sign in sign up
<<
Home , Obesogen

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

Review Article

Environmental and Public Health Impacts of Wastes due to Healthcare and Food Products Packages: A Review

Ugoeze KC1,*, Amogu EO1, Oluigbo KE2, Nwachukwu N1

1Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria 2Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Agbani City, Enugu, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author: Ugoeze, Kenneth Chinedu, Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria, Tel: +2348035055003; E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 11 January 2021; Accepted: 16 January 2021; Published: 27 January 2021

Citation: Ugoeze KC, Amogu EO, Oluigbo KE, Nwachukwu N. Environmental and public health impacts of plastic wastes due to healthcare and food products packages: A Review. Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 5 (2021): 1-31.

Abstract healthcare, food and related products has evolved to Plastic products have gained contemporary extensive the extent of harnessing single-use and discard after- utility, became indispensable and the commonest use packages which have merely given rise to the material used in product packaging in healthcare, food prevalence of menacing plastic wastes generally, and other articles essential to humanity. These creating heaps of plastic wastes in several spots, packaging materials, produced from plastic bases like defacing the cities, contaminating the environments the bio-degradable, epoxy resins, , and upsetting the ecosystem deleteriously with its expanded polystyrenes, polyolefin, public health outcomes. The atmosphere, animals and and also contain several unsafe humanity are confronted with threats of extinction due substances incorporated into them to aid their to the discharges originating from the harmful production and product aesthetics. The innovative constituents of these plastic wastes which saturate and exploitation of plastic-based packaging materials in contaminate the ecosystem. These jeopardies could be

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 1

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 abridged if the bulk of plastic junks due to the exemplify the failure of a predominantly fossil fuel- healthcare, food and allied packages are properly based, linear economic system [5]. Several nations, managed or recycled at the end of their useful life. particularly the developing economies are faced with The emerging economies that is mostly affected by the challenge of developing plastic waste- these challenges should adopt plastic waste management approaches from options that include management approaches, especially recycling, reuse reduction of waste generated, incineration, landfilling, and establishment of enabling policies on the recycling and reuse [4]. manufacture, use and disposal of plastic-based packaging products. Effective majors will ensue if the 2. What are ? government and policymakers would enhance Plastics are a wide range of polymeric components enlightenment efforts at various levels of each society available synthetically, semi-synthetically or coupled with strict regulations over the management organically which could be shaped into a required of plastic-based packaging materials. form when they are hot and retain that shape when they are cold or hardened. The term “plastic” is Keywords: Environmental; Public health; Plastic derived from the Greek word “plastikos”, meaning, fit wastes; Healthcare; Food; Packages for moulding, pointing to their malleability during processing or manufacture, which enables them to be 1. Introduction cast, pressed or extruded into a variety of shapes such Plastic products have gained wider usage and became as films, fibres, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, etc. They consistently essential on daily basis [1]. Due to their are useful in making water bottles, clothing, medical extensive application in packaging, etc. heaps of and food packaging, electronics, construction plastic wastes are generated in quite a lot of spots materials, etc. Polymers (classified as natural or which have exceedingly affected the environs, synthetic), the sources of plastics are macromolecules permitting visual pollutions with impending dangers comprising of large numbers of repeated single units as well as defacing of the living cities [2, 3, 4]. Plastic (monomers) bonded through a chemical procedure wastes constitute between 60-80 % of marine debris described as polymerization. The natural polymers and are one of the world’s most pervasive pollution (biopolymers) are obtainable from plants or animals problems impacting our oceans and waterways, and include polysaccharides, nucleic acids and according to the U.N. [5]. Over six decades, proteins, etc. The synthetic polymers are man-made manufacture of plastic products and their resultant products obtained through chemical manipulations of wastes have extremely increased due to rapid other polymers, even the natural polymers. They are urbanization, increasing consumption in both high and the structural materials exhibited generally in plastics, low-income countries and increased production of synthetic fibres, paints, building materials, adhesives, “use and discard” products, coupled with the fact that etc. The synthetic polymers may be divided into the bulk of plastic packages are not recycled at the polymers and thermoset plastics which end of their useful life. From raw material extraction is centred on their response when they are exposed to through to plastic contaminating the ocean, plastics heat. are the plastics that do not

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 2

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 undergo a chemical change in their composition when plastics. Plastics are got by two techniques known as heated and can be remoulded. They include polymerization and polycondensation, each requiring (employed in plastic bags), a specific catalyst. In a polymerization reactor, , (used in plastic cups), monomers such as ethylene and propylene are joined polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (used for food wraps, to constitute stretched polymer chains, each polymer bottles and drain pipes) and taking its specific characteristics, structure and size (PTFE) or Teflon (used for non-sticking surfaces). subject to the different types of basic monomers Thermosets can be melted, formed into the desired employed. Plastics can be assembled into two major shape which remains permanent as the material gets polymer groups such as thermoplastics (the types that cold and solidified. They include vulcanized rubber, soften under heat, then toughen on cooling) and bakelite, polyepoxide, etc. [6-14]. thermosets (the types that never soften once they have been moulded) [15]. Plastics was devised by the use of natural materials that had intrinsic plastic properties such as shellac and 3. Chemical Constituents of Plastic Products chewing gum. It was followed by the chemical During polymerization, some additives like treatment of natural materials such as rubber, accelerators, initiators, solvents and catalysts, etc. are nitrocellulose, collagen or galalite which culminated incorporated in their essential extents to support the in the widespread series of entirely synthetic materials procedures. While producing the plastic products also, that could be acknowledged as modern plastics. One various further additives are added to aid in their of the initial instances was invented by Alexander production and enhance their properties, such as Parkes in 1855, who named his invention Parkesine. It prolonging of their shelf life and aesthetic values. is recognized presently as celluloid. Polyvinyl Such additives include (e.g. short, chloride (PVC) was initially polymerized medium and long chain chlorinated paraffins between1838-1872. A key advance came in 1907, (SCCP/MCCP/LCCP), Diisoheptylphthalate (DIHP), when Belgian-American chemist, Leo Baekeland Benzyl butyl (BBP), Bis (2- created Bakelite, the first real synthetic, mass- ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP): Bis(2-methoxyethyl) produced plastic [15]. phthalate (DMEP), etc.) [16], flame retardants (Short, medium, long chain chlorinated paraffins), boric acid; The basic raw materials that are crucial in making Brominated flame retardants with antimony (Sb) as plastics are sourced from petroleum, natural gas or synergist (e.g. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers other organic materials like cellulose, coal, salt, etc. (PBDEs); Decabromodiphenylethane; The manufacture of plastics is initiated with the tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)); Phosphorous distillation of crude oil by refining it to lighter flame retardant (e.g. Tris (2-chloroethyl)phosphate fractions, each being a mixture of compounds of (TCEP) Tris (2-chlorisopropyl)phosphate (TCPP) [16, hydrocarbon chains differing in terms of the size and 17], acid scavengers (synthetic hydrotalcites, metallic molecular structures. Naphtha is one of these fractions stearates and zinc oxides), light and heat stabilizers and is the key composite for the manufacture of ( (BPA); Cadmium and Lead compounds,

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 3

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 metallic salts, organometallic compounds, non- protein-based [33, 34]. These class of plastics could metallic organic stabilizers, organophosphites and be degraded by micro-organisms into the water, epoxies) [18-21], lubricants (silicones) [22], pigments carbon dioxide (or methane) and biomass under (titanium dioxide),(antioxidants(phenolics and specified conditions. They are often manufactured phosphites) [23], colourants (azo dyes, with renewable raw materials, micro-organisms, anthraquinones) [24], antistatic agents (rubbers, petrochemicals or mixture of the three. They are used ) [25], slip compounds ( Fatty acid amides as disposable items employed in packaging and (primary erucamide and oleamide), fatty acid esters, catering items, bags, trays, containers for fruits, metallic stearates (for example, zinc stearate), and vegetables, eggs and meat, bottles for carbonated waxes ) [26] and thermal stabilizers (Cadmium and drinks and dairy products as well as blister foils for Lead compounds; (barium and calcium fruit and vegetables [33-37]. salts), lead salts, metal soaps and organo-tin compounds which are extremely lethal and ecological 4.2 Epoxy resins contaminants) [27-32]. The epoxy resins are also known as polyepoxides. They are a class of reactive prepolymers and polymers 4. Types of Plastics used in Packaging of containing epoxide groups. A chemical reaction Pharmaceutical and Food Products amongst the polyepoxides or with polyfunctional Packaging is essential in pharmaceutical and food hardeners yields a , often with industries to conserve the value of products through enhanced mechanical properties and high thermal and their shelf life from external elements such as light chemical resistance. They are used in the production and moisture which are capable of affecting their of cans for soft-drinks, closures and caps for medical integrity. The selection of the packaging material is products, in cover linings aimed at protecting the based on the type of product in question, their contents and retaining flavor [33, 37, 38]. physical and chemical properties as well as the properties of the packaging material in relationship to 4.3 Polystyrene the product. The following are varieties of some Polystyrene (PS) is a thermostatic synthetic aromatic plastic materials that could be used in the design of polymer formed from styrene, monomers and a liquid packages for food or pharmaceutical products. petrochemical found naturally in strawberries, cinnamon, coffee and beef [33]. It is often used in 4.1 Bio-based and biodegradable plastics products that require clarity and often used to protect These are sourced from renewable biological and package food and other consumer products as in resources such as sugar cane, starch, etc. Sugar cane is meat/poultry trays and egg cartons for protection processed to produce ethylene, which could be used to against damage or spoilage. They are employed as produce, for instance, polyethylene. Starch can be food service items, such as cups, plates, bowls, processed to produce lactic acid and later polylactic cutlery, hinged takeout containers (clamshells), meat acid (PLA) which are elastic, long-lasting, clear, heat and poultry trays and rigid food containers for resistant, etc. They could be starch, cellulose or yoghurt [33, 39, 40].

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 4

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

4.4 Expanded polystyrene The HDPE is useful in crates and boxes, bottles (for Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a thermoplastic food products, detergents and cosmetics), food material manufactured from styrene monomer using a containers, etc. The PP is utilized in food packaging, polymerization method to obtain translucent spherical including yoghurt, margarine pots, sweet and snack beads of polystyrene, a solid thermoplastic at room wrappers, microwave-proof containers, medical temperature which could melt at a higher temperature packaging and appliances, etc. The polyethylene and re-solidify to emerge into a material that could fit terephthalate (PET, PETE) is clear, tough, and has in for anticipated use [38]. Considering its shock- good gas and moisture barrier properties. This resin is absorbing, thermal insulation and moisture resistant commonly used in beverage bottles and many capacities, it is employed in the storage and injections- moulded consumer product containers. conveyance of breakable items. It is very useful in the They are utilized as plastic bottles for soft drinks, packing of cooked food to retain its warmth or water, juice, sports drinks, beer, mouthwash, catsup coolness and avert wastage. It is also useful in the and salad dressing. They are useful as food jars for packaging perishable items such as seafood, fruit, and peanut butter, jelly, jam and pickles. The vegetables to preserve their integrity [38, 39]. polypropylene (PP) are employed for yoghurt, margarine, takeout meals and deli food, medicine 4.5 Polyolefins bottles, bottle caps and closure [33, 40]. Polyolefins are of the category of polyethylene and polypropylene thermoplastics, being the combined 4.6 Polyvinyl chloride term for the varieties of plastics that Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was one of the first plastics include polyethylene, specifically low- discovered and is also one of the most extensively density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low- used. The essential raw materials for PVC are derived density polyethylene (LLDPE), high- from salt (57 %) and oil (43 %). There are two forms density polyethylene (HDPE) of PVC, the rigid type that is often abbreviated as and polypropylene (PP). They are made essentially RPVC and the flexible type [33, 41]. They are useful from oil and natural gas by a process of in the packaging of healthcare and medical devices polymerization of ethylene and propylene (blood and plasma transfusion storage bags/sets, respectively. Polyolefins are extremely suitable catheters and cannulas, surgical and examination and safe for packaging because they are 'chemically gloves, intravenous solution giving sets, urine bags, inert' materials. It is believed that the foodstuffs and endotracheal tubing, blister packs, , other items packed in them cannot absorb harmful tamper resistance and dosage packs for chemicals, additives or by-products from the pharmaceutical products) [41]. container, hence, they have great advantages employing them in various packaging materials. The 4.7 Polycarbonates LDPE is used in cling film, carrier bags, agricultural These are employed in the packaging of consumer film, milk carton coatings, hot and cold beverage goods like reusable bottles. However, it has cups, squeezable bottles for honey and mustards, etc. bisphenol-A (BPA). In case it is exposed to high

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 5

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 temperature, BPA could leach from the  Plastic bags for parenteral sterile solutions polycarbonated bottle into the content. Due to the and their components. health implication of BPA as reported in various  Containers for dry powders and metered- researches, the utilization of polycarbonated plastics dose inhalers. has become decreased [26, 33].  Squeezable bottles for eye, ear drops and nasal sprays. 5. Application of Plastics in Pharmaceutical  Jars for powders, creams, ointments and and Food Packaging other multi-dose topical applications. Packaging plays a crucial role in Pharmaceutical  Pre fillable syringes. products as it helps to retain their original form and  Pill boxes preserve the quality of the content until it is consumed  Flexible tubes by the end-user. Suitable packaging protects the  Sachets, blister and strip packs, cartridges, product from external elements such as light and nebulizers, vials, etc. moisture which could affect its integrity. The selection of the packaging material is based on the 6. Resin Identification Coding of Plastic type of product being manufactured. Therefore, all Packaging Containers the physical and chemical properties of the product as On the bottom of any plastic packaging container is a well as the packaging materials are of utmost symbol designated as a resin identification code importance. Plastics are generally considered for the (RIC). This is a symbol with a number in its middle. packaging of pharmaceutical preparations because Each symbol is unique and refers to the type of plastic plastic containers are not heavy, not fragile and do not employed in the manufacture of the container in easily develop leakage. They are cheap to question. Each symbolic code is designated to the manufacture since they are easily moulded or types of products that it could be used to package. It remoulded with aesthetic and excellent finishing. then serves as a guide to producers to ensure that Their lids or closures are resistant to rust or corrosion products are not packaged in the wrong containers. [42, 43]. The Society of the (SPI) established

this classification system in 1988 in an effort to Currently, plastics are produced and employed in the evolve standardization in the production of plastics packaging of pharmaceutical products as follows [44- and reprocessing of recycled plastic materials. The 48]: coding system also enables producers of consumer  Rigid bottles as packaging materials for solid goods, consumers and recyclers to harness and dosage forms like tablets, capsules or appropriately identify different types of plastics [49]. powders. With the knowledge of this, the consumers can  Sterile plastic packaging materials for human ascertain that the particular product they are procuring blood samples and their components. is packaged in the right container, especially, the  Plastic packaging materials for aqueous internally consumed products ranging from solutions.

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 6

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 pharmaceuticals to foods and beverages [50]. The plastic bottles and does not contain bisphenol-A codes are as follows: (BPA) or [53].

6.1 PET: The Polyethylene terephthalate 6.3 PVC: Polyvinyl chloride Polyethylene terephthalate, commonly abbreviated as Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was one of the first plastics PET or PETE is a general-purpose thermoplastic discovered and is also one of the most extensively polymer belonging to the polyesters. It is one of the used. It is made softer and flexible by adding most recycled thermoplastics and has its SPI resin phthalates and bisphenol-A. It has its SPI resin identification code (RIC) as “1”. It is an excellent identification code as “3”. It is used in toys, blister water and moisture barrier material, hence, , blood bags, detergent bottles, food packages, containers made from PET are widely used for lunch-boxes, etc. PVC is harmful for use in storing mineral water and carbonated soft drinks, foods, anything to be ingested. It is sometimes recycled but cooking oils, packaging trays and pharmaceutical is rarely accepted by recycling programmes as it packages and medical applications [13, 51, 52]. It releases dioxins, phthalates, , ethylene prevents oxygen from getting in and spoiling the dichloride, lead, cadmium and other toxic chemicals product packaged in them and equally helps to keep such as bisphenol-A (BPA) and is considered the the carbon dioxide in a carbonated drink from most hazardous plastic for health and the environment escaping. Though this material absorbs odours and [54, 55]. flavours from foods and drinks that are stored in them, it does not contain harmful bisphenol-A (BPA), 6.4 LDPE: Low-density polyethylene phthalates, dioxins (a group of compounds sometimes This type of plastic has its SPI RIC as “4” and is used formed with high-temperature combustion above 750 in grocery stores, bread and sandwich bags, o F and certain types of industrial processes involving squeezable bottles, drug dispensing bottles, juice and chlorine) lead, cadmium or endocrine disruptors [52]. milk cartons, etc. It has resistance to moderate levels of heat, recyclable, durable and flexible [56-58]. 6.2 HDPE: High density polyethylene High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is used to make 6.5 PP: Polypropylene many types of bottles. It has a good barrier and is This has its SPI resin identification code as “5” and suitable for packaging products with a short shelf life could occasionally be recycled. It is strong and can and has good chemical resistance. It is commonly withstand high temperatures and is safe for food and recycled and has its SPI resin identification code as beverages, however, caution needs to be exercised “2”. This could be opaque, translucent (and often with microwaving them with edible items to avoid white). It is used as containers for milk, yoghurt, fruit leakage of certain chemicals [59]. The plastics are juices, pharmaceutical products, caps for food useful in medicine bottles, straws, bottle caps, syrup packaging and plastic grocery bags [13]. The HDPE is bottles, and some yoghurt containers as well as in the most commonly used plastic in the production of flexible packaging of food, confectionaries and tobacco [60]. Polypropylene (PP) has a high heat

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 7

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 tolerance and as such, does not seem to leach many of 6.6µg per person per day, a value that is more than the chemicals other plastics do [61]. 10,000 times below the safety limit set by FDA. The FDA’s acceptable daily intake value of styrene is 6.6 PS: Polystyrene calculated to be 90,000 micrograms per person per The polystyrene has its SPI resin identification code day [62-64]. as “6”. It is also known as Styrofoam and is used for cups, plates, take-out containers, supermarket meat 6.7 Others trays, and packing peanuts. Their materials can leach Any plastic item not made from the other six plastics styrene, a suspected , especially in the as highlighted earlier is lumped together and presence of heat [61]. In safety matters, there was designated with the SPI resin identification code of some confusion over the safety of polystyrene with “7”. They may likely leach bisphenol-A (BPA) and/or the inclusion of "styrene" in the National Toxicology bisphenol-S (BPS) (a chemical analogue of BPA), Program's (NTP) 12th Report on in both potent endocrine disruptors linked to interfering 2011. Styrene is naturally present in foods such as with proper mood, growth, development, sexual strawberries, peaches, cinnamon, beef and coffee and function, reproductive function, and puberty, among is produced in the processing of foods such as beer, other essential human developmental processes. They wine and cheese. It is also used to make polystyrene, are also suspected of increasing the risk of adult a material used to make some foodservice packaging. reproductive cancers, , heart disease, and type In 2013, the American Chemistry Council's Plastics 2 [61]. Foodservice Packaging Group provided updated styrene migration data to FDA. The data show that The various types of polymers engaged in various current exposures to styrene from the use of packaging materials and their respective RIC are polystyrene food contact products remain extremely summarized in Table 1 [65, 66]. low, with the estimated daily intake calculated at

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 8

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

Symbol Type of plastic Common uses soft drink containers, water bottles, Polyethylene containers, salad dressing, biscuit trays and terephthalates salad domes. High density Shopping bags, freezer bags, buckets, polyethylene (HDPE) shampoo, milk bottles, ice cream containers, juice bottles, chemical and detergent bottles, rigid agricultural pipe, crates. Polyvinyl Chloride Cosmetic container, (PVC) plumbing pipes and fittings, Plasticized Polyvinyl chloride electrical conduct, blister packs, wall PVC-P. cladding, roof sheeting, bottles, garden

hose, Shoe soles, cable sheathing, blood bags and tubing. Low density polyethylene Refuse bags, Irrigation tubings, mulch film, (LDPE) cling wrap, garbage bags, squeeze bottles.

Polypropylene (PP) Microwave dishes, lunch boxes, packaging tape, garden furniture, kettles, bottles and ice cream tubs, potato chip bags,

straws Polystyrene (PS) CD cases, plastic cutlery, Expanded imitation glassware, low polystyrene (PS-E) cost brittle toys, video cases/foamed polystyrene

cups, protective packaging, building and food insulation Other Automotive and appliance components, computers,

electronics, cooler bottles, packaging

Table 1: Types of plastics, their properties, common uses and their SPI/RIC symbol/number.

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 9

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

7. Environmental and Public Health Impacts additives like phthalates, heavy metals, bisphenol-A, of Plastic Wastes brominated flame retardants, nonylphenol, 7.1 Impact of plastic wastes on the environment ethers, phenanthrene, In Europe, around 2006, plastic materials were dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, antimony trioxide prevalent in the packaging (38 %), followed by sipping into the land and entering the groundwater. building and construction (21%), automotive (7%), With flooding, these toxic chemicals also enter the electrical and electronic (6 %), and other sectors like rivers, seas, oceans, etc. The recycling of plastics medical and leisure (28 %) [44]. This shows that requires careful sorting of plastic material, which is packaging constituted the largest market for plastic difficult. Recycled plastics tend to be of lower quality products due to a global shift from reusable to single- and may not be practical for health care and other use containers. It led to the increase in the share of applications [70]. plastics in municipal solid waste (by mass) from less The leading source of plastics-related environmental than 1 % in 1960 to more than 10 % by 2005 in destruction stems from the overuse of items whose middle and high-income nations [67]. At the same long-term damage outweighs their short-term profit. time, global solid waste generation, which is strongly Such challenges often come through consumer correlated with the gross national income per capita, convenience items which are most of the time has grown steadily over the past five decades [68, 69]. hurriedly discarded after a short use-life. They include

Plastics represent 15-25 % of all hospital waste in the plastic water bottles, grocery bags, packaging, United States. Some newer plastics are biodegradable, Styrofoam cups, Teflon-coated dental floss and other but the rest is incinerated, disposed of in landfills or products [70]. Plastic debris has been found in all recycled. These techniques are bound with ecological major ocean basins [71], with an estimated 4-12 risk. Biodegradable plastics may break down in the million metric tons (Mt) of plastic waste generated on atmosphere into smaller polymer components, which land entering the marine environment in 2010 alone may still pose a risk to the surroundings [70]. The [67]. Pollution of freshwater systems and terrestrial enormous majority of monomers used to make habitats is also increasingly more documented [72- plastics, such as ethylene and propylene, are derived 74], as is environmental contamination with synthetic from fossil hydrocarbons and the plastics made from fibres [74, 75]. Plastic waste is now so ubiquitous in these are not biodegradable. Instead of decomposing, the environment that it has been suggested as a they accumulate in landfills or the natural environs geological indicator of the proposed Anthropocene [71]. era [76].

Incineration liberates greenhouse gases associated There are three possible environmental problems to be with climate change. Landfilling of plastics, considered. Firstly, plastics are mostly made from oil, particularly in the enormous volumes, maybe an natural gas or coal, and these are all limited natural impractical use of land resources and a danger exists resources that must be conserved for other utilization of plastic constituents which are toxic chemical [77].

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 10

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

Secondly, the manufacture of plastics produces a lot heavy metals, bisphenol-A, brominated flame of harmful pollutants which manufacturing companies retardants, nonylphenol, polychlorinated biphenyl need to deal with properly. Plastics being versatile, ethers, phenloballyanthrene, pliable, durable, cheap to produce, and pervasive, are dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, antimony trioxide, also both a life-saving miracle product and the etc. which can leach out to have adverse effects on scourge of the earth. In 2012, about 8 % of the environmental and public health. Long term usage world’s oil production was used to make plastic and and exposure of plastics and plastic products to high power its production. That figure is projected to rise temperature can lead to leaching of these toxic to 20 % by 2050 [78]. Considering the global chemical additives into food, drinks and water. distribution of plastic production, half the world’s Chaotic disposal of plastics on land and open- air plastics are made in Asia. The lion’s share of that, 29 burning can lead to the release of toxic chemicals into % is made in China, home to 18 % of the world’s the air causing public health hazards [79-82]. population. The rest of Asia produces 21 %, Europe (19 %), the North America Free Trade Agreement By 2015, humans had produced 6.3 billion tons of (NAFTA) countries (18 %), Middle/East Africa (7 plastic waste. Of that total, only 9 % was recycled; %), Latin America (4 %) and others (2 %) [78]. Less 12% was incinerated and 79% accumulated in than a fifth of all the plastics made are recycled. landfills or the natural environment. With the Plastic effluence is most visible in emerging Asian continuation of such a trend, roughly 12 billion metric and African nations, where trash gathering systems tons of plastic waste will be in landfills or the natural are often disorganized or non-existent. The rates of environment by 2050 [83]. As at 2017, the global are higher in Europe (about 30 %), plastic production by industry (in millions of tons) China (25 %), the United States recycle just 9 % of were: building construction (72 million tons), her plastic trash [78]. packaging (161 million tons), textiles (65 million tons), consumer products (46 million tons), Thirdly, old and undesirable plastics are not always transportation (30 million tons), electrical (19 million easy to dispose of. When they are left in landfill sites tons), industrial machinery (3 million tons), other (52 they take a very long time to decay. Some 18 billion million tons). About 40 % of plastics produced is pounds of plastic waste flows into the oceans every packaging, used just once and then discarded [78, 84]. year from coastal regions leading to degradation of marine habitat which eventually affects aquatic 8. Impacts of Plastic Wastes on Animals organisms. That is the equivalent of five grocery bags A considerable aspect of the planet is bathing in of plastic trash sitting on every foot of the coast rejected plastics which though harms animals, exerts globally [67]. Diversities of the plastics used in the an indirect effect on human health. Food materials for manufacture of many consumable products including human intake can be undesirably affected if animals medical devices, food packaging and water bottles, in serving as meat to man are poisoned by toxic addition to being synthetic organic polymers, also elements from plastic wastes. have been contain toxic chemicals additives like phthalates, established in more than 100 marine species,

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 11

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 comprising fish, shrimp, and mussels that are edible them. Irrespective of the trace amount of antimony - [85]. Millions of animals are exterminated by plastics averaging less than 1 part per billion getting leached yearly, ranging from birds to fish to other marine into liquids, long storage of liquids in PET containers organisms through eating and entanglement of as well as leaving such in warm temperatures inside plastics or starvation, even though ingestion is more cars, garages and enclosed storage could be risky common than entanglement and starvation. Their [52]. Equally, exposure to the harmful effect of the stomachs when packed with plastics decrease their PVC could take place by the consumption of food or . Animals like the seals, whales, turtles, etc. water polluted with PVC, or food enclosed in PVC are strangled by abandoned fishing gear or cast-off packaging or containers, inhaling emissions from six-pack rings [79, 85, 86]. Aquatic trash constituting manufacturing or incinerating PVC or landfills or by plastics mainly affects sea turtles, etc. that feed on skin contact with materials made from the PVC [89]. jellyfishes since they regularly mistake these wastes for jellyfish. Similarly, sea birds mistake Varieties of the plastics employed in the manufacture microplastics for cuttlefish (a swimming marine of medical devices, food packaging and water bottles mollusc). Fishes also mistake plastic wastes for their are made from synthetic organic polymers with toxic natural prey [87]. These microplastics which enter the additives like phthalates, heavy metals, bisphenol-A digestive systems of these animals have often been (BPA), brominated flame retardants, nonylphenol, found to block their digestive tracts or pierced the polychlorinated biphenyl ethers, phenanthrene, organs of these animals leading to death. Plastics have dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, antimony trioxide, also been consumed by land-based animals like etc. At various environs, these could permeate into elephants, hyenas, zebras, tigers, camels, cattle and the contents of the packages, land, air and ground other large mammals, often also leading to death [88]. waters as they are disposed from their entry point to Tests have also confirmed liver and cell damage and the ecosystem and gain access to the food chain with disruptions to reproductive systems, prompting some their multiple adverse effects on ecological and public species, such as oysters, to produce fewer eggs [2, health. With continual use of plastic-based products, 85]. contact to their adverse effects are expected to thrive into new areas of the atmosphere and food chain, 9. Public Health Impacts of Plastic Wastes especially as these plastic products break up into Prolonged storage of liquid in PET-based containers micro-particles and their toxic chemical constituents leads to the leaching of antimony trioxide (a get saturated in the environment with their unpleasant compound considered as a carcinogen) due to the human health impacts arising at every stage of the catalyst used in making PET which is chemically plastic lifecycle: from its extraction, mining or bound into the polymer at very low levels of 200 -300 transportation, production site to store shelves for parts per million. Prolonged contact to a hot consumer use and to waste management (by environment coupled with extended storage of liquids incineration, recycling, etc.) to their influences as air, in them might cause trace amounts of antimony to water and soil impurities. In the course of these migrate into the liquid content or beverages left in cycles, there are major inhalations, ingestion or skin

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 12

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 contacts through the air, water and soil of emissions 10. Public Health and Environmental of micro-plastics and myriads of toxic effluences [79]. Influences due to Plastic Waste Management

Techniques Up to 99 % of plastics originates from fossil fuels. Some of the plastic waste management approaches The mining of oil and gas, mainly hydraulic fracturing like incineration, co-incineration, gasification and for natural gas, discharges a range of toxic discharges pyrolysis release toxic metals like lead and mercury, like benzene and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) organic substances (dioxins and furans), polycyclic into the air and water in considerable amounts. aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), acid gases and other Exposure to these occurs by inhalation and ingestion toxic substances to the air, water, and soils. These of contaminated air and water. Their health effects plastic waste management approaches expose workers upset the immune system, sensory organs, liver and in such sites and the near-by communities directly or kidney and could lead to cancers, neuro-reproductive indirectly to toxic constituents through inhalation of and age-related toxicity [2]. polluted air, direct contact with filthy soil or water

and consumption of foods that were developed in Transforming fossil fuel into plastic resins and surroundings made unhygienic due to these elements. additives discharge carcinogenic and other extremely Pollutants from emissions, fly ash and slag in a burn toxic constituents like benzene, polycyclic aromatic pile can extend to far places depositing in soil and hydrocarbons (PAHs) and styrene into the air. water and at the end entering human bodies after Exposure to these is by inhalation, ingestion and skin being accumulated in the tissues of plants and contact of contaminated air, water and soil, possibly animals. Their health effects include cancers, leading to cancers, neurotoxicity, reproductive neurological damages and damages to immune, toxicity, low birth weight, eye and skin irritation. reproductive, nervous and endocrine system [90]. Human activities in patronizing consumer goods, as well as those packaged with plastics, bring about 11. Public Health and Environmental Impacts exposure to certain emissions such as heavy metals, of Plastic Additives persistent organic pollutants (POPs), carcinogens, During the processing and production of plastic ethylene dichloride (EDCs) and micro-plastics. products, various additives are incorporated to boost Contact to these is by inhalation, ingestion and skin their production, enhance their aesthetic values and contact as several of these chemicals migrate from the durability [16-32]. Irrespective of the reasons for the plastic packaging to the foods they contain. They utilization of these additives, they are associated with affect the renal, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, undesirable ecological and human health effects as neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems follows [91]: and possibly causing cancers, diabetes and developmental toxicity [2].  Direct toxicity, as in the cases of lead, cadmium, and mercury.  Carcinogens, as in the case of diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP).

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 13

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

 Endocrine disruption, which can lead to and has played a role in the pathogenesis of several cancers, birth defects, immune system endocrine disorders including female and male suppression and developmental problems in infertility, precocious puberty, hormone-dependent children. tumours such as breast and prostate cancer and several metabolic disorders including polycystic ovary The public is exposed to these chemicals not only syndrome (PCOS), etc. [93-97]. during manufacturing but also by using plastic packages since some chemicals migrate from the 11.2 The phthalates plastic packaging to the foods they contain. Instances Exposure to phthalates could be through inhalation, of plastic-based contamination of food have been ingestion and dermal absorption [98]. Phthalates are documented as emanating from several plastic types, semi-volatile organic compounds which are widely including styrene from polystyrene, plasticizers from applied as plasticizers into polyvinyl chloride (PVC) PVC, antioxidants from polyethylene and to impart flexibility of plastic in consumer products acetaldehyde from PET [91]. Other plastic additives such as toys, flooring materials, wallpaper, furniture, with threatening influences on public health include building materials, food containers or medical devices bisphenol-A (BPA), phthalates, flame retardants, etc. [99]. Since phthalates are not covalently bound to the polymers they can easily migrate into the environment 11.1 Bisphenol-A with time and exposure [100]. Phthalates and their The BPA is vastly employed in the production of metabolites could have adverse effects on the human plastics and epoxy resins. body and are associated with endometriosis [101], Polycarbonate plastics are engaged in the packaging reduced sperm count and quality [102-103], decreased of medical devices, food and drink while epoxy resins testosterone levels [104], metabolic diseases such as are used as lacquers to coat metal products such as diabetes, obesity and breast cancer [105-107], as well food cans, bottle tops and water supply pipes. These as allergy and asthma [108, 109]. serve as key possible sources of exposure to BPA among several other sources as BPA can leach into 11.3 Flame retardants food from the protective internal epoxy resin coatings The flame retardants commonly used as additives in of any of the packages of the above items. The extent plastics and other consumer products include the of its leaching from polycarbonate bottles into liquid brominated flame retardant (BFRs), polychlorinated may depend more on the temperature to which the biphenyls (PCBs), etc. to prevent the start or slow the liquid or bottle is exposed to, than the age of the growth of a fire. Flame retardants are grouped based container [92]. BPA is metabolized in the liver to on whether they contain bromine, chlorine, form bisphenol-A glucuronide and is excreted in this phosphorus, nitrogen, metals or boron [110]. form with the urine. Due to its phenolic structure, BPA has been shown to interact with estrogen 11.4 Brominated flame retardant (BFR) receptors and acts as agonist or antagonist via The most commonly used BFR are tetrabromo- estrogen receptor (ER) dependent signalling pathways bisphenol A (TBBPA) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). They have been linked to endocrine

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 14

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 disruption among other effects [111, 112]. They are concern at hazardous waste sites and in the not chemically bound to the polymer making it environment [122]. possible for PBDEs to leach out and contaminate surrounding environment [113]. Fish and fish 12. Curbing the Public Health and products contain the highest levels of BFRs and Environmental Impacts of Plastic Wastes dominate the dietary intake of frequent fish eaters in About 50 % of the annual plastic production are Europe, while meat, followed by seafood and dairy engaged in packaging, especially in the food and products accounted for the highest US dietary intake healthcare sector with its resultant high plastic wastes. [111, 114, 115]. PBDEs and TBBPA are hormone There should be a second uprising of plastics in which disruptors, altering the activities of thyroid hormones life-cycle reflections are incorporated in the and oestrogen, thereby causing impaired development manufacture and utilization resolutions to curb the of both the nervous and reproductive systems [111]. ample present-day flow of plastic wastes, most of which are intended for disposal after a single-use 11.5 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) [123]. To reduce the myriads of problems posed by Marine food web has always been polluted with plastic products, they must be designed and produced, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) for the last 70 for example as biodegradable, used and disposed years, particularly in seabirds through plastic bits thoughtfully to prevent or minimize plastic waste [116]. Ingestion of PCBs may cause reproductive from entering the land, rivers and seas, etc. [55]. disorders, enhance disease proliferation, alters According to the National Geographic Society, this hormone levels and death [116-118]. PCBs have been could be accomplished with improved waste shown to cause cancer and non-cancer related effects management systems and recycling, better product in animals including effects on the immune, design that takes into account the short life of reproductive, nervous, endocrine systems and other disposable packaging and reduction in the health disorders like endocrine changes, manufacturing of unnecessary single-use plastics [2]. immunological alterations, neurodevelopment and Contemporary research offers substantial anticipation reproductive changes [119-121]. The ban on PCBs for enhancements to human and environmental health. under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in Better biodegradable plastics are now being the United States is principally due to a rising developed using carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide scientific indication that PCBs accumulate in the compounds and applying metal complexes as environment and can adversely impact humans and catalysts [123]. To curb the public health and other biotas. The PCBs do not degrade easily in the environmental impacts arising from plastic wastes, environment and since they are lipophilic, they tare there will be a very essential need to clear up the bio-accumulate in of higher predators, marine systems. It will be necessary to create an including humans. Thus, even though they are no adjustment in the mindset of the general public longer manufactured or used by industry, they regarding the intrinsic predicaments from plastic continue to be encountered as contaminants of product wastes regardless of their indispensability. The general public needs to reduce the use of plastic

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 15

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 materials and consider alternatives where there are, developing countries, was attained in Europe with the especially, the disposable packaging items which introduction of modern sanitation practices. In parallel could be reused where it becomes necessary instead of with the population explosion leading to increased outrightly always picking up new ones and throwing production and consumption, the growing need and them away after use without contemplation of the role for waste management as a “filter” between proper way it could be disposed of. While re- human activities and the environment became orientating and educating the citizens of every nation apparent, resulting in the development of safe and of the need to imbibe the right attitude in handling reliable technologies such as modern collection plastic products, especially with its disposal, the need systems, incinerators, and sanitary landfills. Also, for recycling of such products cannot be recycling was introduced and soon became recognized overemphasized [70, 124, 125]. Government policy as a means to reduce the exploitation of primary such as imposing a very high tariff or value added-tax resources and thus to reduce pollution created by on the prices of all plastic packaging materials mining and ore processing [126]. especially on the types that could be reused. This will cause the large population of the nation where such The first step in the management of plastic waste is tariffs are applicable to become thoughtful and measuring the degree of waste and this is very tasking considerate in attempt to preserve such reusable due to of lack of details about their real sources and packaging materials for their next use instead of where they are likely ending up [125]. This statistics outright discarding them and picking a new one in the is very essential since material flow breakdown helps next shopping exercises. to put a figure on the flow of products and wastes [127]. This process was developed in the late 1990s 13. Curbing the Public Health and by industrial ecologists for waste management [128]. Environmental Impacts of Plastic Wastes It integrates diverse types of data, tracking imported Through the Management of Plastic Wastes or newly factory-made products inward bound economies to their use and reuse, comprising The packaging materials which are often hurriedly recycling, export or disposal in landfills [125]. A discarded after a short use-life include plastic water review of the application of material flow analysis bottles, grocery bags, packaging, Styrofoam cups and [127] in Trinidad and Tobago, for instance, disclosed several other pharmaceutical and packaging products. that most of the plastic arriving the nation’s landfills – These are the largest source of plastics-related a total of 49,000 tons per year – was not produced or environmental damage due to the overuse of items imported, rather, they entered the nation as packaging whose long-term damage outweighs their short-term materials around imported goods. In other words, the profit [70]. The practice of waste management leading aggregate of landfilled plastic emanated from provides services, specifically to remove waste from other products [125]. Further origins of plastic wastes the human habitat to ensure hygienic living that pollute the environment, apart from those conditions. This very basic task, which was the main originating as packaging around the imported goods aim of waste management in the developed world in several countries, include food wrappers and until the end of the 19th century and still is in many

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 16

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 containers (31.14 %), bottle and container caps (15.5 of about 6.3 billion tonnes have been manufactured %), plastic bags (11.8 %), straws and stirrers (8.13 universally, 9 % and 12 % of which have been %), beverages bottles (7.27 %) and take-away (6.27 recycled and incinerated, respectively [130]. Plastics %) [129]. Plastic wastes that started as packaging of about 5 million tonnes are yearly expended in the materials congests tropical landfills and countries UK alone, with only about one-quarter recycled, and around the world throw away millions of tons of the rest landfilled. It has been suggested by plastic junk every year. Finding methods to manage investigators that by 2050, oceans might hold more plastic wastes is overwhelming even for wealthy plastics than fish in terms of weight [131]. Annually, nations, but for smaller and less-developed nations it approximately 500 billion plastic bags are used out of can be devastating [125]. Geyer et al, 2017 piloted a which a projected 13 million tonnes ends up in the comprehensive plastic waste by disposal, 1980 to ocean, destroying about 100,000 marine lives [130]. 2015 applying the estimated share of global plastic Several ways of managing plastic wastes include waste by disposal method [130]. They projected the landfilling, plastic incineration and plastic recycling global fate of all the plastic waste within the year [79]. under study by categorizing the waste plastics as recycled, incinerated or discarded. The data they 14. Landfilling generated showed that before 1980, recycling and The total generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration of plastic were taken into thought and in the USA in 2017 was 267.8 million tons or 4.51 indicates that 100 % was discarded. From 1980 for pounds per person per day out of which, nearly 67 incineration and 1990 for recycling, rates increased on million tons were recycled and 27 million tons were average by about 0.7% per annum [130]. In 2015, an composted. In all, more than 94 million tons of MSW estimated 55 % of global plastic waste was discarded, were recycled and composted, corresponding to a 35.2 25% was incinerated, and 20 % recycled. Geyer et al % recycling and composting rate. Further, more than [130] postulated that an extrapolation of historic 34 million tons of MSW (12.7 %) were combusted developments through to 2050, that incineration rates with energy recovery and more than 139 million tons would increase to 50 %; recycling to 44 % and of MSW (52.1 %) were landfilled [132]. As of 2018, discarded waste would fall to 6 %, though, they stated within the EU Member States, 40 % of the total that it should be noted that the postulation was plastic manufacture was for packaging and out of the established on the simplistic extrapolation of plastic waste control, 31 % went for landfilling [133]. historical pattern and does not characterize actual It has been estimated that globally, 55 % of plastic estimates [130]. The entire plastic wastes that are wastes go straight to landfill or were discarded [130, discarded end up in the landfill and some in the ocean 134]. with their multiple environmental and human impact In as much as landfilling is the conservative as have earlier been enumerated. communal waste control technique in several Globally, plastic production was estimated to be 380 countries, though, deficiency of space for landfills is million tonnes in 2018. Since 1950 to 2018, plastics defying the approach [135, 136]. Historically,

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 17

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 landfilling was pretty in the UK since it is contaminated soil absorb unhealthy ingredients. comparatively inexpensive and simple without Human beings or animals may ingest these plants and necessarily requiring treatment, cleaning or get affected and may equally inhale soil filths through separation. In 1999, 65% (8.4 million tonnes per a dust-free in the air or absorb harmful pollutants annum) of the overall household waste recoverable through their skin. Water from aquifers is exploited in plastics were sent to landfill in Western Europe [137], the cities and irrigation of the farms. It has been but at present in the UK, plastic waste landfilling is projected that about 97 % of the planet’s liquid fresh the least favoured waste management option [138, water is stored in aquifers and about 1.5 billion people 139]. There is a rising ecological and public health worldwide depend on ground water as portable water anxiety around the probable effects of landfills due to [135, 136, 146-156]. the categories and extents of toxic chemicals and their possibilities for leaching at landfill sites [139, 140, Gases like methane that is released from landfill is a 141]. It is currently a government policy in the UK to greenhouse gas that is 25 times more toxic than decrease the extent of wastes landfilled (e.g. Landfill carbon dioxide with its high degree of implications in Directive European Commission 1999/31/EC) which global warming and climate alteration. Methane is as has been challenging to arrive as an estimated 60 % of well an inflammable gas which could be unsafe if England's municipal wastes is still sent to the landfills permitted to accumulate in concentrations. It is certain in comparison to a projection of 20 % and 37 % in that plastic wastes left in landfill degrade at a slower Germany and France, separately [138, 139]. rate and constitute challenges for many years [157, 158]. Environmental contamination and its associated dangers to public health can be curtailed if the However, landfilling could be adopted with minimal landfills are properly controlled. The main hazards damage and contamination to the environment, with landfilling are the chances of soil and especially the soil from where the contaminated soil groundwater contamination by broken plastic by- water could escape into the body of rivers or oceans. products and additives which persists in the Modern well-designed engineering techniques could surroundings [142, 143]. Landfill locations are not be employed to manage the disposal of plastic wastes attractive to sight and there are numerous in landfills. Such a landfill is constructed considering objectionable consequences for its adoption in as varying compartmental planes, with the lowest much as it permits less economic impact [79, 137, bearing the least capacity while the volume is 144]. The major unwanted implications of the landfill increased upwards. The variation in dimensions is to are toxins, leachates and greenhouse gases being the avoid collapsing of land. The lowest part is the linear degraded yields of plastic constituents as well as the arrangement designed with condensed clay and high- additives with which they were manufactured [18-32, density plastics to hinder the pollution of underground 61, 70, 71]. These seep into the soil and saturate in the water by the penetrating liquids coming from the groundwater or aquifers and establish environmental waste materials. The other phase of the design is the dangers for years [1, 4, 145]. Plants that thrive around drainage which takes the accumulated fluid to a treatment plant. Still another part of the strategy is the

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 18

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 gas pool portion in which volatile and toxic gases like nervous system, the endocrine system and methane are managed and harnessed to generate reproductive functions [167]. electricity. In the contemporary system, the filled trash is shielded with artificial plastic or clay-like the The incineration heater of the flue systems is one used below. The layers of discarded materials and permanently damaged by plastics during plastic soils are alternated to aid the reduction of odour and burning and the products of this plastic ignition are enhance fast breakdown [159-161]. injurious to both humans and the surroundings [168]. Compounds of low molecular weight can vapourize 15. Incineration of Plastics directly into the air thereby poisoning the air and Incineration of plastic wastes is a substitute to depending on their diversities, some may form a landfilling of plastic waste [162, 163]. Burning of combustible mixture, while others may oxidize in plastic trashes in an open place is a key cause of air solid form [169]. During the ignition of plastic contamination even though there is increasing wastes, soot, ashes and diverse powders are formed apprehensions concerning the imminent atmospheric which settle on plants and soil and probably migrate release of hazardous chemicals in the course of to the aquatic environment. Being toxic substance, incineration [134]. Often, the Municipal Solid Waste rainfall can make them sip into the soil, pollute the (MSW) comprising about 12 % of plastics is burnt, groundwater or absorbed by plants growing on this discharging toxic gases like dioxins, furans, mercury soil, and getting assimilated into the food chain [162, and polychlorinated biphenyls, hydrochloric acid, 170]. Some of these plastic incineration yields can sulphur dioxide and several particulates into the air chemically react with water and the subsequent which pollute the air and modify the climate. They composites can modify the pH and alter the also aggravate respiratory conditions and stress effectiveness of the aquatic ecologies [168, 147]. human immunity [164]. The release of harmful fumes Computational models for the environmental into the atmosphere has been the major drawback of transportation and outcome of pollutants over air, soil, incineration of plastic wastes [165]. The dioxins are water and food can offer valuable details for assessing classified under the persistent organic pollutants significant contact paths for humans. The prototypes (POPs) which bio-accumulate in the food chain, recommend that ingestion of fish constitutes the main mostly in the fatty tissues of an animal or human pathway of human contact to mercury and that meats, body. Dioxins are highly toxic and can cause dairy products, and fish are probably the vital means reproductive and developmental problems, damage for dioxins and furans [162]. Due to the potential the immune system, interfere with hormones and also pollution impact on the environment, plastic cause cancer [166]. Short-term exposure of humans to incineration is less employed for waste management high levels of dioxins may result in skin lesions, such in comparison to recycling and landfilling [79, 171]. as chloracne and patchy darkening of the skin, and altered liver function. Long-term exposure is linked to 16. Recycling of Plastics impairment of the immune system, the developing Nearly all of the plastic that served one useful purpose or the other turns into waste and a huge amount of

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 19

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 them eventually end up in the oceans, rivers and plastic wastes that surge into the oceans or landfill terrestrial territories [172]. The solution to avert such across the world [177]. Recycling of plastic wastes is dangerous outcomes is to stop with such treatments significant to real end-of-life plastic control. and undertake to the recycling of the plastics that Enhancing recycling rates will result in the more were previously used. Though reducing the use of public consciousness and the better efficiency of plastic is the best, but recycling them at any time recycling processes. Working proficiency will be possible is the next-best key [173]. Since 1950, only 9 improved if the investment is increased in research % of plastic used has been sufficiently recycled and development of advanced ways to curb wastes [84] and close to half of the plastics utilized ended up accumulating from plastic packaging materials. in landfill or dumped in the wild. Each year about 8 Recycling of a larger collection of post-consumer million metric tons of plastic wastes are destined to plastic products and packaging will additionally the oceans [67, 83], swept along by the world’s rivers. increase the idea of plastic recycling and divert more In addition to being a critical environmental problem, end-of-life plastic wastes from landfills and lack of recycling represents a tremendous amount of incineration. Industries and policymakers can also value that local economies fail to capture [175]. The help stimulate recycling activity by requiring or goal of plastic recycling is to reduce high rates of incentivizing the use of recycled resin versus virgin plastic contamination while putting less pressure on plastics [177]. virgin materials to produce brand new plastic products. This approach helps to save resources and 17. Conclusion averts plastics from landfills, incineration or The twentieth century was a period of enormous accidental endpoints such as the oceans. progress, achieved in part by ignoring the possible consequences of the ways in which that progress was Currently, only PET, HDPE and PVC plastic products being made to happen. The conjunction of are recycled under curbside recycling programs. PS, inadequately thought-out technological approaches PP and LDPE typically are not recycled because these with rapidly rising populations and an increasing plastic materials get stuck in the sorting equipment in culture of consumption led to the trouble besetting recycling facilities causing it to break or stop. Lids mankind due to the menace of plastic wastes accruing and bottle tops cannot be recycled as well. “To from the packaging of healthcare and food products recycle or not to recycle” is a big question when it among others. There are roles for many players in comes to plastic recycling. Some plastic types are not addressing the need to transform the technology– recycled because it is not economically feasible to do society–environment relationship. Social scientists so. Recycling offers prospects to lessen oil usage, need to understand consumption and how it may discharges of carbon dioxide and the extents of waste evolve and be modified. Environmental scientists and necessitating discarding [176]. It takes 88 % less material science experts need to understand the limits energy than producing plastics from new raw imposed by a planet with limited resources and materials and would still remain a better way of limited assimilative capacity for industrial emissions. managing plastic wastes, to minimize the tonnes of Technologists need to develop design and

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 20

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114 manufacturing approaches that are more situ conformation of adsorbed flexible environmentally sound. Industrialists need to polyelectrolyte chains. J. Amer. Chem. Soc understand all these frameworks for action and 127 (2005): 15688-15689. develop ways to integrate the concepts within today’s 8. Ugoeze KC, Nwachukwu N, Nwodo CC. corporate structures. Policymakers need to provide the Excipient functionality of a novel proper mix of regulations and incentives to promote hydrophilic biopolymer derived from the long-term health of the planet rather than short- Ipomoea batatas tubers. Indo Am. J. Pharm. term fixes [128]. However, effort should be geared by Res 7 (2017): 360-368. the government agencies and policymakers of various 9. Chukwu A, Ofoefule SI, Ugoeze K. Studies nations, especially the developing economies on of the pharmaceutical application of a educating the populace of the dangers inherent in polysaccharide derived from Treculia careless disposals of plastic wastes. africana fruit. Bolletino Chimico Farmaceutico 136 (1997): 539-544. References 10. Painter PC, Coleman MM. Fundamentals of 1. Rodrigues MO, Abrantes N, Gonçalves FJM, Polymer Science: An Introductory Text, 2nd et al. Impacts of plastic products used in ed.; Technomic Publishing Co: Lancaster PA daily life on the environment and human (1997). health: What is known? Environ. Toxicol. 11. Ugoeze KC. Bioadhesive polymers for drug Pharmacol 72 (2019): 103239. delivery applications. In: Bioadhesives in 2. Parker L. The world's crisis Drug Delivery, 1st ed.; Mittal KL, Bakshi IS, explained. Environment Explainer (2019). Narang JK (Editors). John Wiley and Sons: 3. Parker L. We depend on plastic. Now we are NJ, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC: drowning in it. National Geographic (2018). MA, USA. 29-56. 4. Ferronato N, Torretta V. Waste 12. American Chemistry Council. History of mismanagement in developing countries: A Polymers and Plastics. Available from: Review of global issues. Int J Environ Res http://plastics.americanchemistry.com/Educa Public Health 16 (2019): 1060. tion-Resources/Hands-on-Plastics [accessed 5. Kumar S, Stephen R. Smith GF, et al. 17.06.20]. Challenges and opportunities associated with 13. Katz DA. Polymers. Available from: waste management in India. R. Soc. Open http://www.chymist.com/Polymer%20lab.pd Sci 4 (2017): 160764. f [accessed 17.06.20]. 6. Harsulkar AA, Sreenivas SA, Mandade RJ, 14. Plastics Europe. What are plastics? Available et al. Polymers in mucoadhesive drug from: delivery system- A review. Intl. J. Drug https://www.plasticseurope.org/en/about- Formulation Res 2 (2018): 61-67. plastics/what-are-plastics [accessed 7. Roiter I, Minko S. AFM single molecule 17.06.20]. experiments at the solid-liquid interface: In

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 21

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

15. Plastics Europe. How plastics are made. Polymer Science and Technology Series, Available from: Springer: Dordrecht 1 (1998): 485-498. https://www.plasticseurope.org/en/about- 24. Colorants for Plastic Industry. Dyes for plastics/what-are-plastics/how-plastics-are- Plastics Industry, Pigments for Plastics made [accessed 18.06.20]. Industry. Dyes and Pigments, Dyes 16. Chlorinated Paraffins Industry Association. Manufacturers, Dyes Intermediates, Letter to Darryl Arfsten (NRC), from Robert Pigments Suppliers, Wholesale Dyes J. Fensterheim, Executive Director, CPIA, Intermediates. regarding chlorinated paraffins for use in 25. Pritchard G. Antistatic agents. In: Pritchard furniture flame retardants. Chlorinated G. (ed.) Plastics Additives. Polymer Science Paraffins Industry Association, Washington, and Technology Series, Springer: Dordrecht DC (1999). 1 (1998): 108-114. 17. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 26. Patel P, Savargaonkar N. A Review of Environmental Profiles of Chemical Flame- Additives for Plastics: Slips and Anti-blocks, Retardant Alternatives for Low-Density Plastics Engineering-Connecticut 63 (2007): Foam (Report). EPA 742-R- 48-51. 05-002A (2005). 27. Hahladakisa JN, Velisa CA, Weber R, et al. 18. Thürmer A. Acid scavengers for polyolefins. An overview of chemical additives present in In: Pritchard G. (ed). Plastics Additives. plastics: Migration, release, fate and Polymer Science and Technology Series, environmental impact during their use, Springer: Dordrecht 1 (1998). disposal and recycling. J. Hazard. Mater 344 19. Crawford J. 2(2-hydroxyphenyl) 2H- (2018): 179-199. benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers. Progress 28. Advani SG, Sozer EM. Process Modeling in in Polymer Science 24 (1999): 7-43. Composites Manufacturing, 2nd ed. Taylor 20. Geuskens G, Bastin P, Lu V, et al. Photo- and Francis Group: LLC (2010). oxidation of polymers: Part IV-Influence of 29. Dean DA, Evans ER, Hall IH. the processing conditions on the photo- Pharmaceutical Packaging Technology. oxidative stability of polystyrene. Polymer Canada: Taylor and Francis: Canada (2005). Degradation and Stability 3 (1981): 295-306. 30. Pareek V, Khunteta A. Pharmaceutical 21. Allsopp MW, Vianello G. Poly (vinyl Packaging: Current Trends and Future. Int J chloride). In: Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Pharm Pharm Sci 6 (2014): 480-485. Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH: 31. Shivsharan US, Raut ES, Shaikh ZM. Weinheim (2012). Packaging of Cosmetics: A Review. J. 22. Titow WV. Lubricants. In: PVC Plastics. pharm. sci. innov. 3 (2014): 286-293. Springer: Dordrecht (1990): 294-312. 32. World Health Organization. Annex 9, 23. Christie RM. Pigments for plastics. In: Guidelines on packaging for pharmaceutical Pritchard G. (ed.), Plastics Additives.

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 22

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

products, WHO Technical Report Series, No. 42. U.S Department of Health and Human 902 (2002). Services, FDA. FDA Guidance on Container 33. Plastics Europe. Types of plastics. Available Closure Systems for Packaging Human from: Drugs and Biologicals; May (1999). https://www.plasticseurope.org/en/about- 43. Rawlins EA (ed.). Bentley's Text Book of plastics/what-are-plastics/large-family Pharmaceutics 8th ed. Bailliere [accessed 18.05.20]. Tindall:London (2002). 34. Chua H, Yu PHF, Ma CK. Accumulation of 44. Plastics Europe. The compelling facts about biopolymers in activated sludge biomass. plastics. An analysis of plastics production, Appl Biochem Biotech 78 (1999): 389-399. demand and recovery for 2006 in Europe. 35. Ammala A. An overview of degradable and 45. FDA Guidance on Container Closure biodegradable polyolefins. Progress in Systems for Packaging Human Drugs and Polymer Science 36 (2011): 1015-1043. Biologicals, U.S Department of Health and 36. Harris W. How long does it take for plastics Human Services, FDA, May (1999). to biodegrade? How Stuff Works (2010). 46. Engelhart A. The Fiber Year 2009/10. A 37. Association of Plastics Distributors (APD) World Survey on Textile and Nonwovens Education Committee. Amorphous and Industry, Oerlikon Textile GmbH and Co. Semi-Crystalline Engineering KG, Remscheid (2010). Thermoplastics, Module 4. Basic Plastics 47. Andrady AL, Neal, MA Applications and Education tutorials. International Association societal benefits of plastics, Philos. Trans. R. of Plastics Distributors. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. Sci 364 (2009): 1977- 38. May CA (ed.). Epoxy Resins-Chemistry and 1984. Technology, 2nd ed.; Marcel Deccker: New 48. Miller B. 17 Biggest Advantages and York (1988). Disadvantages of Plastics. Green garage 39. Scheirs J, Priddy D (eds.). Modern Styrenic (2002). Polymers: Polystyrenes and Styrenic 49. Toloken S. SPI's new name and look to Copolymers, John Wiley and Sons: NJ evolve the way people think about plastics - (2003). Plastics News (2016). 40. Cossee P. Ziegler-Natta catalysis I. 50. International Trade Centre (ITC). Packaging Mechanism of polymerization of α-olefins for Organic Foods, Geneva: ITC, 2012. xi, with Ziegler-Natta catalysts. J.Catal 3 68 pages (Technical paper) Doc. No. SC-12- (1964): 80-88. 223.E. (Sustainability Market Guides) 41. British Plastic Federation. Polyvinyl (2012). Chloride (PVC). Available from 51. Omnexus: The material selection platform. https://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/polymers/ Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): A pvc.aspx [accessed 19.05.20]. Comprehensive Review. Available from: https://omnexus.specialchem.com/selection-

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 23

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

guide/polyethylene-terephthalate-pet-plastic 59. Whiteley KS, Heggs TG, Koch H, et al [accessed 28.05.20]. Polyolefins. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of 52. PET Resin Association (PETRA). The Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley- science behind PET. Available from: VCH (2005). http://www.petresin.org/science_behindpet.a 60. British Plastics Federation (BPF). sp [accessed 28.05.20]. Polypropylene. Available from: 53. Precision Plastic Ball Company. Benefits of https://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/polymers/ using HDPE. Available from: pp.aspx [accessed 28.05.20]. https://www.precisionplasticball.com/blog/p 61. Schwartz L. Ecowatch: Environmental News ost/benefits-of-using-hdpe [accessed for a Healthier Planet and Life;. 7 Types of 28.05.20]. Plastic Wreaking Havoc on Our Health 54. Ehrlich B. The PVC Debate: A Fresh Look (2016). (2014). Available from: 62. ILSI Europe Report Series: Packaging https://www.buildinggreen.com/feature/pvc- material 2: Material: Polystyrene for Food debate-fresh-look [accessed 29.05.20]. Packaging Applications. Available from: 55. Thompson RC, Moore CJ, vom Saal FS, et https://ilsi.eu/wp- al. Plastics, the environment and human content/uploads/sites/3/2018/06/PS-ILSI- health: current consensus and future trends. Europe-Report-Update-2017_Interactif_FIN- Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364 June-2018.pdf [accessed 17.05.20]. (2009): 2153-2166. 63. Plastics foodservice packaging group 56. Malpass DB. Introduction to Industrial (PFPG). Styrene. Available from: Polyethylene: Properties, Catalysts, and https://www.fpi.org/Foodservice-Packaging- Processes. John Wiley and Sons: NJ (2010). and-Styrene [accessed 19.05.20]. 57. United States Environmental Protection 64. FDA: Safety of Polystyrene Foodservice Agency (EPA). Municipal Solid Waste Packaging. Available from: Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the https://www.plasticfoodservicefacts.com/foo United States. Available from: dservice-safety/fda-safety-of-polystyrene- https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures- foodservice-products/ [accessed 19.05.20]. about-materials-waste-and- 65. AAA Polymer. Recyclable Polymer recycling/advancing-sustainable-materials- Materials. Available from: management-0 [accessed 28.05.20]. https://www.aaapolymer.com/recyclable- 58. British Plastics Federation (BPF). plastic-materials/ [accessed 08.06.20]. Polyethylene (Low Density) LDPE, LLDPE. 66. American Chemistry Council. Plastic Available from: Packaging Resins. https://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/polymers/ https://plastics.americanchemistry.com/Plasti LDPE.aspx [accessed 28.05.20]. c-Resin-Codes-PDF/ [accessed 04.01.21].

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 24

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

67. Jambeck JR, Geyer R, Wilcox C, et al. 77. The Library of Congress. History of the Oil Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. and Gas Industry. Business and Economics Science 347 (2015): 768-771. Research Advisor (5/6) (2006). 68. Hoornweg D, Bhada-Tata P, Kennedy C. 78. Parker L. Planet or plastic: Fast facts about Environment: Waste production must peak plastic pollution. National Geographic this century. Nature 502 (2013): 615-617. (2018). 69. Wilson DC. Global Waste Management 79. Alabi OA, Ologbonjaye KI, Awosolu O, et Outlook (International Solid Waste al. Public and Environmental Health Effects Association and United National of Plastic Wastes Disposal: A Review. J Environment Programme (2015). Toxicol Risk Assess 5 (2019): 021. 70. Harth R. Health and environment: A closer 80. Sepulveda A, Schluep M, Renaud FG, et al. look at plastics. Medical Express (2013). A review of the environmental fate and 71. Barnes DKA, Galgani F, Thompson RC, et effects of hazardous substances released al. Accumulation and fragmentation of from electrical and electronic equipment plastic debris in global environments. Philos. during recycling: Examples from China and Trans. R. Soc. B 364 (2009): 1985-1998. India. Environ Impact Assess Rev 30 (2010): 72. Wagner M, Scherer C, Alvarez-Muñoz D, et 28-41. al. Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: 81. Zhang XL, Luo XJ, Liu HY, et al. What we know and what we need to know. Bioaccumulation of several brominated Environ. Sci. Eur 26 (2014): 12. flame retardants and dechlorane plus in water 73. Rillig MC. Microplastic in terrestrial birds from an e-waste recycling region in ecosystems and the soil? Environ. Sci. South China: Associated with trophic level Technol 46 (2012): 6453-6454. and diet sources. Environ Sci Technol 45 74. Zubris KAV, Richards BK. Synthetic fibers (2011): 400-405. as an indicator of land application of sludge. 82. Alabi OA, Bakare AA, Xu X, et al. Environ. Pollut 138 (2005): 201-211. Comparative evaluation of environmental 75. Dris R, Gasperi J, Mirande C, et al. A first contamination and DNA damage induced by overview of textile fibers, including electronic-waste in Nigeria and China. Sci microplastics, in indoor and outdoor Total Environ 423 (2012): 62-72. environments. Environ. Pollut 221 (2016): 83. UN Environment. Our planet is drowning in 453-458. plastic pollution. Available from: 76. Zalasiewicz J, Waters CN, Sul JID, et al. The https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/b geological cycle of plastics and their use as a eat-plastic-pollution/ [accessed 05.01.21]. stratigraphic indicator of the Anthropocene. 84. Geyer R (2017). A Plastic Planet. University Anthropocene 13 (2016): 4-17. of California, Santa Barbara. Available from: https://www.news.ucsb.edu/2017/018137/pla stic-planet [accessed 24.05.20].

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 25

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

85. Daniel DC. Creating a sustainable future. 94. Rochester JR. Bisphenol A and human Jones and Bartlett Learning. Environ Sci 8 health: a review of the literature. Reprod (2004): 517-518. Toxicol 42 (2013): 132-155. 86. Karleskint G, Small J, Turner R. 95. Legeay S, Faure S. Is bisphenol A an Introduction to marine biology. Ceng environmental obesogen? Fundam Clin Learning 536 (2009): 71. Pharmacol 31 (2017): 594-609. 87. Gregory MR. Environmental implications of 96. Chevalier N, Fénichel P. Bisphenol A: plastic debris in marine settings- Targeting metabolic tissues. Rev Endocr entanglement, ingestion, smothering, Metab Disord 16 (2015): 299-309. hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. 97. Welshons WV, Nagel SC, vom Saal FS. Philos. Trans. R Soc. Lond B Biol Sci 364 Large effects from small exposures. III. (2009): 2013-2025. Endocrine mechanisms mediating effects 88. Hammer J, Kraak MH, Parsons R. Plastics in of bisphenol A at levels of human exposure. the marine environment: The dark side of a Endocrinology 147 (2006): S56-S69. modern gift. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 98. Kamrin MA. Phthalate risks, phthalate 220 (2012): 144. regulation, and public health: A review. J. 89. Town T. National Institute of Health (NIH): Toxicol. Environ. Health B 12 (2009): 157- U.S. National Library of Medicine. Poly 174. vinyl chloride (2017). 99. Wang Y, Zhu H, Kannan K. A review of 90. Center for International Environmental Law biomonitoring of phthalate exposures. Toxics (CIEL). Plastic and Health: The Hidden 7 (2019): 21. Costs of a Plastic Planet. Available from: 100. Bornehag C, Lundgren B, Weschler CJ, et al. https://www.ciel.org/plasticandhealth/ Phthalates in Indoor Dust and Their [accessed 30.05.20]. Association with Building Characteristics. 91. Ecology Centre. Adverse Health Effects of Environ. Health Perspect 113 (2005): 1399- Plastics. Available from: 1404. https://ecologycenter.org/factsheets/adverse- 101. Reddy BS, Rozati R, Reddy BV, et al. health-effects-of-plastics/ [accessed General gynaecology: Association of 31.05.20]. phthalate esters with endometriosis in Indian 92. Fenichel P, Chevalier N, Brucker-Davis F. women. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet 113 (2006): Bisphenol A: An Endocrine and Metabolic 515-520. Disruptor. Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 74 (2013): 102. Högberg J, Hanberg A, Berglund M, et al. 211-220. Phthalate diesters and their metabolites in 93. Konieczna A, Rutkowska Q, Rachoń D. human breast milk, blood or serum, and Health Risk of Exposure to Bisphenol A urine as biomarkers of exposure in (BPA). Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig 66 (2015): 5- vulnerable populations. Environ. Health 11. Perspect. 116 (2008): 334-339.

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 26

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

103. Guo Y, Alomirah H, Cho HS, et al. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agen Occurrence of phthalate metabolites in ts/flame_retardants/index.cfm [accessed human urine from several Asian countries. 01.06.20]. Environ. Sci. Technol 45 (2011): 3138-3144. 111. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease 104. Joensen UN, Frederiksen H, Jesen MB. Et al. Registry (ATSDR). A toxicological Profile Phthalate excretion pattern and testicular for Copper. Agency for Toxic Substances function: A study of 881 healthy Danish and Disease Registry, Atlanta, USA (2004). men. Environ. Health Perspect 120 (2012): 112. Lyche JL, Rosseland C, Berge G, et al. 1397-1403. Human Health Risk Associated With 105. James-Todd T, Stahlhut R, Meeker JD, et al. Brominated Flame-Retardants (BFRs), Urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations Environ Int 74 (2015): 170-180. and diabetes among women in the national 113. European Union Diphenyl ether, pentabromo health and nutrition examination survey derivative (pentabromodiphenyl ether). (NHANES) 2001–2008. Environ. Health European Union Risk Assessment Report. Perspect 120 (2012): 1307-1313. Office for Official Publications of the 106. Yaghjyan L, Sites S, Ruan Y, et al. European Committees; Luxembourg, Europe Associations of urinary phthalates with body (2001): 1-124. mass index, waist circumference and serum 114. Xu F, Giovanoulis G, van Waes S, et al. among females: National health and Comprehensive Study of Human External nutrient examination survey 1999-2004. In. Exposure to Flame J. Obes 39 (2015): 994-1000. Retardants via Air, Dust, and Hand Wipes: 107. López-Carrillo L, Hernández-Ramírez RU, The Importance of Sampling and Assessment Calafat AM, et al. Exposure to phthalates Strategy. Environ Sci Technol 50 (2016): and breast cancer risk in Northern Mexico. 7752‐7760. Environ. Health Perspect 118 (2010): 539- 115. Zheng X, Qiao L, Covaci A, et al. 544. Brominated and phosphate flame retardants 108. Hoppin JA, Jaramillo R, London SJ, et al. (FRs) in indoor dust from different Phthalate exposure and allergy in the U.S. microenvironments: Implications for human population: Results from NHANES 2005– exposure via dust ingestion and dermal 2006. Environ. Health Perspect 121 (2013): contact. Chemosphere 184 (2017): 185‐191. 1129-1134. 116. Ryan PG, Connell AD, Gardner BD. Plastic 109. Braun JM, Sathyanarayana S, Hauser R. ingestion and PCBs in seabirds: Is there a Phthalate exposure and children’s health. relationship? Mar Pollut Bull 19 (1988): 174- Curr. Opin. Pediatr 25 (2013): 247-254. 176. 110. National Institute of environmental Health 117. Lee K, Tanabe S, Koh C. Contamination of Science (NIH). Flame Retardants. Available polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in from: sediments from Kyeonggi Bay and nearby

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 27

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

areas, Korea. Mar Pollut Bull 42 (2001): Emergency Area: A Substance Flow 273-279. Analysis. J Ind Ecol 13 (2009): 735-757. 118. Zitko V, Hanlon M. Another source of 127. Laner D, Rechberger H. Material Flow pollution by plastics skin cleaners with Analysis. In: Finkbeiner M. (ed). Special plastic scrubbers. Mar Pollut Bull 22 (1991): Types of Life Cycle Assessment. LCA 41-42. Compendium – The Complete World of Life 119. Rochman CM, Hoh E, Kurobe T, et al. Cycle Assessment. Springer: Dordrecht Ingested plastic transfers hazardous (2016): 293-332. chemicals to fish and induces hepatic stress. 128. Allenby BR, Graedel T . Humanity and Sci Rep 3 (2013b): 3263. Technology. In: Industrial Ecology and 120. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Sustainable Engineering. Prentice Hall: New Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Jersey (2010): 2-11. Polychlorinated Biphenyls. Public Health 129. Martinko K. 6 most common sources of Service, U.S. Department of Health and plastic pollution. Treehugger (2017). Human Services, Atlanta, GA (1997). 130. Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL. Production, 121. Faroon O, Ruiz P. Polychlorinated use and fate of all plastics ever made. biphenyls: New evidence from the last Science Advances 3 (2017): e1700782. decade. Toxicology and Industrial Health 32 131. Sutter JD. How to stop the sixth mass (2016): 1825-1847. extinction. CNN (2016). 122. Johnson GW, Quensen III JF, Chiarenzelli 132. United States Environmental Protection JR, et al. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Agency (EPA). National Overview: Facts In: Environmental Forensic: Contaminant and figures about material waste and specific guide. Robert D. Morisin and Brian recycling. Available from: L. Murphy (Eds.), Academic https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures- Press:Philadelphia (2005): 187-225. about-materials-waste-and- 123. Souhrada L. Reusables revisited as medical recycling/national-overview-facts-and- waste adds up. Hospitals 62 (1988): 82. figures-materials#Landfilling [accessed 124. Solar Impulse Foundation. How to reduce 06.06.20]. plastic waste. Available from 133. News: European Parliament. Plastic waste https://solarimpulse.com/plastic-pollution- and recycling in the EU: facts and figures. solutions [accessed 04.06.20]. Available from: 125. Millette S. The first step in managing plastic https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/hea waste is measuring it. The Conversion dlines/society/20181212STO21610/plastic- (2020). waste-and-recycling-in-the-eu-facts-and- 126. Mastellone ML, Brunner PH, Arena U. figures [accessed 06.06.20]. Scenarios of Waste Management for a Waste 134. Ritchie H, Roser M. (2018). Plastic Pollution. Published online at

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 28

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

OurWorldInData.org. Available from: 142. Oehlmann J, Schlte-Oehlmann U, Kloas W, https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution et al. A critical analysis of the biological [accessed 06.06.20]. impacts of plasticizers on wildlife. Philos 135. Joshi R, Ahmed S. Status and challenges of Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364 (2009): municipal solid waste management in India: 2047-2062. A review. Cogent Environ. Sci 2 (2016): 143. Teuten EL, Saquin JM, Knappe DR, et al. 1139434. Transport and release of chemicals from 136. Idris A, Inane B, Hassan MN. Overview of plastics to the environment and to wildlife. waste disposal and landfills/dumps in Asian Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364 countries. J. Mater Cycles and Waste Manag (2009): 2027-2045. 16 (2004): 104-110. 144. Environment Victoria. The problem with 137. Association of Plastics Manufacturers in landfill; 2013. Available from Europe (APME)). Plastics consumption data https://environmentvictoria.org.au/resource/p by sector; Brussels, Belgium (2002). roblem-landfill/ [accessed 07.06.20]. 138. Waste and Resources Action Programme 145. Metropolitan Transfer Station. Modern waste (WRAP). Understanding plastic packaging management techniques; 2018. Available and the language we use to describeit. from: Available from: https://www.metropolitantransferstation.com http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Und .au/blog/modern-waste-management- erstanding%20plastic%20packaging%20FIN techniques [accessed 07.06.20]. AL.pdf [accessed 06.06.20]. 146. Papadopoulou MP, Karatzas GP, 139. House of Commons Library (2020). Plastic Bougioukou GC. Numerical modelling of the waste. Available from: environmental impact of landfill leachate https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/researc leakage on groundwater quality-a field h-briefings/cbp-8515/ [accessed 06.06.20]. application. Environ Model Assess 12 140. Miller R. The landscape for biopolymers in (2007): 43-54. packaging. Miller-Klein Associates report. 147. Nesaratnam S. Effects of pollutants on the Summary and Full Report available from the aquatic environment. Adapted extract from National Non-Food Crops Centre (NNFCC); the Open University course T868 2005, Heslington, York, UK. Available Environmental monitoring and protection. from: http://miller-klein.com/wp- Available from content/uploads/2016/12/2007Landscapefor https://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/mod/o Biopolymers.pdf [accessed 06.06.20]. ucontent/view.php?id=18241&printable=1 141. Song JH, Murphy RJ, Narayan R, et al. [accessed 08.06.20]. Biodegradable and compostable alternatives 148. Ramos JAL, Barrón LER, Sandoval IM. to conventional plastics. Philos Trans R Soc Combined use of aquifer contamination risk Lond B Biol Sci 364 (2009): 2127-2139. maps and contamination indexes in the

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 29

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

design of water quality monitoring networks https://www.safewater.org/fact-sheets- in Mexico. Geofís. Int 43 (2004): 641-650. 1/2017/1/21/aquifers [accessed 07.06.20]. 149. Taylor R, Allen A. Waste disposal and 155. American Groundwater Trust. The ABC of landfill: Potential hazards and information Aquifers. Available from: needs. In: Schmoll O, Howard G, Chilton J, http://www.tafths.org/ourpages/auto/2012/1/ Chorus I (eds). Protecting Groundwater for 19/46927603/abcsofaquifers.pdf [accessed Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking- 07.06.20]. water Sources. IWA Publishing: London 156. U.S. Geological Survey. Aquifers and (2006): 643-646. Groundwater. Available from: 150. Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water- Soil contaminants; 2020. Available from: science-school/science/aquifers-and- https://www.soils.org/about- groundwater?qt- soils/contaminants [accessed 07.06.20]. science_center_objects=0#qt- 151. University of Massachusetts Amherst Centre science_center_objects [accessed 07.06.20]. for Agriculture, Food and the Environment. 157. European commission. Climate Action: Water: Supply and sources. Available from: Causes of climate change. Available from: https://ag.umass.edu/greenhouse- https://ec.europa.eu/clima/change/causes_en floriculture/greenhouse-best-management- [accessed 07. 06.20]. practices-bmp-manual/water-supply-sources 158. United States Environmental Protection [accessed 07.06.20]. Agency. Overview of Greenhouse Gases. 152. Food and Agriculture organization of the Available from: United Nations. Water for Sustainable Food https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview and Agriculture: A report produced for the G -greenhouse-gases [accessed 05.01.21]. 20 Presidency of Germany; 2017. Available 159. Cossu R, Stegmann R. Solid Waste from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7959e.pdf Landfilling: Concepts, Processes, [accessed 07.06.20]. Technology. Elsevier Inc: Amsterdam 153. Shammas MI, Jack G. Management of the (2019). Salalah plain aquifer, Oman. In: 160. Cointreau S. Sanitary landfill design and Bhattacharya P, Ramanathan AL, siting criteria (English). Infrastructure notes; Mukherjee AB, Bundschuh J, 2004. Washington, DC: World Bank. Chandrasekharam D, Keshari AK (eds). Available from: Groundwater for Sustainable Development: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/4 Problems, Perspectives and Challenges. CRC 61871468139209227/Sanitary-landfill- Press: Florida (2008): 410-420. design-and-siting-criteria [accessed 154. Gulf of Maine Aquarium. Aquifer: Source of 07.06.20]. Pure Water; 1998. Available from: 161. Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council. Characterization, Design,

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 30

J Environ Sci Public Health 2021;5 (1):1-31 DOI: 10.26502/jesph.96120114

Construction, and Monitoring of Bioreactor (Plastics). J Air Waste Manag Assoc 50 Landfills. Technical/Regulatory Guideline (2000): 94-102. (2006). 171. Abdel-Shafy HI, Mansour MSM. Solid waste 162. National Research Council. Waste issue: Sources, composition, disposal, Incineration and Public Health. Washington, recycling, and valorization. Egypt. J. Pet 27 DC: The National Academies Press: (2018): 1275-1290. Washington, DC (2000). 172. Cho R. Earth Institute, Columbia University; 163. Buekens A. Incineration Technologies. In: 2012. What happens to all that plastics? Meyers RA. (eds). Encyclopedia of Available from: Sustainability Science and Technology. https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2012/01/31/wh Springer: New York (2012). at-happens-to-all-that-plastic/ [accessed 164. Verma R, Vinoda KS, Papireddy M, et al. 14.06.20]. Toxic Pollutants from Plastic Waste- A 173. Greentumble. How is Plastic Recycled: Step Review. Procedia Environ Sci 35 (2016): by Step. Available from: 701-708. https://greentumble.com/how-is-plastic- 165. National Research Council (US) Committee recycled-step-by-step/ [accessed 14.06.20]. on Health Effects of Waste Incineration. 174. Rhodes CJ. Plastic pollution and potential Waste Incineration & Public Health. solutions. Sci Prog 101 (2018): 207-260. Washington (DC): National Academies 175. d’Ambrières W. (2019). Plastics recycling Press: Washington, DC (2000): 34-70. worldwide: current overview and desirable 166. National Institute of Environmental Health changes. The Journal of Field Action, Field Sciences. Dioxins. Available from: Actions Science Report, Special Issue 19 https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agen (2019): 12-21. ts/dioxins/index.cfm [accessed 09.06.20]. 176. Mwanza BG, Mbohwa C. Drivers to 167. World Health organization (WHO). Dioxins Sustainable Plastic Solid Waste Recycling: A and their effects on human health (2016). Review. Procedia Manufacturing 8 (2017): 168. Nagy A, Kuti R. The Environmental Impact 649-656. of Plastic Waste Incineration. AARMS 15 177. Leblanc R. An overview of plastic recycling. (2016): 231-237. The Balance Small Business; 2019. 169. Carson P, Mumford C. Hazardous Chemicals Available from: Handbook, 2nd ed. Butterworth-Heinemann: https://www.thebalancesmb.com/an- Oxford (2002). overview-of-plastic-recycling-4018761 170. Shemwell BE, Levendis YA. Particulates [accessed 15.06.20]. Generated from Combustion of Polymers This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license 4.0

Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health 31