not just enu- dom as a key objective in Canadian for- merating and hectoring delinquents, but eign policy, both the underlying policy and actually promoting substantive freedom of its implementation must be balanced and religion and belief. Success in this endeav- non-partisan. The ORF initiative has been our will require: met with criticisms.5 Dr. Nathan Funk,6 a professor in the Peace and Conflict Stud- • Convincing a potentially skeptical for- ies program at the University of Waterloo, eign affairs establishment of the need reminds us that well intentioned efforts and relevance of religious freedom as a can have unintended consequences: “If key objective of Canadian foreign pol- you’re going to promote religious human icy; rights as a matter of foreign policy, you • Grounding the ORF’s work in national, have to do it in an objective, even-handed, regional, and international human

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 17 RELIGION AND CONFLICT

rights commitments to freedom of reli- • Resources for programming to nurture gion and belief; religious freedom; and • Commitment to a balanced and non- • Regular and meaningful consultation partisan approach to advancing reli- and engagement with civil society in gious freedom; Canada and abroad. • Continually sorting out the contradic- tions between advancing religious free- Promoting religious freedom in this dom and other human rights and way will provide Canada with opportu- foreign policy priorities; nities to advance international peace • Engaging in intensive diplomacy to ad- and security where religion is a driver in vance religious freedom; violent conflicts.

Notes 1. For further discussion on the role of religion in violent conflict see Siebert 2007. 2. Freedom of religion is provided for in article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), articles 18 and 27 of the UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), article 9 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950), article 12 of the American Convention on Human Rights (1969), and article 8 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1981). See also Princi- ple VII, sec. 1 and 3 in the Final Act of Helsinki (1975) and the reaffirmation of the freedom of religion in the documents of the OSCE Follow-up Meetings (“Human Contacts”). “The guarantee of the freedom of religion and belief is also affirmed by various conventions addressing discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, language or religion and those on minority protection. See, e.g., the U.N. Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of In- tolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief of November 25, 1981; the U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to Na- tional or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities of December 18, 1992; the European Council Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities of November 10, 1994” (OSCE 1996, p. 7). 3. Political Scientist Clifford Orwin (2012) makes this point in more detail. 4. Farr’s 2008 article in Foreign Affairs is worth reading for many reasons, including the eerily prophetic paragraphs describing the dilemma the United States would face should Egypt ever have free and fair democratic elections. Farr accurately predicted the election of a President and Parlia- ment dominated by the Muslim Brotherhood (p.122), a reality now facing the Obama Administration in 2012. 5. See Tapper 2012. 6. Personal correspondence, 2012. 7. Countries where there is a fusion between state and faith, such as Iran, are exceptions that require a different approach. See Siebert 2007 for further discussion of this point.

References Baird, John. 2011a, Address by Minister Baird at Office of Religious Freedom Stakeholder Consultations. DFAIT, October 3. ———. 2011b. Address by Minister Baird to Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Ministerial Council, DFAIT, December 6. ———. 2012. Address by Minister Baird at Religious Liberty Dinner. DFAIT, May 24. Cameron, Geoffrey. 2011. Next Steps on Canada’s religious freedom office. Embassy Magazine, June 1, 2011. Conservative Party of Canada. 2011. Here for Canada: Stephen Harper’s Low-Tax Plan for Jobs and Economic Growth. Duggal, Sneh. 2012. Religious freedom office in final set-up stages: Government. Embassy Magazine, August 8, 2012 Farr, Thomas F. 2008. Diplomacy in an age of faith: Religious freedom and national security. Foreign Affairs, 87:2, pp. 110-124. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 1996. Human Dimension Seminar on Constitutional, Legal and Administrative Aspects of the Freedom of Religion Consolidated Summary. ODIHR, April 16-19. Orwin, Clifford. 2012. Religious-freedom office is a blessing, non-believers, Globe and Mail, January 9. Siebert, John. 2007. Religion and violent conflict: A practitioner’s functional approach. The Ploughshares Monitor, 28:2. Tapper, Josh. 2012. Does the Office of Religious Freedom have any teeth? Toronto Star, January 20. Volleback, Knut. 2012. HCNM at 20: The Challenges of Change—Continued. Address by OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities, “HCNM 20 Years On” Conference, July 6.

18 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 2012 Armed Conflicts Report Summary

n 2011, there were 26 active armed conflicts Iworldwide, an increase of two from the previous year. Two new conflicts were added and COUNTRIES HOSTINGH ARMED CONFLICTS IN 2011 Civilian and militarymilitat deaths during current phase of conflict(s) none were removed. 1,0001,01, 00 – 10,0010,0000 10,000 – 100,000 Over 100,000

For the full report, visit www.ploughshares.ca.

Arab Spring or Arab Awakening. the 21st century. Most Arab Spring movements Of the numerous countries that shared certain features: largely peace- were affected by the Arab Spring, the ful demonstrations that drew people events in only three—Yemen, which from across social, age, class, and has been on the Armed Conflicts Re- gender lines; the absence of a single port since 2004, and Libya and Syria, leader or group spearheading the up- which were added in 2012—met risings; and the use of the Internet, Ploughshares’ definition of an armed specifically social media, as a rallying conflict and were included in the point. But they also differed signifi- 2012 ACR. cantly: in the specific demands of the With the two additional conflicts protestors, the response of security from the Arab Spring added to the A significant development in forces during the uprisings, the levels ACR, the balance of conflict world- global armed conflict in 2011 was a of violence, and the role of the inter- wide remains substantially unchanged series of pro-democracy move- national community. These differ- from previous years. Africa and Asia ments—beginning in December 2010 ences and the complex questions continue to host three-quarters of and continuing throughout 2011— they raised about how to address and the world’s conflicts. Europe, the that swept the Middle East and North resolve the conflicts underscore the Americas, and the Middle East com- Africa and came to be known as the changing nature of armed conflict in bined host only one-quarter.

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 19 Breaking the cycle of gang violence

A Toronto program aimed at intervening with youth involved in gang activity is showing results

By Maribel Gonzales

n 2011 Toronto, Canada’s largest leadership struggle in a gang. city (population c. 2.7 million), The Toronto police track roughly 2,100 recorded its lowest murder gang-involved or gang-associated individ- count in 30 years—33. Then, uals. Of these 500–600 are considered this summer the city was rocked “really violent” (Mills 2012). Gangs have by brazen shootings that turned the EatonI always existed in Toronto; the difference Centre mall and a street block party into now is that gang violence more likely in- shooting galleries, leaving four dead and volves disenfranchised youth, occurs in 28 injured. Gangs figure in both shoot- public spaces, and uses high-powered ABOVE: This illustration ings. The alleged Eaton Centre shooter guns. is from a larger drawing and two of the victims were affiliated with The shootings sparked calls to curtail by a participant in the Breaking the Cycle gangs while, according to the police, the youth gang violence. Proposals spanned program in Toronto. block party shooting is connected to a the political spectrum. Toronto Mayor

20 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 GANG VIOLENCE

Ford declared a “war on thugs,” echoing goal is to keep persons at risk out of the federal government’s tough-on-crime gangs and to help those already in gangs policies by calling for more cops and leave. CTI found that the youth—most longer prison terms, and ridiculing “hug- visible minorities and/or recent immi- a-thug” community programs. In contrast, grants—faced multiple barriers to success. city councillors called for social programs Most came from single or no-parent in identified “priority” neighbourhoods, households; experienced home/commu- some of which are scheduled to lose their nity violence, guns, and racism; were not funding in 2013. Ontario Premier Dalton in school; abused drugs or alcohol; had ar- McGuinty cautioned against resorting to rest records; and had few employment op- “simplistic” solutions (Grant & Robinson portunities. 2012). BTC’s premise is that youth can leave No quick fix will curb gang-related gun a violent lifestyle if individual circum- violence. The problem is complex and stances that lead to antisocial, aggressive each situation has its own underlying risk behaviours are addressed and barriers to factors and dynamics. In Toronto, as in education and employment are removed. Maribel cities worldwide, most victims and perpe- It targets young men and women between Gonzales is a Program trators of gun violence are young males the ages of 15 and 30 years, who are cur- Officer between the ages of 15 and 30 years. In- rently not in school, are unemployed, and with Project Ploughshares. deed, responding to the problem of gangs have links with gangs, but who are com- and youth at risk of armed violence, espe- mitted to participating in BTC and accept [email protected] cially in urban areas, has been identified as cooperative group norms and agreements. a global development programming gap The justice system, the police, social serv- (OECD 2009). However, we lack knowl- ice agencies, schools, BTC graduates, and edge about the outcomes and impacts of local parents refer participants to BTC. programs to combat youth violence. It is Until recently, a BTC program cycle difficult to determine the effectiveness of lasted 28 weeks and served 20–25 partici- interventions. What works? What needs to pants (see further details below). Partici- be changed? pants are paid a stipend equal to the In 2010 Project Ploughshares and Ontario minimum wage (currently $10.25 Peacebuild conducted research on two per hour) per 35-hour week. The provi- programs—the Peace Management Initia- sion of a stipend helps attract and keep tive in Jamaica and the Breaking the Cycle participants, who learn money manage- (BTC) program in Toronto—aimed at in- ment skills and don’t feel the need to turn tervening with youth who were involved to criminal activity for money. or associated with gang activity.1 Ironically, In the past, BTC’s program had four a victim in the Eaton Centre shooting was principal components, starting with six– trying to leave his gang past behind. Only eight hours of assessment to determine a few months earlier he had signed up suitability and identify cognitive/behav- with BTC. ioural and other issues that may need at- tention. Next came a two-week (70 hours) The BTC gang exit strategy intensive personal development program BTC, which is a federally funded program to build trust; address violent behaviour, run by the Canadian Training Institute sexism, homophobia, and racism; and (CTI), operates in two “priority” areas in learn life skills that would allow the partic- Toronto known for gang activity. BTC’s ipants to build healthy relationships. Each

The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 21 GANG VIOLENCE

participant charted an individual plan, in- violence as normal until they learn other- cluding goals and activities to achieve wise. Involving BTC graduates and Youth them. (Because they have different needs, Ambassadors strengthens BTC’s ability to men and women have separate training reach out and involve neighbourhood curricula.) They then received a week of youth and provides other youth with posi- case management where progress was re- tive peer role models. When BTC partici- viewed, and individual supportive guid- pants return to school, get jobs, and ance provided on concerns such as participate in positive community activi- housing, bank accounts, probation and ties, the cycle of gang violence is broken. court matters, and connecting to school This is especially important as many BTC and job opportunities. An additional 5 – participants are themselves parents. 10 hours of miscellaneous support was A low attrition rate and generally posi- provided per participant. tive outcomes can be traced to intensive Participants then proceeded in one of individualized “treatment” tailored to the three streams: 1) the Youth Ambassador unique needs of participants. BTC suc- Leadership Program, if they were deemed cessfully engages with its difficult cohort. suitable, 2) discharge, or 3) referral to However, BTC is faced with unstable other agencies, such as an educational in- and inconsistent funding. Funds have to stitution or a housing agency. be raised for each program cycle, so BTC In the Youth Ambassador Leadership cannot consistently offer its services. Be- & Employment Program, participants re- cause of recent funding cuts only 14 ceived 25 weeks (875 hours) of further rather than 25 clients can be served per job readiness and personal development cycle and for only 23 rather than 28 training, honed leadership skills, pursued weeks. More critically, the program com- community outreach activities, and made ponents have been significantly altered. community presentations about BTC. Individual personal development has been reduced to five weeks in favour of place- Outcomes ment in internships. Case management Since 2003 BTC has helped approximately and support have also been reduced. The 350 clients. Eighty-eight per cent of par- push is to get participants employed. ticipants have successfully graduated from No complete evaluation of BTC has BTC. Sixty-seven per cent of graduates been done, despite a recommendation in a are employed or are in school and not par- 2008 report (Chettleburgh 2008) commis- ticipating in gangs (Armstrong 2012). sioned by the federal government. So it is In 2008 the cost of BTC per partici- not clear why funds were cut and changes pant was roughly $19,200 for approxi- made to the BTC intervention strategy, mately 1,000 hours of program which has been regarded as among the intervention (Chettleburgh 2008). While promising approaches in gang interven- this is a significant investment, keeping an tion (Totten 2008). inmate incarcerated in a federal prison When pressed for an explanation in a costs substantially more: $110,786 for CBC interview (2012) CTI Executive Di- males and $211,093 for females per year rector John Sawdon stated: (2009-10 figures from Public Safety Canada 2011). There is more and more pressure on Most gang-involved youth are exposed not serving this group of people [gang- to violence from childhood and may view involved youth]…. The law and order

22 The Ploughshares Monitor | Autumn 2012 GANG VIOLENCE

agenda and tough-on-crime [perspec- Note

tive] was to say that those who have 1. This article is based in part on the findings from that research; see Chadwick- been gang-involved and engaging in Parkes 2012. criminal behaviour should be going to References jail and we shouldn’t be spending our Armstrong, James. 2012. Eaton Centre shooting victim wanted to leave gang past money on them. The other piece is that behind, says Toronto activist, Global News, June 4. if there were going to be programs, CBC.ca. 2012. Gang exit program cut. Ontario Today, June 5. those programs should be linked to the Chadwick-Parkes, Sandra. 2012. Youth Armed Violence Interventions: The workforce and not focused on personal Caribbean and its Toronto Diaspora. Project Ploughshares and Peacebuild. development. The problem is the mul- Chettleburgh, Michael. 2008. Evaluability Assessment Final Report: Breaking the tiple barriers that you have prevent Cycle Youth Gang Exit and Ambassador Leadership Program. Report submitted to people from entering the workforce to the National Crime Prevention Centre of Public Safety Canada. begin with and if you don’t address Grant, Kelly & Matthew Robinson. 2012. Toronto 2012: more guns, fewer resources. those barriers they don’t hold jobs. The Globe and Mail, July 20. Mills, Carys. 2012. Police alone can’t stop gangs, Toronto Chief Bill Blair says. The Globe and Mail. August 1. These programming changes in BTC underscore the crucial need to invest in OECD. 2009. Policy Paper: Armed Violence Reduction Enabling Development. Paris. generating data and analysis so that policy Public Safety Canada. 2011. Corrections and Conditional Release Statistical and decision-making are based on solid Overview: Annual Report 2011. evidence about the outcomes, impacts, Totten, Mark. 2008. Promising Practices for Addressing Youth Involvement in Gangs. and effectiveness of programs.

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