United Republic of Tanzania ‐ Mainland

Education for All 2015 National Review

This report was prepared by the relevant national authorities in view of the World Education Forum (Incheon, Republic of Korea, 19‐22 May 2015). It was submitted in response to UNESCO’s invitation to its Member States to assess progress made since 2000 towards achieving Education for All (EFA). The views and opinions expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not commit UNESCO. The designations employed and the presentation of material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The paper can be cited with the following reference: “Education for All 2015 National Review Report: United Republic of Tanzania ‐ Mainland”. For further information, please contact: efa2015reviews@unesco.org THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

EDUCATION FOR ALL (EFA) REPORT FOR TANZANIA MAINLAND

November, 2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... i

LIST OF TABLES ...... vi

LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii

CHAPTER ONE ...... 1

TANZANIA MAINLAND CONTEXT ...... 1

Geographical Location ...... 1

History ...... 2

Demographic Context ...... 3

Economy...... 3

Human Resources ...... 5

Table 1: Labour Market Requirements by Occupational Category ...... 6

Gender ...... 7

Tanzania’s Education Sector ...... 7

Structure and Progression ...... 7

Commitment to implement EFA Goals and targets ...... 8

CHAPTER TWO ...... 10

PROGRESS TOWARDS ACHIEVING EDUCATION FOR ALL GOALS ...... 10

GOAL ONE: Expanding and Improving Comprehensive Early Childhood Care and Education, especially for the Most Vulnerable and Disadvantaged Children...... 10

Background to Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) in Tanzania 10

Definition of ECCE ...... 11

Progress Made Since 2000 to 2013...... 11

Regional Variations of Enrolment (GIR and NIR) 15

Health ...... 18

Challenges and opportunities ...... 19

Recommendations ...... 20 GOAL TWO: Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality ...... 21

Introduction ...... 21

Primary Education in Tanzania ...... 21

Policies Guiding the Education Sector and Universal Primary Education ...... 22

Targets ...... 23

PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING THE TARGETS ...... 23

Access to Primary Education ...... 23

Participation in Primary Education ...... 25

Repetition Rate by grade in primary education ...... 31

Transition Rate from Primary to Secondary Education ...... 34

Special Needs Education ...... 35

Pupils with Disabilities in Primary Schools by Disabilities, 2008‐2013 37

Non‐formal Education (NFE) ...... 37

Efforts to Improve Provision of Primary Education ...... 41

Financing of Primary Education 2002 – 2012 ...... 42

Challenges ...... 43

Recommendations ...... 43

GOAL THREE: Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes ...... 44

Introduction ...... 44

Policies, Strategies, Plans and Targets for Implementing EFA Goal 3 ...... 45

Contextualizing Life Skills in Tanzania ...... 48

Notable interventions and achievements ...... 49

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) 50

Literacy Rates ...... 57

Educational Attainment: ...... 58 ii | Page

Secondary Education: ...... 59

Transition Rate from Ordinary to Advanced Secondary Education 60

Technical Education and Training (TET) ...... 61

Vocational Education and Training (VET) ...... 62

Graduates in Vocational Education and Training and Folk Development Colleges: ...... 63

Tertiary Education: ...... 64

Achievements in TVET ...... 64

Challenges (TVET) ...... 65

Challenges for Life Skills ...... 65

Recommendations (Life Skills) ...... 65

Recommendations (TVET) ...... 66

Challenges and Recommendations on HIV & AIDS ...... 66

Recommendations ...... 66

GOAL 4: Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults ...... 67

Introduction ...... 67

Policy Thrusts ...... 68

Programmes Implemented ...... 68

Basic and Post‐Literacy ...... 69

Continuing Education ...... 69

Achievements in Adult Literacy and Continuing Education ...... 70

Enrolment of Out of School Youth 71

Enrolment of adults in Basic and Continuing Education 71

Role of NGOs in Provision of Literacy ...... 75

INNOVATIVE PRACTICES...... 76

Financing of Adult and Continuing Education ...... 77

Challenges in Adult Literacy and Continuing Education provision ...... 78 iii | Page

Recommendations ...... 79

Goal 5: Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls' full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality...... 80

Introduction ...... 80

Government Commitments to promote gender equality ...... 81

Implementation, Achievements and Challenges ...... 82

Female enrolment as percentage of total enrolment by level of education (pre primary, primary, ordinary and advanced secondary education) ...... 83

Primary Education ...... 87

Secondary Education ...... 95

Completion rate for secondary Form 4 and Form 6 in 2008 – 2011 ...... 100

Gender Parity Index for enrolment in Teacher Education ...... 100

GPI for Enrolment in Technical Institutions ...... 101

GPI for Enrolment of learners in ICBAE learning centres 2000 ...... 101

Challenges ...... 101

Recommendations ...... 102

GOAL 6: IMPROVING ALL ASPECTS OF THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION AND ENSURING EXCELLENCE OF ALL SO THAT RECOGNIZED AND MEASURABLE LEARNING OUTCOMES ARE ACHIEVED BY ALL ESPECIALLY IN LITERACY, NUMERACY AND ESSENTIAL LIFE SKILLS ...... 103

Introduction ...... 103

Definition of the Term Quality Education ...... 103

Early Childhood Care and Education ...... 104

Improvement of Quality in the Provision of Primary Education by the year 2015...... 105

Improvement of quality of assessment in primary, secondary and teacher education ...... 113

Status of SACMEQ Assessment ...... 115

Re‐establishment of the Directory of Adult and Non formal Education and coordination office at a regional level ...... 118

Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure ...... 122 iv | Page

Public expenditure on education as a percentage of Gross National Product (GNP) ...... 123

Challenges ...... 123

Recommendations ...... 124

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Labour Market Requirements by Occupational Category ...... 6

Table 2: Total Enrolment in Government and Non‐Government Schools/Streams by Sex, 2004 ‐2013 ...... 13

Table 3: Net and Gross Intake Rates (NIR and GIR) in Government and Non‐Government Schools/Streams by Region and Sex, 2013 ...... 16

Table 4: Nutrition status of children and women by region in Tanzania (TDHS 2010) ...... 17

Table 5: Targets, Actual Achievement and Gaps NER and Completion Rate in Primary Education by 2012 ...... 28

Table 6: Trend of Enrolment of COBET Learners 2000 ‐ 2013 ...... 38

Table 7: Mainstreaming of Learners into the Formal Education System, 2000 ‐ 2013 ...... 38

Table 8: Budget Allocation to Primary Education Subsector 2002/03 ‐2012/13 ...... 42

Table 9: Identified vocational skills in the Oil and Gas Sector, Tanzania ...... 51

Table 10: Enrolment of Learners in ICBAE Learning Centres 2000 ‐ 2012 ...... 70

Table 11: Enrolment of COBET Cohort II Learners 2000 – 2012 ...... 71

Table 12: Enrolment of Learners in IAE’s Secondary Education ODL Programme 2000 ‐ 2012 ..... 72

Table 13: Literacy Rates of women and men aged 15+ years ...... 73

Table 14: Literacy rates of men and women aged 15 to 49 years ...... 73

Table 15: Allocation of Funds for Adult and Continuing Education from 2008/9 to 2012/13 in Million Tanzanian Shillings ...... 78

Table 16: Targets and actual enrolment of Standard 1 Pupils 2007 ‐ 2011 ...... 88

Table 17: Secondary Education GER , NER and GPI ,2006‐2012 ...... 99

Table 18: Book Pupil Ratio (2006 ‐ 2011) for the Selected Councils ...... 106

Table 19: Government Secondary Schools’ Teacher to Pupil and Qualified Teacher to Pupil Ratios, by Location and Region, 2000‐ 2009 ...... 109

Table 20: Availability of Classrooms in Primary Schools by Region ...... 110

Table 21: Availability of teachers’ houses by region ...... 112

Table 22 Trend of Performance in PSLE 2000‐2013 ...... 113 vi | Page

Table 23: Trend of Performance in PSLE 2000‐2013 ...... 115

Table 24: SACMEQ Scores in Reading and Mathematics and Share of Pupils Reaching Minimum Skill Levels, 2000‐2007 ...... 116

Table 25: School inspection in selected years ...... 118

Table 26: Number and Ratio of COBET Learners to Facilitators 2006‐2013 ...... 119

Table 27: Number and Ratio of ICBAE Learners and Facilitators 2006‐2013...... 120

Table 28: Number of COBET Learners Mainstreamed in Form1 and Vocational Education ...... 121

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LIST OF FIGURES _Toc404118210

Chart 1: Enrolment of Pre Primary Pupils in Pre Primary Schools, 2004‐2013 ...... 14

Chart 2: Access to the first grade in Primary Education (National): ...... 24

Chart 3: Net Intake Rate by Region (2013): ...... 25

Chart 4: Trend Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in Primary ...... 26

Chart 5: Trend Net Enrolment Rate (NER) in Primary ...... 27

Chart 6: Gross and Net Intake Rate (GER & NIR) for pre‐primary schools 2010 ‐ 20 ...... 30

Chart 7: Gross and Net Completion Rate (National) ...... 31

Chart 8: Primary School Repeaters (National): ...... 32

Chart 9: Repetition Rate in Primary Schools, 2005/06 ‐ 2012/13 ...... 32

Chart 10: Survival Rate to the last Grade of Primary Schools (National) ...... 33

Chart 11: Trend in Survival Rate to Standard Five, 200 ‐ 2012 ...... 34

Chart 12: Transition Rate from Primary to Secondary Education, 2000 ‐ 2012 ...... 35

Chart 13: Enrolment of Pupils with Disabilities in Primary Schools, 2008‐2013 ...... 37

Chart 14: Primary Teachers by Level of Academic Qualification (National): ...... 40

Chart 15: Pupil‐Teacher Ratio ...... 41

Chart 16: HIV Prevalence 15‐49 year olds, Tanzania Mainland ...... 52

Chart 17: HIV Prevalence Rate by Age: Women ...... 53

Chart 18: HIV prevalence rate by Age: Men ...... 54

Chart 19: HIV Prevalence by Level of Education ...... 54

Chart 20: Prevalence rates for men and women (15‐49) for selected regions in Tanzania Mainland (2011‐2012) ...... 55

Chart 21: HIV Prevalence 15‐49 year‐Olds, Urban/Rural ...... 56

Chart 22: Percentage of Women and Men aged 15‐49 with Comprehensive Knowledge of HIV .. 56

Chart 23: Literacy Rates for 15 years and above in Selected Regions: ...... 58

Chart 24: Literacy Rates for 15 years and above by Age and Location: ...... 58

Chart 25: Educational Attainment ...... 59 viii | Page

Chart 26: Secondary Gross and Net Enrolment ...... 60

Chart 27: Secondary Enrolment ordinary and advanced levels ...... 60

Chart 28: Transition rates, Gross and Net Completion, Secondary Education: ...... 61

Chart 29: Enrolment and Graduates: Technical Colleges ...... 62

Chart 30: Enrolment and Graduates in Folk and Vocational Education and Training ...... 62

Chart 31: Graduates and Enrolment by Entrance Qualifications ...... 63

Chart 32: Enrolment in Universities and University Colleges ...... 64

Chart 33: Number of Male and Female Pupils in Pre Primary Schools 2004‐2013...... 84

Chart 34: Percentages of Female Pupils in Pre Primary Schools and Streams, 2004‐2013 ...... 84

Chart 35: Trends in Female Enrollment 2005 ‐ 2013 ...... 85

Chart 36: Gender Parity Index of GER and NER in Pre Primary Schools, 2004‐2013 ...... 85

Chart 37: Percentages of Female Teachers in Pre Primary Schools 2004‐2013 ...... 86

Chart 38: Percentages of Qualified Female Teachers in Pre primary Schools, 2004‐2014...... 87

Chart 39: Number of Teachers in Pre primary Schools, by Sex, 2004‐2013 ...... 87

Chart 40: Number of primary school teachers by sex 2004 ‐ 2013 ...... 89

Chart 41: Gender Parity Index of Survival Rate in Primary Schools, 2000‐2013 ...... 90

Chart 42: GIR and NIR in Primary Schools, 2010‐2013 ...... 91

Chart 43: GPI based on GIR and NIR (Primary) ...... 91

Chart 44: GPI Based on Primary GER and NER ...... 92

Chart 45: GPI Based on Survival Rate to Standard Seven ...... 93

Chart 46: Completion Rates: Primary ...... 94

Chart 47 GPI in Transition from Primary to Secondary Education ...... 95

Chart 48: Percentages of Female Teachers in Secondary Schools, 2000‐2013 ...... 100

Chart 49: Book – Pupil Ration in Selected Councils 2006 ‐ 2011 ...... 107

Chart 50: Pupil Teacher Ratio in Primary Schools 2000‐2013 ...... 108

Chart 51: Trend of Performance in PSLE 2000‐2013 ...... 114

Chart 52: Trend of Performance in CSEE 2000‐2013 ...... 114 ix | Page

Chart 53: Trend of Performance in ACSEE 2000‐2013 ...... 115

Chart 54: Number and Ratio of COBET Learners to Facilitators 2006‐2013 ...... 119

Chart 55: Number and Ratio of ICBAE Learners and Facilitators 2006‐2013 ...... 120

Chart 56: Percentage of COBET Learners Mainstreamed in Form 1 and Vocational Education, 2013 ...... 121

Chart 57: Percentages of COBET Learners Mainstreamed in Standard 5 ...... 122

Chart 58: Share of Education Sector to the Public Budget 1999‐2014 ...... 122

Chart 59: Percentage of Education Sector Budget on GDP 1999‐2014 ...... 123

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CHAPTER ONE TANZANIA MAINLAND CONTEXT

Geographical Location Tanzania is located between latitude 1o S - 12o S and longitude 29o W and 41oE with a total area of about 947,300 sq. km. (land: 885,800 sq. km. and water: 61,500 sq. km.). Tanzania is bordered by eight countries namely; Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda in the West; Kenya and Uganda in the North; and Malawi, Mozambique; and Zambia in the South. The Indian Ocean lies in the East.

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The country consists of ample inland water, with abundant lakes and rivers which include Lake Victoria in the North, which is the world’s second largest fresh water lake that drains into the Nile River. Lake Victoria supports the major fishing industry in Tanzania. Lake Tanganyika is in the Western part of the country and drains into Congo River System then into the Atlantic Ocean. Lake Tanganyika is the Africa’s largest and deepest freshwater lake and the world’s deepest lake. Regarding rivers, Rufiji is the largest river in the country and drains its water into the Indian Ocean. Despite Tanzania possessing many rivers, only the Kagera and Rufiji are navigable by vessels larger than a canoe.

The most distinctive geological features include the Great Rift Valley running from north to the south. This was caused by geological faulting throughout Eastern Africa and as well as volcanic activity in the North-eastern regions of the country. The Eastern branch holds lakes Manyara, Natron and Eyasi, while the Western branch includes Lakes Tanganyika, Rukwa and Nyasa.

Most of Tanzania lies 200 metres or more above sea level and much of the country is higher than 1,000 metres. Mount Kilimanjaro, the highest point in Africa, rises to 5,895 metres above sea level in the Northern part of the country. The country is characterized by woodland, bush land and wooden grassland types of vegetation.

The country’s main climatic condition is a long dry spell from May to October, followed by a period of rainfall between November and April. The main rainy season along the coast and around Mount Kilimanjaro areas is from March to May and a short rain season is between October and December. Furthermore, rainfall is well distributed in the Western part of the country, especially around Lake Victoria, with a peak period between March and May. Disparities in amount and distribution of rainfall have a significant effect on the country’s economic capacity as it depends much on agriculture production.

History Tanzania (then Tanganyika) attained its independence on 9th December 1961 from the British colonial rule and after one year, on 9th December 1962 it became a Republic. The island of Zanzibar became independent on 12th January 1964, after the rule of the Sultanate was overthrown by the Revolutionary Government. Tanganyika and Zanzibar joined to form the United Republic of Tanzania on 26th April 1964.

Administratively, Tanzania is divided in regions, whereby Tanzania mainland has 25 regions and Zanzibar 5 regions. Each region is divided into several districts. Tanzania is a democratic country operating under a multi-party democratic system since 1992. Presidential and parliamentary elections are done in every five years.

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Demographic Context The population of Tanzania has trebled in the last five decades. According to the latest census, which was undertaken in 2012, the country has 44.9 million people (Tanzania Mainland 43.6 and Tanzania Zanzibar 1.3).

Tanzania has high a population growth rate due to high fertility and declining mortality levels. According to the 2012 Population and Housing Census, fertility rate is 5.2 while infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) is 45 and maternal mortality rate stands at 432 deaths per 100,000. On the other hand, the life expectancy at birth is 61 years. The country is still sparsely populated although in some areas there is high population density. The density varies from 1 person per square kilometre in arid regions to 51 per square kilometre in the mainland's well-watered highlands.

The African population consists of more than 120 ethnic groups. Generally, each ethnic group has its own language, but the national language is Kiswahili, a Bantu language with a strong Arabic influence, and more recently a large number of English borrowings. The other official language is English. Other languages are of Indian origin, together with Portuguese (spoken by Mozambicans and Goans).

According to the latest available data (WHO) – which should be treated with some caution, 5.7% of adults (6.6% of women and 4.6% of men) are HIV-positive.

According to the 2012 Census, the adult literacy rate [defined as the proportion of those aged 15 and over who can read and write a text in Kiswahili, English, or Arabic language] was 77.5% for males and 62.2% for females.

Economy According to a recent World Bank report1, the Tanzanian economy “continued to post impressive growth with a rate of more than 6 per cent over the past year, in addition to a marked reduction in the fiscal deficit, despite a difficult external environment. This impressive performance resulted from the Government’s flexibility in utilizing fiscal and monetary policies, especially amidst the surge in inflation experienced from November 2011”. The report’s main author added, “with a GDP growth rate of 6.5 percent during 2011/12 and manageable fiscal and current account deficits, Tanzania has performed better than most developed countries and better than many fast emerging economies, including India, and Brazil”.

The strong fiscal performance exhibited by Tanzania is further attributed to high tax collection and to the Government’s efforts to restrain non-priority expenditures. Such adjustment did not apply to development expenditures, which continued to expand with the objective of addressing existing infrastructure gaps nationwide.

Furthermore, with this performance and despite persistent high inflation, “Tanzania should continue to enjoy positive prospects with a forecast GDP growth of 6.5 to 7.0 per cent through 2014, “for as long as it is not impacted upon by other external shocks including

1 ‘Spreading the Wings: From Economic Growth to Shared Prosperity’, Tanzania Economic Update of 1st November 2012, World Bank. 3 | Page

commodity and food price fluctuations”. Over the period 2000-2008, the average annual economic growth rate was estimated at 7.1 per cent, a higher figure than the African low- income countries’ average of 6.2 per cent. This trend is likely to be strengthened, given that the average GDP per capita (about US$ 565 in 2010) remains lower than the African low- income countries’ average (US$ 800)”.

The Economic Update, however, stresses that Tanzania’s strong economic growth has “continued to elude rural households which constitute approximately two thirds of the total population and 80 per cent of the poor and who continue to survive in appalling conditions. Facilitating the inclusion of rural households into the country’s growth process should be at the core of the policy debate in Tanzania” (WB Report ).

As Tanzania’s Five Year Development Plan2 (FYDP) puts it:

“the relatively high growth rate that was enjoyed over the last ten years was mainly due to economic and financial reforms and prudent monetary and fiscal policies; all of which promoted domestic and foreign investment... this impressive growth did not, however, have a significant impact on poverty reduction… (although) the poor have increased their access to publicly provided social services such as education and health; indicating that some benefits of growth have been re-distributed in favour of the poor. The challenge ahead is to ensure that the economy continues to register impressive growth and to make sure that such growth is also pro-poor, either inherently or through growth and re-distribution”.

The average domestic revenue to GDP ratio from 2001/02 to 2009/10 was 12.2 per cent. This rate is quite low and has necessitated reliance on budgetary support from Development Partners. Starting from a low base of 11.8 per cent in 2004/05, the ratio improved to 15 per cent by 2009/10. Although the situation is improving, the objective is to expand the tax base, particularly by including the informal sector in the formal economy. Other measures include reducing tax exemptions, particularly discretionary exemptions, and maximising the rents collected by the government from the exploitation of natural resources such as minerals and forest products.

Although in recent years the share of agriculture in GDP has showed a declining trend, it remains the single highest ranking employer in the country. Currently, agriculture contributes about 25.3 per cent of the GDP but absorbs 74 per cent of the labour force. From 2002 to 2010, the annual agricultural growth averaged 4.2 per cent, which is below the national average of about 6.7 per cent, over the same period. For any growth to be inclusive and pro- poor, it must involve a substantial growth of agricultural productivity and allow most of the rural population to benefit from such growth through selling the increased produce on domestic and export markets.

The historical development of the manufacturing sector in Tanzania displays a picture of temporal disparities, characterised by early years of growth (1970s to mid-1980s), stagnation (1990s), and growth again after the year 2000. In general, the Tanzania’s manufacturing sector is still small and spread-out, with no specific industrialisation pattern. Up to 2006, it

2 Five Year Development Plan 2012/13‐2015/16, Government of Tanzania, June 2012. 4 | Page

contributed to about 8.5 per cent of GDP, before rising to 9.9 per cent in 2008. Its performance in recent years has shown impressive trends: fast annual growth rates, exports and capacity utilisation.

Development of science, technology and innovation capabilities are critical in bolstering the country’s competitiveness. The goals and targets discussed in Vision 2025 that are especially relevant to competitiveness are: promotion of science and technology; education; and promotion of Information and Communication Technologies. ICT will play a crucial role in the transformation process from a resource-based to a skills- and technology-based economy in order to transform the country’s production structure. The main challenge, therefore, is to establish and use modern ICT by availing communication networks to the public to meet the domestic demand as well as the regional and international requirements.

Human Resources The quality of human capital remains the most important asset to propel sustainable development in today’s world. Human capital is the stock of skills, competences, knowledge and personality attributes which enhances the efficiency of labour. Human capital development has proven to be a key ingredient in the overall socio-economic development of nations and is one of the key considerations for investors when selecting potential investment locations. Tanzania envisages being a nation whose people are ingrained with a development mind-set and competitive skills. Such a skilled labour force – which does not now exist – is critical in order to effectively utilise and mobilise domestic resources for assuring the provision of people’s basic needs and economic growth.

Tanzania Development Vision 2025 aims at achieving a strong competitive economy through creativity, innovativeness and a high level of quality skills, in order to respond to development challenges and adapt to the changing market and technological conditions in the regional and global economy. Tanzania’s human capital development has not been adequate to meet the growing development challenges and to facilitate the search for solutions to the development problems that the country faces. In particular, education has neither been geared towards integrating individuals into the competitive markets, both at local and international levels, nor towards innovatively engaging Tanzanians in entrepreneurship and self- employment activities.

The estimated gap in highly-skilled workers required for Tanzania to realise the Middle Income Country (MIC) status is enormous. Calculations based upon Tanzania’s 2007 Integrated Labour Force Survey, show that in the education sector alone, more than 900,000 qualified teachers have to be employed, in addition to the current level of 238,000. In terms of managers, senior professionals, technicians, skilled and clerical workers, Tanzania lags far behind the workforce proportions of the average of MICs. In contrast, while over 80% of Tanzania’s workforce is engaged in agriculture, the figure for MICs is below 50%.

According to the Bureau of Statistics estimates, some 2.4 million are currently unemployed, which is equivalent to 10.8 per cent of the labour force. Currently, the total labour force is estimated at around 22.2 million, of whom 19.8 million are estimated as employed, including around 2.6 million estimated to be engaged in informal sector activities. International Labour Organisation data for 2010 suggest that 36.9 per cent of children aged between 10 and 14 years were engaged in some form of economic activities.

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As set out in the Five Year Development Plan3 (FYDP), the education sector’s focus will be on improving quality at each level, whilst facilitating access to the people most in need. Concerning skill development, there will be a “re-orientation of the human capital development towards achieving the development goals in the key productive sectors (agriculture, mining, and manufacturing) and economic infrastructure (energy, ICT, transport and tourism)”. Operational Objectives comprise:  Creating a conducive environment for teaching and learning;  Training adequate number of teachers and instructors;  Increasing enrolment and retention at every education level; and  Developing the skills necessary to implement the interventions in the priority sectors.

Relevant strategic interventions comprise:  Improving accessibility and equity at all levels of education;  Improving quality at all levels of education; and  Increasing student enrolment in science and engineering, education, agriculture and the health profession.

Key Outputs/Targets for 2015 include:  Increasing the share of highly qualified working population from 2.7% to 4.3% by 2015;and  Increasing the share of medium qualified working population from 13.6% to 17.8% by 2015.

Table 1 (YDP) indicates some of the skills needed in contemporary Tanzania:

Table 1: Labour Market Requirements by Occupational Category Occupational Category Target Physical scientists and related technicians 26.000 Architects, engineers and related technicians 88.000 Life scientists and related technicians 22.000 Medical, dental, veterinary and related workers 64.000 Health assistants/workers 80.000 Statisticians, mathematicians, systems analysts, related technicians 4.000 Economists & Economics related professionals 30.000 Accountants & Financial sector professionals 63.000 Jurists & legal professionals 16.000 Teachers 320.000 Authors, journalists and related writers 5.000 Administrative and managerial workers 130.000 Government executive officials 84.000

The implementation education programmes within the framework of Education for All (EFA) is consonant with the FYDP objectives which recognise that an educated populace is a prerequisite for becoming a Middle Income Country, to which that plan aspires.

3 First Five Year Development Plan, Government of Tanzania, 2012. 6 | Page

Gender Gender inequality is still a major challenge to socio-economic and political development in Tanzania. Women constitute over 50 per cent of the country’s population. About 90 per cent of those living in rural areas engage in agriculture and livestock keeping for their livelihood and economic survival, and are hence vulnerable to poverty. Many studies [some of which are cited in the FYDP] have shown that gender inequality is one of the underlying causes of poverty, as most women do not have equal rights to assets (including land) and have limited access to finance and education. Sustainable social and economic development cannot be realised without ensuring gender equality, which has been given special emphasis in the FYDP.

Tanzania’s Education Sector This part outlines the structure of education and training system, briefly describes the levels and areas of the system with a view to shedding light on how the sector is organized to deliver education and training services to Tanzanians.

Structure and Progression In Tanzania, education is broadly divided into formal and non-formal components. The formal education component has a 2 – 7 – 4 – 2 – 3+ structure. This entails starting with 2 years of pre-primary education (PPE), the initial level that covers children aged 5–6 years. Based on the Education and Training Policy (ETP) of 1995, Pre-Primary and Early Childhood Development (ECD) are intended to promote the overall personality development of a child, fostering his or her physical, mental, moral and social characteristics and capabilities, and thus building– through well-directed play and pleasurable activities – a readiness to commence Primary Education.

Pre-primary is followed by 7 years of Primary Education (Standard I-VII), which is ‘free, universal and compulsory’ for all children aged 7-13 years. The Government is the largest provider of both pre-primary (Years One and Two) and primary education, accounting for 95% and 97% of enrolment respectively in 2012. There is now a Standard IV examination, while the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), taken at the end of Standard VII, is used to guide selection into the subsequent secondary level of formal education.

Secondary Education comprises two cycles, commencing with a 4-year programme of Ordinary Level (Forms 1 through 4) covering the official school attending age range of 14-17 years. This is followed by 2 years of Advanced Level secondary education (Form 5 and 6), mainly for youths of 18-19 years of age. The selection and enrolment into senior (A-Level) Secondary Education is based on prescribed performance in relevant A-Level subject combinations after the attainment of appropriate credits in the Certificate of Secondary Education Examination, taken at the end of Form 4.

The Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE) and Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE) mark the completion of the junior and senior secondary education cycles respectively and the results are used for the selection of students for further formal education as well as for non-formal education and training.

According to the enabling legal instrument, Vocational Education and Training (VET) is defined as training leading to a skilled occupation. Learners in VET centres are hence 7 | Page

pursuing competence based training to become skilled workers for meeting the specific requirements of occupations and upon successful completion they are awarded competency certificates – National Vocational Awards (NVA) Levels I–III for the relevant trades. Entry qualifications to the long VET courses vary from primary to secondary school education, depending on the course, and also through progression within the VET qualifications.

Technical Education and Training (TET) provides educational opportunities after O-Level and A-Level secondary education. TET graduates are equipped to play roles requiring higher levels of skill, knowledge and understanding, in which they take responsibility for respective areas of specialization as technicians, associate professionals and professionals, as appropriate. Essentially, TET is part of higher education obtained in a non-university institution. Although they have distinct frameworks, TET and VET together provide what is referred to as Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET).

University education is the major part of higher education and is provided after the completion of senior secondary and the attainment of appropriate levels in the Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education examination. The aim of higher education is to enable Tanzanian citizens to become well-educated, knowledgeable and well-versed in terms of perspectives, skills and contemporary developments in social, economic, cultural, scientific and technological fields. The official attending age for undergraduate degree programmes in universities is 20-24 years, although mature students may study at that level at any age. Our universities, in addition to being communities of scholars engaged in a search for truth, conduct research and provide consultancy services to the GoT and other entities.

Non Formal Education refers to the provision of education to out of school children aged 11-18 years outside the formal education system. The main programme offered by GoT to this group is Complementary Basic Education and Training (COBET) whose cycle ranges from 2 to 3 years.

Adult Education caters for people aged 19 years and above, and is delivered through the integrated community-based adult education in the form of basic and post literacy studies with components of extension services, income generation, vocational training and non- formal secondary education which is offered through open and distance learning mode.

Folk Education (FE) is essentially non-formal education offered in community based colleges that are specifically intended to provide knowledge and skills to communities enabling learners to become gainfully employed and hence effectively arrest poverty. It is intended to solve communities’ immediate problems related to social, economic and cultural development. FE develops the personalities of individuals, their ability to think, feel and appreciate people’s problems so that they may help others participate more fully in the social and economic activities of their community, as well as advancing the knowledge of adults so that they may make better decisions relating to personal and public matters. FE promotes knowledge and advanced skills in agriculture, handcraft, domestic science and health science and also involves learners in cultural activities.

Commitment to implement EFA Goals and targets Tanzania participated in the World Conference on Education held in Dakar - Senegal at the turn of the new millennium in 2000 which adopted the Dakar Framework for Action for implementation up to 2015. The framework comprises six goals and targets, namely:

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1. Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. 2. Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to, and complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality. 3. Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes. 4. Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults. 5. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality. 6. Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills

Guided by the Tanzania Development Vision 2025, the Education and Training Policy of 1995, then the National Strategy for Poverty Reduction and the Education Sector Development Programme, Tanzania established various education sub-sector plans aimed at putting into action the Dakar commitment on Education for All (EFA). The Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP) 2001 – 2006, Adult and Non Formal Education Strategy 2002/03 – 2007/08, Secondary Education Development Programme (SEDP) 2004 – 2009 and Higher Education Development Plan (HEDP) were among the key plans whose goals, targets, implementation strategies, achievements and challenges of implementation will be discussed in the succeeding chapters of this report.

This EFA Assessment Report is divided into four chapters: Chapter one gives an overview of the Tanzanian context within which planning and implementation of EFA goals and targets takes cognizance of existing realities on the ground. Chapter two is devoted to the analysis of progress which Tanzania has made in achieving the set goals and targets beginning from pre- primary to primary, secondary, adult and non formal to technical and vocational, as well as higher education. Chapter three consists of the conclusion and recommendations geared towards illuminating, in a nutshell, key issues that have featured in the report, as well as practical actions that require serious consideration in order to turn the challenges into opportunities. The fourth and last chapter presents the reflections on the post 2015 education agenda, outlining areas which could be crucial for Tanzania to realize her Vision by 2025, while keeping in mind the existing challenges facing the education sector.

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CHAPTER TWO PROGRESS TOWARDS ACHIEVING EDUCATION FOR ALL GOALS

GOAL ONE: Expanding and Improving Comprehensive Early Childhood Care and Education, especially for the Most Vulnerable and Disadvantaged Children.

Background to Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) in Tanzania The development of ECCE which aims at improving the welfare of children has been within the context of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989) the World Declaration on Education for All (EFA,1990) and its continuation – The Dakar Framework for Action (UNESCO 2000).

The improvement of ECCE has also been influenced by Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s). In order to guide the internal needs and demands, several policies, programmes and strategies such as the Child Development Policy (1996) reviewed in 2008 the Education and Training Policy (1995) were developed. Ministries such as the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT), Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW), Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children (MCDGC), Prime Ministers’ Office - Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO - RALG) and Ministry of Finance (MoF) perform functions that touch upon various aspects of children early learning, Care and

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development. Although the policies are sectoral in nature, they ultimately target to improve children’s welfare.

However, analysis conducted by Vargas-Baron (2004), Mbise (2001) and Mtahabwa (2007), indicate that the policies were fragmented and often with duplicative efforts due to lack of sectoral coordination. It is this brief account of ECCE service delivery as viewed from policy level that eventually necessitated the need for an Integrated Early Childhood Development Policy (IECDP) that will coordinate sectors to provide quality ECCE services. The development of this policy has been cross sectoral involving widespread consultations and consensus building while striking a balance between global trends in ECCE service delivery and national plans. Initial efforts began early in 2006 where consultative meetings were convened by different Ministries, Institutions and Civil Society Organizations (CSO’s) responsible for children; and in early 2007 the process of the development of IECD policy began.

Through the draft IECD policy, Tanzania has decided to provide ECCE services to its young children in an integrated approach. The approach views the child holistically. It ensures that the ECCE services are comprehensive, cross sectoral and culturally appropriate. Key ECCE services include health, nutrition, water and sanitation, early stimulation, childcare, early education, protection and parenting education, development of training and communication materials, monitoring and evaluation. Integration is also a method of networking in order to improve the use of resources, provide effective services and reduce costs. It describes the relationship and links that are developed across government departments, non-governmental organizations and communities in order to provide comprehensive ECCE services to the children of Tanzania. The major outcome of the integrated approach is to create an environment where children can grow, thrive and be able to be better prepared for their future roles and responsibilities in the society. The policy is in the process of approval

Definition of ECCE Early childhood refers to the period between birth and 8 years of life and ECCE refers to processes and mechanisms that sustain and support the development of the child during the early years of life (IECD Draft Policy, 2012).

Progress Made Since 2000 to 2013 (a) Enrolment in Private and Community Based ECCE Centres as a Percent of Total Enrolment in ECCE Programmes (3 – 4 years) Data for children below age 5 years are not available, but it is estimated that less than 5% of children aged 3-4 years are enrolled in Day Care Centres and the majority are in private institutions. The baseline statistics on pre-primary education indicate that in 2004 ECCE service provision by Non-Government and community based centres constituted 1.3 percent of the total enrolment. It reached highest peak in 2008 (7.8%), dropped to 4.8 percent in 2012. The trend shows that there was a slight increase to 5.5 in 2013. More researches need to be done in order to determine the reasons for the decline and fluctuations of data. (b) Enrolment in Government and Non – Government and Non- Government Schools/streams by sex 2009 -2013.

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MOEVT tracks enrolment trends in pre-primary education for children aged 5 – 6 years. The government strategy for pre-primary education has consisted of attaching pre-primary education classes to the existing primary schools. In According to the Education and Training Policy (1995), each school must have at least one pre-primary education classroom which is financed out of capitation grants provided to primary schools.

Statistics show that enrolment of pre-primary pupils has increased from 554,835 in 2004 to 1,026,466 in 2013. This shows an increase in GER from 24.7% percent (M 23.4%, F 26.2%) to 37.3 per cent (M 37.0%, F 37.5%). NER increased from 23.7% (M 22.4%, F 25.1%) in 2004 to 35.5% (M35.3%, F 35.7%) in 2013. This is an increase of 85 per cent, implying that there has been an achievement in implementation of policy directive. Table 1 shows the Gross and Net Enrolment in private and Government pre-primary education.

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Table 2: Total Enrolment in Government and Non-Government Schools/Streams by Sex, 2004 -2013 2004 2008 2010 2012 2013 M F T M F T M F T M F T M F T 1,034,72 512,79 Grand Total 279,891 274,944 554,835 435,956 438,025 873,981 461,628 463,837 925,465 530,425 504,304 9 8 513,668 1,026,466 483,72 Government 276,006 271,537 547,543 400,686 404,721 805,407 440,202 443,465 883,667 504,935 480,125 985,060 0 485,963 969,683

Non Government 3,885 3,407 7,292 35,270 33,304 68,574 21,426 20,372 41,798 25,490 24,179 49,669 29,078 27,705 56,783 296,99 Year I Total 176,766 172,248 349,014 272,245 276,282 548,527 284,276 289,963 574,239 330,200 303,672 633,872 0 298,074 595,064 Year 1 281,33 Government 174,573 170,335 344,908 251,677 256,580 508,257 272,119 278,281 550,400 316,007 290,574 606,581 9 282,938 564,277 Year1 Non Government 2,193 1,913 4,106 20,568 19,702 40,270 12,157 11,682 23,839 14,193 13,098 27,291 15,651 15,136 30,787 215,80 Year II Total 103,125 102,696 205,821 163,711 161,743 325,454 177,352 173,874 351,226 200,225 200,632 400,857 8 215,594 431,402 Year II 202,38 Government 101,433 101,202 202,635 149,009 148,141 297,150 168,083 165,184 333,267 188,928 189,551 378,479 1 203,025 405,406 Year II Non Government 1,692 1,494 3,186 14,702 13,602 28,304 9,269 8,690 17,959 11,297 11,081 22,378 13,427 12,569 25,996 Source MOEVT, BEST 2004-2013

Enrolment in pre-primary education is not uniform as there are significant regional variations. It should also be noted that the enrolment of pre-primary education children is limited by the capacity of schools to absorb the children as shown in Chart 1

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Chart 1: Enrolment of Pre Primary Pupils in Pre Primary Schools, 2004-2013

Source: MOEVT, BEST 2004-2013

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Regional Variations of Enrolment (GIR and NIR) GIR is the total number of new entrants in the first year of pre- primary education regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population at the official pre-primary education entrance age (5 years). NIR is the new entrants in the first year of pre- primary education which is of the official pre- primary entrance age, expressed as a percentage of the population of the same age (5 years).

Table 1.1 below shows that the regions with the highest GIR are Njombe (65.5%) and Simiyu 63.4%) and the lowest are Dar es Salaam (15.7% and Kigoma (32.3%). This implies that the regions with higher GIR have adequate pre-primary classrooms and regions with the lowest GIR have a shortage of classrooms for the children to be enrolled.

Moreover, the data show that enrolment in Dar es Salaam (6.1%) and Kigoma (12.2%) have the lowest Net Intake Ratio (NIR) while Geita has the highest NIR of (35.6%) followed by Mtwara (33.3%). Low NIR in Dar es Salaam and Kigoma suggest that there are inadequate pre-primary classrooms. Based on these statistics average of 64.5% of children are not accessing pre-primary education.

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Table 3: Net and Gross Intake Rates (NIR and GIR) in Government and Non-Government Schools/Streams by Region and Sex, 2013 Source: National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) - 5 year-olds population data.

Enrolment of 5 Year-Olds in Population 5 Year-Olds Total Enrolment Year 1 GIR (%) NIR (%) Year 1

Region M F T M F T M F T M F T M F T Arusha 25,612 24,945 50,557 12354 11,723 24077 5,225 4843 10068 48.2 47.0 47.6 20.4 19.4 19.9 Dar es Salaam 48,901 48,199 97,100 7709 7,553 15262 2,982 2,989 5,971 15.8 15.7 15.7 6.1 6.2 6.1 Dodoma 35,804 34,296 70,100 16777 16,407 33184 9,427 9,409 18,836 46.9 47.8 47.3 26.3 27.4 26.9 Geita 31,742 30,774 62,516 16166 15,786 31952 11,399 10,886 22,285 50.9 51.3 51.1 35.9 35.4 35.6 Iringa 13,969 13,604 27,573 6221 6,269 12490 2,761 2,861 5,622 44.5 46.1 45.3 19.8 21.0 20.4 Kagera 38,548 37,997 76,545 18129 19,308 37437 10,003 10,309 20,312 47.0 50.8 48.9 25.9 27.1 26.5 Katavi 10,583 10,226 20,809 3960 4,135 8095 1,849 1,987 3,836 37.4 40.4 38.9 17.5 19.4 18.4 Kigoma 37,380 36,098 73,478 11880 11,832 23712 4,287 4,704 8,991 31.8 32.8 32.3 11.5 13.0 12.2 Kilimanjaro 20,504 19,196 39,700 10589 10,052 20641 5,349 5,361 10,710 51.6 52.4 52.0 26.1 27.9 27.0 Lindi 12,207 11,958 24,165 5159 5,357 10516 3,129 3,186 6,315 42.3 44.8 43.5 25.6 26.6 26.1

Manyara 25,641 24,335 49,976 9846 9,568 19414 3,206 3,269 6,475 38.4 39.3 38.8 12.5 13.4 13.0 Mara 32,097 31,504 63,601 18952 18,299 37251 10,833 10,392 21,225 59.0 58.1 58.6 33.8 33.0 33.4 Mbeya 41,214 40,777 81,991 21680 22,430 44110 10,724 11,098 21,822 52.6 55.0 53.8 26.0 27.2 26.6 Morogoro 33,875 32,805 66,680 13070 12,141 25211 5,305 5,433 10,738 38.6 37.0 37.8 15.7 16.6 16.1 Mtwara 16,347 16,108 32,455 8623 8,804 17427 5,380 5,442 10,822 52.7 54.7 53.7 32.9 33.8 33.3 Mwanza 47,485 45,789 93,274 17858 18,192 36050 10,819 11,114 21,933 37.6 39.7 38.6 22.8 24.3 23.5 Njombe 10,337 10,084 20,421 6725 6,601 13326 3,294 3,480 6,774 65.1 65.5 65.3 31.9 34.5 33.2 Pwani 16,109 15,394 31,503 5102 6,144 11246 2,710 3,636 6,346 31.7 39.9 35.7 16.8 23.6 20.1 Rukwa 19,084 18,892 37,976 7343 7,296 14639 3,651 3,607 7,258 38.5 38.6 38.5 19.1 19.1 19.1 Ruvuma 19,753 24,264 44,017 11605 11,489 23094 5,682 5,504 11,186 58.8 47.3 52.5 28.8 22.7 25.4 Shinyanga 27,768 26,431 54,199 8924 9,542 18466 3,738 3,906 7,644 32.1 36.1 34.1 13.5 14.8 14.1 Simiyu 30,366 29,035 59,401 17454 18,404 35858 8,622 9,152 17,774 57.5 63.4 60.4 28.4 31.5 29.9 Singida 24,612 23,299 47,911 9155 9,478 18633 6,723 6,864 13,587 37.2 40.7 38.9 27.3 29.5 28.4 Tabora 42,407 40,670 83,077 13740 13,340 27080 7,365 7,247 14,612 32.4 32.8 32.6 17.4 17.8 17.6 Tanga 33,063 31,492 64,555 17969 17,924 35893 10,864 10,654 21,518 54.3 56.9 55.6 32.9 33.8 33.3

Grand Total 695,408 678,172 1,373,580 296990 298,074 595064 155,327 157,333 312,660 42.7 44.0 43.3 22.3 23.2 22.8 16 | Page

(c) Percent of Children under Age 5 Suffering from Stunting Stunting is what happens to a child’s brain and body if (s)he does not get the right food or nutrients in his/her first one thousand days of life. As a result of stunting most of the children are likely to suffer from decreased IQ’s, cognitive deficits later in life, poorer school achievement and increase in school dropout. According to TDHS (2010) children stunting fell from 44 percent in 1999 to 42 percent in 2011. This implies that there is an improvement in nutrition.

The survey has also indicated that the prevalence of infants born with low birth weight ranges from 9 percent (1999) to 21 percent in 2010. In addition to that, child underweight declined from 29 percent in 1999 to 21 percent in 2010 and child wasting fell from 5 percent to 4 percent respectively.

Table 4: Nutrition status of children and women by region in Tanzania (TDHS 2010)

Children aged 0 to 59 months Women aged 15 to 49 years

% % % Iron % Low % Iron Region % % Vitamin % % itamin A Stunt Underwe %Anaemia deficie body mass deficienc Wasting A deficiency Anaemia deficiency ing ight ncy index y

Dodoma 56 5 27 48 29 30 25 29 28 33 Arusha 44 10 28 63 52 30 19 33 45 38 Kilimanjaro 28 5 11 42 45 34 8 18 29 38 Tanga 49 6 24 53 37 32 8 35 39 32 Morogoro 44 5 16 59 32 36 6 45 30 38 Pwani 32 4 12 71 30 45 14 51 22 45 D’ Salaam 19 7 12 69 45 34 6 56 27 47 Lindi 54 4 24 77 23 31 20 56 16 36 Mtwara 44 3 19 67 13 36 13 39 7 37 Ruvuma 46 5 16 59 19 32 11 33 16 41 Iringa 52 4 18 46 19 35 5 28 15 39 Mbeya 50 1 10 55 30 26 5 32 22 33 Singida 39 9 19 44 50 21 19 29 40 30 Tabora 33 4 11 69 49 33 11 55 50 32 Rukwa 50 4 14 42 22 26 8 22 21 32 Kigoma 48 3 15 62 50 39 14 35 45 34 Shinyanga 43 3 10 75 48 37 13 54 46 39 Kagera 44 5 17 49 25 47 12 29 26 40 Mwanza 39 4 11 63 34 27 10 52 27 28 Mara 31 5 12 47 25 26 14 36 22 34 Manyara 46 7 24 52 45 44 16 27 42 49 Mainland 17 5 16 58 35 33 11 40 30 37 Tanzania 17 5 16 59 35 33 11 40 30 37

17 (d) The Percentage of Consumption of Iodized salt The adverse effects of Iodine Deficiency include mental and physical congenital defects in newborns, low learning capacity, impaired growth, poor health and low productivity among the general population.

In 1994 the government banned the production and marketing of uniodized salt through Iodization Regulation Act of 1994. Also the fortification of staples with iron is mandatory, managed and monitored by the Iron Deficiency Control Program and the Food Fortification Program. As a result of enforcement of the Act, a proportion of 59% of salt was iodized by 2013.

Consequently the use of iodize salt in household has improved to 82% (TDHS, 2010). Despite the effort undertaken to reduce iodine deficiency disorders still exist in many part of the country hence mare effort needs to be taken to ensure availability of salt and the uses of iodize salt and fortified food.

Health Tanzania has had more success in scaling up of health interventions as shown hereafter:

(i) Early childhood Child Mortality The 2010 Tanzania Demographic and Health survey (TDHS) data indicate a decline in Infant mortality from 96 deaths per 1,000 births in (1996 – 2000) to 51 deaths per 1,000 births in 2010. At this pace Tanzania is likely to reach the goal set for the infant mortality rate of 38 deaths per 1,000 live births by 2014.

The TDHS (2010) data also show that infant mortality ranges from a low 40 deaths per year in the Northern zone to 70 high deaths in the Eastern and Southern Highland zones. A similar pattern is observed for the under 5 mortality rate - the highest rate is 109 deaths per 1,000 births in the lake and zone while the lowest rate is 58 deaths per 1,000 births in the Northern zone.

Many studies have documented that a mother’s level of education is positively associated with child survival. Education exposes mothers to information about better nutrition, use of contraceptives to space births and knowledge about the prevention and treatment of childhood illness. The TDHS (2010) also confirm that spacing of births is another factor that has significant impact on child chances of survival. Generally shorter birth intervals are associated with high mortality both during and after infancy by 2015. Though national laws and regulations guarantee the provision of free healthcare for pregnant women and young children, shortages and user fees at the service delivery level limit access.

18 (ii) Early Childhood Vaccination Coverage According to MOHSW (1998) Tanzania aims to raise the level of national immunization coverage among children to 90% an achievement that would be expected to have profound implications for child survival. The overall goal of immunization is to contribute towards reduction of morbidity and mortality for children less than five years due to vaccine preventable disease. Childhood immunization has increased from 71% in 2004-2005 (TDHS) to 75% of children below two years (2010 TDHS). With the exception of polio and measles more than 80% of the reported vaccinations were received by age 12 months as recommended. Only 3% of children have not received any vaccination at all against the target set to immunize all children. The TDHS (2010) data clearly show that full vaccination coverage varies by mothers with no education to 88% among children of mothers with secondary or higher education. Similarly, children born to mothers in the lowest wealth quintile are considerably less likely to have been fully vaccinated than children born to mothers in the highest wealth quintile.

(e) Percent of Trained Teachers in ECCE programmes Qualified Care givers /child care workers/teachers for ECCE are key for ensuring that education services are provided in appropriate way for the realization of Pre primary Education goals. The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare has one government Training Institution to train care givers to address the problem of trained personnel and supervises private training Institutions to train Day Care Centre givers and in this area. There are clearly established requirements for ECCE professionals teaching in public pre primary classes in Primary schools. Statistics show that from 2004-2004 a number of trained teachers with a dose of ECCE increased from 1,885 in 2004 to 6,505 in 2013. There has been establishment of Teacher Training Colleges providing a full course for ECCE and to date, 7 government colleges of Education have been identified to train Pre-Primary Education teachers.

(f) Public Expenditure in ECCE Programmes as a Percentage of Total public Expenditure on Education There is no separate budget allocation for ECCE even in the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training. Hence there is no data showing separate expenditure of ECCE alone. However, budget and spending is integrated into Primary Education.

Challenges and opportunities Great Progress has been made in terms of improving lives and survival of young children but some key challenges remain as follows;

(i) Expanding ECCE services beyond urban areas Limited enrolment of children in ECCE centres is a result of concentration of centres in urban areas where mainly children from well to do families get access. Community participation in provision of ECCE is poor due to limited capacity to establish and run the facilities.

19 (ii) Coordination of ECCE ministries and other stakeholders There are many stakeholders who are involved in the provision of ECCE services. However, there is no coordination amongst them leading to duplication of efforts, non availability of accurate data and negative effects on the quality of services offered.

(iii) Availability of ECCE professional teachers and other service providers The sub-sector has an acute shortage of trained personnel leading to low quality of services offered to children as most of them are not exposed to early learning, stimulation and appropriate nutrition. (iv) Recognition of ECCE professional teachers – government does not have a scheme of service for this cadre Most of the existing ECCE teachers are not recognized as professionals because the Government has not yet developed a scheme of service. As a result, they are underpaid and this has a negative impact on their morale. (v) Availability of conducive learning environment Most ECCE facilities are unconducive for children learning as most of the buildings have not built in accordance with national standards, nor do they have the requisite sanitary facilities, playing and learning materials.

Recommendations (i) The Government will ensure that the Child Development policy, which is comprehensive, holistic, is in place and is implemented in an integrated manner. (ii) Government in collaboration with other stakeholders will launch an national campaign popularize the new Education and Training Policy to ensure that all pre-school children are enrolled and complete in day care centres and pre- primary classes; (iii) Government in collaboration with NSAs will mobilize communities and provide support to community – based ECCE centres; (iv) The Government will put in place Quality Assurance framework to guide establishment and management of ECCE facilities and services. (v) The Government will strengthen management information system for ECCE (vi) Government will expand training opportunities for ECCE teachers (vii) Government will put in place a scheme of service for ECCE teachers. (viii) The Government in collaboration with other stakeholders will develop guidelines on establishment and management of ECCE centres (ix) The Government in collaboration with other stakeholders will develop guidelines on establishment and management of ECCE centres

20 GOAL TWO: Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality

Introduction Tanzania has prioritized education because it is considered as an important tool for human development. The right to education is guaranteed by the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania 1977 which observes that, “Every person has the right to self education, and every citizen shall be free to pursue education in a field of his choice up to the highest level according to his merits and ability. … The Government shall endeavor to ensure that there are equal and adequate opportunities to all persons to enable them to acquire education and vocational training at all levels of schools and other institutions of learning” (The Constitution of The United Republic of Tanzania). Education is a key strategy for investment in human resources, for improving people’s lives and enabling them fight against poverty, ignorance and disease.

Primary Education in Tanzania Primary education is the second level of education in Tanzania, following pre-primary education. The official entrance age for Primary school children is 7 years with similar duration. In 2002, the government made primary education compulsory and free resulting in increased access and participation at this level. The end of the cycle is marked by a final examination at the end of the seventh year of schooling. Examinations are used for selection and transition to higher levels such as secondary education and to various technical and vocational programmes. Further, examinations assess students learning and achievement.

In Tanzania Mainland, compulsory education does not extend to secondary education. To guarantee quality primary education, the Government has taken the necessary steps to expand education and training opportunities to meet the increasing demand for these services, controlled the increase of the average per capita education and increased resource flow. The quality of primary education includes intellectual, attitudinal and behavioural qualities. Primary school leavers are expected to adopt a series of new behavioural and attitudinal changes so that by the end of their studies, both their academic and non- academic abilities are demonstrated (Otieno, 2000).

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Although the official primary school-age children population is 7 to 13 years, primary education is inclusive and guaranteed to all Tanzanian children including; marginalized groups, those with disabilities, orphans, poverty stricken students, street children, those who do not have access to education due to their lifestyles(hunters, gatherers, fishermen and pastoralists) and those who have never had an opportunity to enrol in school, or have dropped out because of various reasons. In 2014, a literacy survey in Tanzania mainland was conducted as a pilot in three regions namely Dar es Salaam, Mbeya and Mtwara. The findings revealed that parental ignorance had been the major reason for push out (drop- out): by 63.5 percent, followed by poverty (14.7 %), parents separation (14.4% , distance and early marriages (1.2 % each). Health problems and bulling contributed to the drop out by (6.2% each)

Policies Guiding the Education Sector and Universal Primary Education The key policies which guide the provision of education exist within the framework of National macro-policies, various ministries’ and sectoral policies and programmes within the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training. The macro-policies include the Tanzania Development Vision (2025) and the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP, 1996) and the National Policy on Disability,( 2004). Sectoral policies and plans include the Education and Training Policy (1995) which is the overall policy on education, Technical Education and Training Policy (1996); Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP) Phase one (2002 -2006) phase two (2007-2011); Phase III 2012-2016, Secondary Education Development Plan (SEDP) (2004-2009); and Educational Sector Development Programme (ESDP) (1997).

Committed to achieving Universal Primary Education (UPE), the Government of Tanzania has developed various plans based on macro and, sector policies and plans. The objectives of the UPE plans were to: enhance access and equity; improve quality; strengthen capacities; address cross cutting issues; strengthen institutional arrangements; undertake educational research, and conduct educational monitoring and evaluation.

The MoEVT’s policies on inclusive education are reflected in the availability of programmes such as the Complementary Basic Education (COBET) and Radio Instruction to Strengthen Education (RISE). This is essentially a “second chance” programme at the primary education level that provides out-of -school children and youth (typically in the age range of 11 – 18 years), who might otherwise miss the opportunity to receive the requisite qualifications to join higher levels of education, with a chance to be mainstreamed into the formal primary education cycle.

22 Targets The MoEVT set key targets set to ensure the achievement in the implementation of NSGRP II (2012) and the Primary Education Development Programme (2002 – 2016). These included: (i) Universal access for boys and girls to quality pre-primary and primary education, (ii) Achieve NER of 100 percent for pre-primary and primary education, (iii) Improved primary school(Std 1 to std VII) survival rates for boys and girls, (iv) Improved pass rate for boys and girls at primary schools ;Improved primary school transition rate by 27.5 %, (v) Train, deploy, and retain quality teachers to achieve a recommended pupil- qualified teacher ratio of 1:40 (Education secular, 2007), and (vi) Enhance monitoring and evaluation of primary education activities.

PROGRESS IN ACHIEVING THE TARGETS

Access to Primary Education Since 2010, progress in access to standard one has been characterized by marginal gains with Gross Intake Ratio decreasing slightly from 109.6 in 2010 to 102.8 in 2013, while Net Intake Rate increased by 5 percent from 67.8 to 72.9 respectively, as depicted in Chart X. Lower GIR’s and higher NIR’s in recent years suggest that more over-aged students were absorbed into the education system at the official primary school entrance age (7 years). Of notable concern is that the education system is still faced with shortcomings to universalize access to the first grade of primary school:

In 2012, the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT), supported by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), conducted a study to determine the reasons for the decline in primary Net Enrolment Rate (NER) and the slow growth in pre- primary NER. The findings of the study revealed several factors underlying fluctuations in NER in primary education including parents’ and guardians’ lack of awareness of enrolling children at the right age, among several others.

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Chart 2: Access to the first grade in Primary Education (National):

Gross and Net Intake Rates Females NIR

2013 Males GIR Females

2012 Males Females

Year

2011 Males Females

2010 Males

0 20406080 100 120 Percent (%) Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 MF M FMFM F GIR 109 110 109 109 107 108 102 103 NIR 67 68 69 68 75 77 73 73

Source: BEST, 2010‐013

Net Intake Rate (NIR) in Primary Education Since 2010, the number of students enrolled in primary at the correct age has increased steadily. However, by 2013, regional disparities still persisted with just 2 (Shinyanga and Rukwa) out of 25 regions enrolling more than 90 per cent of students at the official entrance age of primary in standard 1, and at least 9 out of 25 regions with Net Intake Rates below 70 per cent. In regions such as Dar es Salaam, Kigoma, Kagera, Morogoro and Pwani, NIR’s were below the 2013 national average (73 per cent). However, at the regional level, there were no marked differences in access to standard 1 between male and female students. NIR’s below 95 per cent suggest that far more students could be enrolling in school later or earlier than the official entrance age. For example, in 2013, 91111 out of a total of 1430231 students who were enrolled in standard 1 were below 7 years old (representing 6 per cent) while 244019 students (17 per cent) were at least 8 years old. At least 4 per cent of students were 9 years old indicating that only 70 per cent of students in standard 1 were age 7. (BEST, 2013)

24 Chart 3: Net Intake Rate by Region (2013): Primary Net Intake Rate 120 males 96 100 91 93 females 88 86 8385 8481 83 73 80 73 6565 6568 66 68 5862 60 52 48

40

20

0

Source: Best, 2013

Participation in Primary Education Gross Enrolment Ratio and Net Enrolment Rate At the onset of PEDP in 2002, the Gross Enrolment Ratio and Net Enrolment Rate stood at 98.6% and 80.7% respectively, compared to an NER of 59 per cent and GER of 78 percent in 2000. By 2007, at the beginning of the second phase of PEDP, GER and NER had increased to 114.4% and 97.2% respectively, an impressive gain of more than 30 percentage points. However, this positive trend was not maintained with NER slipping to 89.7% in 2013 as depicted in charts 1 and 2).

25 Chart 4: Trend Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in Primary

Schools, 2000 - 2013 140.0

120.0

100.0 Ratio 80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0 Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

GER Male 78.5 85.4 101.2 108.6 108.3 111.9 114.2 115.5 113.3 110.9 106.2 102.1 97.6 95.1 GER Female 76.7 82.7 96.1 102.1 104.2 107.9 111.1 113.3 111.2 110.2 106.6 103.3 99.2 97.2 GER Total 77.6 84.0 98.6 105.3 106.3 109.9 112.7 114.4 112.3 110.5 106.4 102.7 98.4 96.2

Source: BEST 2000 – 2013

26

Chart 5: Trend Net Enrolment Rate (NER) in Primary

Schools 2000 - 2013

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0 Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

NER Male 58.6 65.8 82.1 90.4 91.4 95.6 96.8 97.6 97.5 95.8 95.2 93.7 91.4 89.1 NER Female 59.1 65.2 79.3 86.7 89.7 93.9 95.4 97.0 97.0 96.0 95.6 94.2 92.5 80.4 NER Total 58.6 65.5 80.7 88.5 90.5 94.8 96.1 97.2 97.2 95.9 95.4 94.0 92.0 89.7

Source: BEST, 2000-2013

Although most regions in the country had achieved NERs above 95 per cent by 2013, almost one third of the regions including Dar es Salaam, Katavi, Kagera, Kigoma, Manyara, Tabora, and Dodoma had NERs ranging from 73 to 85 per cent. NER under 90 per cent not only signals that the initial momentum of the 2000s to universalize primary education has slowed down, but suggests that the efficiency of the education system could be in decline. Departing from the 2007- 2008 trends when NER was over 97 per cent as depicted in chart 4, this scenario now implies that Tanzania Mainland may no longer be on track to achieve universal primary education by 2015. The 2013/2014 UNESCO Global Monitoring Report further reports that at least 1 million children are out of school in Tanzania.

NER and Completion Rate by 2012 in Primary Education As shown in Table 3.4, the targets set by the NSGRP to achieve NER of 100 percent by 2012 was not achieved as the actual NER for boys and girls was 91.4% and 92.5 percent respectively. This shows that the efforts fell short of 8.6 percent to meet the target. Likewise, the completion rate shows that, in view of the set target, there was a gap of 10.9 percent for males and 7.5 percent for females. These findings imply that more efforts are needed to increase the NER and Completion Rate in primary schools so as to ensure attainment of UPE in the country

27 Table 5: Targets, Actual Achievement and Gaps NER and Completion Rate in Primary Education by 2012 Baseline 2000 Target for 2012 Actual Achievement/gaps Primary NER NER 100% Primary NER gap 8.6% (58.6% male, 91.4% male 59.1% female) 92.5% Female Primary completion Male 93.1% PCR gap 10.9% rates Female 97% M ale 82.3% gap 7.5% Female 89.8% Source: BEST 2000 – 2012

Dimensions of Exclusion In 2012, MoEVT, in conjunction with education development partners (CIDA) had fully recognized the urgent need to determine the factors behind the declining participation rates in primary school. An independent study that encompassed a study on the slow growth of pre- primary education sector was commissioned. The study sample consisted of 40 councils incorporating at least 120 schools from the education zones. The selection of councils took into account zones with, the highest, average, and lowest NER’s in the country.

Based on the study, contributing factors attributed to declining NER’s were lack of awareness on the importance of enrolling children in school at the right age, poor school infrastructure, inadequate sensitization of the community, lack of a conducive learning environment for children with disabilities, enrolment of under or over-aged students in standard one, among others. The findings of the NER study notwithstanding, in 2012, Tanzania undertook a national census which depicted the population of pre-primary to secondary school-aged children as having increased since 2002. These demographic realities were inconsistent with enrolment trends. While enrolment in non-government schools increased steadily from 11,910 in 2000 to 197,987 in 2013, the reverse trend was evident in government schools which witnessed annual decreases to enrolment over a 7 year period from 8,235,432 in 2007 to 8,033,926 in 2013. Moreover, findings from secondary sources of data, namely, the Tanzania’s Demographic and Health Survey (TDHS, 2010), indicated that net attendance rate was just 80 per cent with more girls (81 per cent) than boys (78 per cent) attending school.

Late entry into school is often linked to poverty and other depravations. Poorer parents are more likely to be less aware of the importance of registering their children in school at the right age, and could have equally missed the opportunity to attend school themselves. Children from poorer backgrounds may live further away from schools with the long walking distance to school often acting as a deterrent. Naturally, parents become concerned about the safety of their children, particularly for younger girls, who have to walk long distances to school and may be inclined to delay their admission into school.

28 The ongoing challenge is not limited to getting children into school at the right age, or to ensuring that they progress through the system and complete the education cycle, but to identifying appropriate modalities to build on the findings contained in national studies and reports to inform policy.

Box 1: Dimensions of Exclusion Goal 2 is not attainable without ensuring that all children are in school by 2015. In 2014/15, education partners in Tanzania in conjunction with MoEVT will embark on a comprehensive study on out-of-school children. Launched in 2010, the global initiative is a joint project between UNICEF and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) with the objective to identify children who do not attend school. While the study may not immediately accelerate Tanzania Mainland’s ability to meet the EFA target by 2015 in the short-term, through analyzing the characteristics of out-of-school children (who they are, where they are located, the barriers that keep them out of school) policies arising from the initiative are intended to reduce the number of out-of-school children in the future. Consultation of several national and regional sources of data will develop meaningful profiles of these children. The diagram below highlights the main theme of the initiative. Diagram 1: Dimensions of the Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children: The Five Dimensions of Exclusion (5DE) Source: UNICEF/UIS, 2012

29

Chart 6: Gross and Net Intake Rate (GER & NIR) for pre-primary schools 2010 - 20

50

40

Rate 30

20

10

0 Male Female Total Male Female Total GIR NIR Year 2010 42 44 43 22 23 23 Year 2011 47 47 47 26 26 26 Year 2012 47 44 45 26 22 24 Year 2013 43 44 43 22 23 23

Source: BEST 2000-2013

Completion Rate The MoEVT defines completion rate as the number of students enrolled in the final grade of a given level of education expressed as percentage of the school-age population of that grade (BEST). Gross and net completions fluctuated between 2010 and 2013 but were highest in 2011. As depicted in chart 7, girls often complete primary school at a higher rate than boys, however, regional disparities quite common. In 2013, the average GCR for males and females was 83 and 91 per cent respectively (BEST, 2013). However, in 4 out of 25 regions (Kagera, Kigoma, Katavi and Tabora) GCR's for males ranged between 63 to 70 per cent, and were under 70 per cent for females in Kigoma and Katavi. Moreover, in at least 13 regions, GCR's for males was below the national average (83 per cent). (EMIS, MoEVT). Net completion rates below 100 per cent could signal several factors including the magnitude of repetition and drop-out and lower access into primary school of students at the correct age, among other factors that warrant attention.

30 Chart 7: Gross and Net Completion Rate (National)

Gross and Net Completion Rate (%)

Net Completion Rate (%) Gross Completion Rate (%)

58.3 F 90.9 52.3 M 83.4 57.4 F 89.8 52.2 M 82.3 65.2 F 104.2 60.0 M 96.1 54.3 F 97.0

2010 2011 2012 2013 51.7 M 93.1

Source: Best, various years

Repetition Rate by grade in primary education

Repetition Rate Following the MoEVT’s 2006 directive to discontinue repetition in standard 4 due to failure of each subject, repetition rates between standards 4 and 5 reduced by half from 12 per cent in 2002/03 to 6 per cent in 2012/13 (BEST, various years) Coupled with declining repetition rates, the number of primary school repeaters also declined significantly by at least 30 per cent to 301,872 in 2013 from 439307 in 2005, In spite of such positive outcomes, repetition remains higher in the first grade of primary education than at any other grade. In 2013, out of 25 regions, the highest numbers of repeaters in standard 1 were located in Arusha, Kagera, Iringa, Tanga and Mwanza, all of which had more than 7,000 students repeating standard 1. (EMIS, MoEVT). Between 2006 and 2010, repetition rates in standard 1 declined further from 10.6 per cent in 2005/6 to 6.3 in 2008/9, but have continued to increase steadily since 2009/10 to reach 8 per cent in 2012/

31

Chart 8: Primary School Repeaters (National):

Primary School Repeaters (2005 - 2013) 500000

400000

300000

200000

100000 Number of RepeatersNumber 0 2005 2006 2007 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total Number of 439307 388323 351006 201347 217168 218120 301872 Repeaters Source: Best, various years

Seemingly low repetition rates often mask regional disparities. In 2013, the average repetition rate between Standard 1 and Standard 7 in Pwani, Tanga, Kagera and Iringa, ranged from 5 to 7 per cent in 2013, while Iringa had the highest repetition rate for males and females in the same year (8 and 7 per cent respectively). The lowest repetition rate in the country (1 per cent) was registered in Dar es Salaam. (EMIS, MoEVT). These scenarios could be attributed to several factors not limited to late or early start of students in standard 1, socio-economic or other factors that warrant attention.

Chart 9: Repetition Rate in Primary Schools, 2005/06 - 2012/13

12.0

10.0

8.0 Percent 6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0 Year 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 Std. I - II 10.6 7.1 9.7 6.3 6.7 7.3 7.0 7.8 Std. II - III 6.2 5.6 5.5 3.6 4.7 4.0 4.2 4.9 Std.III - IV 5.1 4.2 5.4 2.7 2.7 2.9 2.2 4.0 Std. IV - V 10.9 9.4 8.3 2.1 2.3 2.2 3.2 6.0 Std. V - VI 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 Std. VI - VII 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2

Source: PEDP evaluation report of 2012

32

Drop-out Rate Statistics generated from 2013 national annual school census identify six main reasons for dropping out of primary school including truancy (75.7%), lack of basic needs (5.8%), pregnancy (4.4)%, death (2.6%), illness (2.0%)taking care of ill people (under 1 per cent .) as well as other unspecified reasons (8.8%) (BEST, 2013) In 2013, Truancy rates were highest in standards 3 and 4 for both males and females; however, boys in general constitute the vast majority of drop-outs for all reasons except pregnancy (BEST, 2013). Unlike their younger counterparts, this is also the cohort that is most likely to be engaged in child labour or other income generating activities. Dropout rates have steadily improved from 4 per cent in 2001/02 to 3 per cent in 2011/12. This improvement could be associated with the improvement of school infrastructure such as classrooms and toilets.

Survival Rate to Standard Seven of Primary Schools Survival rates to the Standard Seven of primary schools have continued to fluctuate since 2009. Marginal gains were realized between 2009 and 2011. Survival rate for boys increased slightly to 68 per cent in 2011 from 67 per cent in 2009, while that of girls declined from 72 per cent in 2009 to 69 per cent the following year before increasing to 77 per cent in 2011. More girls than boys survive to the last grade of primary schools. In 2012, 65 per cent of boys, and 73 per cent of girls, a difference of 8 percentage points, made it to standard 7 as depicted in Chart 10. This implies that targeted interventions at the national and regional levels are necessary to ensure that all children complete primary education.

Chart 10: Survival Rate to the last Grade of Primary Schools (National)

Survival Rates to the Last Grade of Primary 78 76 74 72 70 68 66 Percent 64 62 60 58 56 2009201020112012 males 66.6 64 68.1 65.1 females 72.1 68.8 76.5 72.8 Source: Best, various years

33 Chart 11: Trend in Survival Rate to Standard Five, 2000 - 2012

100 90 80 70

60. 50

Per centt 40 30 20 10

Year 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Male 76.9 75.0 82.7 75.7 82.3 75.6 71.2 77.7 73.5 89.8 82.7 79.4 75.8 85.3 73.9 84.3 76.5 71.9 79.1 75.6 92.0 85.5 82.6 81.1 Female 81.0 78.8 Total 78.9 76.9 84.0 74.8 83.2 76.0 71.6 78.4 74.5 90.9 84.1 81.0 78.4

Source: BEST Various years

Transition Rate from Primary to Secondary Education MoEVT defines transition rate as the number of students admitted to the first grade of a higher level of education in a given year expressed as a percentage of the number of pupils students enrolled in the final grade of the lower level of education in the previous year (BEST). Pursuant to the significant expansion of primary education between 2002 and 2008, coupled with the implementation of the first phase of SEDP (2004-2009), the availability of secondary schools more than quadrupled from mere 927 schools in 2001 to 4451 schools by 2013 (BEST, various years). Consequently, the transition rate from primary education to Form 1 which had consistently remained under 25 percent throughout the 1990’s and early 2000’s, tripled to 60 percent in 2013 as depicted in Chart 12.

34

Chart 12: Transition Rate from Primary to Secondary Education, 2000 - 2012

Transition Rate from Primary to Secondary

80

70

60

50 Percent 40

30

20

10

0 Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Transition Rate 21.7 22.4 21.7 30.1 36.1 49.3 67.5 56.7 51.6 43.9 52.2 53.6 59.5

Source: BEST 2000-2013

A growing body of research suggests that the capacities of students to successively progress from one grade of primary school to the next can be linked to their preparedness to join primary education in the first place, among other socio-economic and even environmental factors. For example, the unmet need for pre-primary education may be compensated through the early enrolment into primary school of under-aged students (pre-primary education net intake rates have remained under 30 per cent since 2010, while net enrolment rates have remained under 45 per cent); however, it’s equally recognized that this could adversely impact on learning outcomes at later stages, particularly when children are not sufficiently prepared to cope with a curriculum intended for older students. In the same vein, research further suggests that late entry into primary school may lead to higher rates of drop-out, repetition and non-completion in future. Comprehensive analyses of the factors affecting the efficiency of the education system in Tanzania are needed.

Special Needs Education The progress of any community or country depends greatly on access to education and the level of educational attainment of all its citizens. The more any population is exposed to quality education, the more the nation prospers. Those educated portions of the society which contribute to development consist of everyone, including girls, minority groups, the poor, and persons living with disabilities.

35 The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty 2005-2010 (MKUKUTA) recognised disability as a cross-cutting issue, while MKUKUTA II 2010-2015 (Goal 3), specifically addresses children’s rights, including the rights of children with disabilities. Moreover, Tanzania signed and ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) including Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), UN Conversion on the Rights of Person with Disabilities (2006) resulting in the Persons with Disabilities Act of 2010, Standard Rule on Equalization of Opportunities for People with Disabilities (1993) and Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action (1994). The 1977 Constitution of Tanzania and its amendments recognise the rights of persons with disabilities and prohibit all forms of discrimination. The Education Management Information System (EMIS) sub-section in MoEVT relies on the annual national school census to track students with disabilities. Statistics on disability tend to be inconsistent from year to year. Recent data show that students with disabilities in primary school increased by 60 per cent during the period 2006 to 2011 (from 18,982 to 30,433 students). By 2013, enrolment had declined to 24,584 students with more males than females with disabilities enrolled in primary school.

Box 2: Keeping Track and Responding to Students with Disabilities in Tanzania Based on the current version of the annual school census, any conclusion regarding the participation of students with disabilities, including the reliability of data on students that could potentially be excluded from primary school remains a complex issue. Recognizing the need to track these learners, in 2015, the MoEVT’s Unit of Special Needs Education, in conjunction with the Department of Planning, UNICEF and UNESCO will embark on a pilot process to assess the criteria used to identify children with disabilities within the school system. This exercise will entail the comprehensive review of the annual school census primarily to ascertain the nature of data collected on disability. The outcome of this exercise will enable identification of gaps, inform improvements to data collection instruments, and standardize the criteria used to assess the nature, extent and severity of disability. Consequently, it is expected that improvements to the coverage and quality of data on disabilities will be feasible, and that any future policies arising from this exercise will enhance the identification of disabilities in school. In so doing, appropriate interventions to support students will be better defined.

The target set by MKUKUTA was to ensure that all children including those with disabilities are enrolled in school between 2008 and 2013. Enrolment of children with disabilities fluctuated with small variations between 2008 and 2013 as shown in Chart 13.

36 Pupils with Disabilities in Primary Schools by Disabilities, 2008-2013

Chart 13: Enrolment of Pupils with Disabilities in Primary Schools, 2008- 2013

Source: MOEVT, BEST 2008-2013

Non-formal Education (NFE) Non-formal Education (NFE) is any organized and sustained educational activities outside the school system aimed at imparting literacy for young people and adults, basic education for out-of-school children, life skills, work skills and culture. In Tanzania, enrolment in primary school is equally supported through the mainstreaming of non-formal education learners into the formal education system. Currently two NFE programmes exist in the country: the Complementary Basic Education in Tanzania (COBET) and Radio Instruction to Strengthen Education (RISE).

Complementary Basic Education in Tanzania (COBET) COBET is a programme initiated to complement primary education (1999). The programme caters for out of school children aged 11 -18 years. Cohort I (age 11-13 and 7-13 years old) who live in hard to reach areas, and Cohort II (children aged 14-18 years). There has been significant increase in enrolment of pupils from Cohort 1 from 217,583 in 2002 to 233,932 in 2004 followed by a gradual and steady decline in enrolment from 192,787 in 2005 to 54,029 in 2013 as depicted in Table 6. As a result of the programme, several children who had previously been left out of school were regularly absorbed into educational institutions.

37

Table 6: Trend of Enrolment of COBET Learners 2000 - 2013 Enrolment Total Year Male Female 2000 373 354 727 2002 126,639 113,813 217,583 2004 122,482 111,450 233,932 2005 106,467 86,220 192,787 2006 85,822 64,926 150,748 2007 61,898 47,572 109,470 2008 38,799 30,446 69,205 2009 29,713 23,380 53,093 2010 26,646 22,675 49,321 2011 30,165 25,724 55,888 2012 26,482 22,811 49,293 2013 28,836 25,193 54,029 Source:Stock- taking report 2002, BEST 2004 – 2012, AE/NFE Evaluation Report

Cohort one pupils are mainstreamed into formal primary education after passing the STD IV National examination. In 2000, some 727 learners were mainstreamed in formal primary schooling. The number rose to 34,867 in 2007 but declined to 4,532 in 2013 as shown in Table 7.

Table 7: Mainstreaming of Learners into the Formal Education System, 2000 - 2013 COBET Learners Mainstreamed into Std V Year Male Female Total 2000 373 354 727 2004 6,194 4,829 11,023 2005 12,066 7,598 19,644 2006 13,837 8,975 13,837 2007 21,047 13,820 34,867 2009 7473 5,377 12,849 2011 4,068 3,124 7,192 2012 2,697 2,154 4,851 2013 2,401 2,036 4,437 Source: Stock- taking report 2002, BEST 2004 – 2012 AE/NFE evaluation report

The declining trend in mainstreaming COBET learners into the formal education system is attributable to two factors: notably, closure of COBET classes due to teachers’ low morale to handle the classes without being paid their monthly honoraria and, in some districts, the budget for paying COBET teachers has been lacking. Yet, in some areas school age children

38 are enrolled at the right age and thus eligible children to enrol in COBET classes are minimized.

Radio Instruction to Strengthen Education (RISE)-“Mambo Elimu’’ Radio Instruction to Strengthen Education (RISE) is an ICT-based educational programme. The programme uses MP3 and Radio technologies and is aimed at providing basic education for out of school children and youth who could not enrol in formal primary, schools especially in hard-to-reach areas, characterized by nomadic, pastoralist, and fishing lifestyles in Mtwara Rural, Mtwara Urban, Lindi Rural, Lindi Urban, Kilindi , Kiteto and Ngorongoro councils. The RISE project commenced in 2006 and ended in 2011. There were 183 RISE learning centres with a total enrolment of 7446 learners who were later mainstreamed into Standard Five after passing Standard Four National Examination. Out of 183 RISE learning centres, 11 have grown into primary schools.

The said achievement notwithstanding, challenges to identify all children who are at risk of missing out on their right to primary education in Districts and regions such as Ngorongoro, Kiteto, Kilindi, Mtwara, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Mara and Singida which have consistently lower participation rates in primary schooling for the reasons cited above should be strengthened

Human Resources: Percentage of trained teachers in primary education The MoEVT expanded its teaching force by 30 per cent from 114,660 in 2003 to 153,027 in 2007 and by a further 30 percent over a five-year period from 141,713 in 2009 to 187, 566 in 2013 (BEST, 2003-2007) in order to meet the demands of UPE. Primary school teachers with a Grade ‘A’ certificate and above are recognized as qualified teachers while teachers with lower quantifications than Standard One are unqualified. In spite of the MoEVT’s substantive efforts to upgrade the skills of its teaching force, available statistics show that by 2013, there were a number of teachers who still taught primary school without the requisite basic qualifications. Between 2010 and 2013, at the national level, the number of teachers that upgraded their skills was evident. While “Grade A” teachers remained the majority of the teaching force, by 2013, many more teachers had acquired diploma and tertiary level qualifications compared to previous years. This positive trend could be seen in the proportion of diploma holders that increased significantly from 6,512 in 2010 to 47,592 in 2013 while the number of unqualified teachers, typically those with Grade B/C qualifications, gradually left the force.

39 Chart 14: Primary Teachers by Level of Academic Qualification (National):

Teachers by level of academic qualification (Primary) 160000 140000 120000 100000 2010 80000 2013 60000 40000 20000 0 PhD Masters Bachelor Diploma Grade AGrade Others B/C

2010 2013 PhD 58 73 Masters 75 2271 Bachelor 1099 5818 Diploma 6512 47592 Grade A 148989 131659 Grade B/C 9123 995 not Source: Best, various years Others available 1079

Available and suitably qualified teachers influence learning outcomes. For the purpose of analysis regions with highest and lowest qualified teachers were selected. the higher In 2013, between nine and ten thousand “Grade A" teachers were located in Mwanza, Mbeya and Tanga regions, while Iringa, Katavi and Dar es Salaam regions each had fewer than 2000 "Grade A" teachers. Dar es Salaam had over eleven thousand teachers with Diploma qualifications, while Lindi, Rukwa, Singida, Shinyanga and Kigoma had less than 200. This implies that regions with a high level of economic development seem to have more exposure, opportunities for professional development, and prospects to change career. For example in Dar es Salaam there are more higher education institutions that provide opportunities to upgrade teachers’ skills. In recent years, the numbers of teachers that have sought higher academic qualifications have increased. By 2013, Mwanza had just over 1600 tertiary degree holders, the highest in the entire country.

Pupil-Teacher Ratio Since 2003, MOEVT has registered substantive improvements to pupil teacher ratios. By 2013, there was one teacher for every 43 students down from 1:58 a decade earlier. As depicted in Chart 15, PTR's have decreased consistently although regional disparities exist. In 2013, Dar es Salaam, Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Katavi registered PTR’s ranging from 1:30 and 1:35, while higher PTRs (between 1:50 and 1:59) were registered in Simiyu, Mara, Tabora and Geita (BEST, 2013). Because of economic status of the regions, Katavi had a special campaign to motivate teachers.

40

Chart 15: Pupil-Teacher Ratio

Pupil-Teacher Ratio 1:58 1:55 1:52 1:49 1:46 PTR 1:43 1:40 1:37 1:35 2003 2005 2007 2010 2012 2013

Source: Best, various years

Efforts to Improve Provision of Primary Education

School Feeding Programme for primary schools The Government of Tanzania has continued to expand the School Feeding Programme in order to promote attendance and retention of pupils in schools. The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training in collaboration with the World Food Programme (WFP) expanded the School Feeding Project from 13 Councils of Bahi, Longido, Iramba, Manyoni, Kondoa, Chamwino, Karatu, Simanjiro, Kiteto, Ngorongoro, Mpwapwa, Singida (R) and Monduli (,2000) to 16 Councils in 2011/12 to include Kishapu, Shinyanga and Meatu in the list. The feeding programme has so far reached 600,000 pupils in 1,000 schools in 16 drought-prone and pastoralist Councils located in 5 regions namely Singida, Dodoma, Manyara, and Arusha. The evaluation made (2002) in the 16 Councils has showed an increase in school attendance and reduction of dropouts. Apart from the schools which are supported under the WFP, other schools, especially those in agricultural zones provide meals during harvest periods.

The Government’s plan is to ensure that, school meals are provided to all schools throughout the school calendar. In that regard, the Government has continued to sensitize parents and other stakeholders to contribute resources including grain to ensure sustainable provision of meals to children at school to promote attendance and retention. Nationally, until August 2010, out of a total of 16,331 schools, 5, 424 (34.2%) were providing school meals. Out of these 1,167 were supported by WFP (BEST, 2012).

Primary Education Child Friendly Schools (CFS) The main aim of the Child Friendly School (CFC) initiative is to make schools conducive for teaching and learning as well as to promote child rights in schools. The Child Friendly Schools Programme advocates for child-centred teaching and learning approaches and methodologies. It also relies heavily on community participation and involvement as part and parcel of the teaching and learning processes whereby parents and school communities are seen to have key roles for contributing to school performance.

41

With regard to the impact of the CFS in the education system, the annual Joint Education Sector Reviews (JESR) reveal that as a result of community participation, commitment to schools, community support in construction of school infrastructure, and provision of essential facilities such as water and meals, school attendance rates, retention and achievement of learners have increased in schools. Positive outcomes include guidelines developed and distributed to all schools, improvement of learning environment, improvement of attendance and Development Partners.

In addition to ongoing support for school feeding programmes through the WFP, the education sector benefits from a myriad of technical and financial partnerships through in- country development partners, and through existing structures such as the Tanzania education sector development partners group (ED-DPG). Comprised of several multi-lateral and bilateral agencies, the ED-DPG is a centrally coordinated body that supports a number of activities including support to joint education sector reviews (JESR), early grade reading assessments (EGRA), girl’s education, teacher and curriculum development, monitoring and evaluation, development of education management information systems, among others.

Financing of Primary Education 2002 – 2012 Public Expenditure on primary education as a percentage of total public expenditure The share of budget allocated to primary education for a long time has included funds for adult and non-formal as shown in Table 8. The Rapid Budget Assessment for Tanzania which was conducted in 2012 showed that primary education was allocated 47.3 percent of the education sector budget which is also the largest. Likewise, the share allocated for the primary education sub-sector in 2012/13 was the largest (55.8%) followed by Tertiary and Higher Education (24.9%), Secondary Education (7.5%) and Teacher Education (1.7%) (BEST, 2012).

Table 8: Budget Allocation to Primary Education Subsector 2002/03 - 2012/13 Financial Year Total Education Primary, Non- Formal, Other Sector Education Institutions and Supporting Services Total % Share 2002/03 396,780 289,718 73.0 2003/04 487,729 361,425 74.1 2004/05 504,745 322,196 63.8 2005/06 669,537 418,455 62.5 2006/07 958,819 618,534 64.5 2007/08 1,100,188 618,828 56.2 2008/09 1,430,372 966,633 67.6 2009/10 1,743,900 1,211,332 69.5 2010/11 2,045,400 1,272,584 62.2 2011/12 2,283,000 1,159.526 50.8 2012/13 2,890,149 1,613,348 55.8 Source: Public Expenditure Review (PER) 2007/08 – 2011/12

42 Challenges Improving enrolment of children of official primary school age (7-13) Enrolment trends indicate that there are significant numbers of children who are not enrolled in primary schools in light of the Government policy of having all children aged 7 - 13 years in school. Statistics shows downward trends implying that some school age children are not enrolled. There are also regional disparities of school enrolment due to community awareness on the value of education, environmental and geographical factors.

Reaching hard to reach School aged children (7- 13 years) from hard to reach areas and those with disabilities have limited chances to access education services due to absence of schools in their neighbourhoods, lack of awareness among parent and child labour.

Enhancing teachers’ morale Teachers are generally de-motivated by heavy workloads, overcrowded classes, shortage and lack accommodation facilities and limited opportunities for professional development especially for those living in rural areas.

Quality management of data More often, information about schools does not reflect reality on the ground leading to poor planning and budgeting for education.

Ensuring conducive environment School environment in many areas is not conducive – buildings are dilapidated, there are no desks, table and chairs, there are shortages of toilets, no water and electricity nor feeding programme.

Recommendations a) Government will prepare and implement mobilization and sensitization strategy to ensure that all children are enrolled, attend and complete the cycle; b) Government will sensitise communities on the importance of creating conducive school environment for children c) Government will strengthen and continue to implement alternative education programmes, including mobile schooling; d) The Government will implement incentive package for teachers, including in-service training, re-deployment, provision of accommodation in order to enhance their working morale; e) Government will speed up the launching of Teachers’ Professional Board and Teachers Service Commission; f) Education data to be centralized and managed by MOEVT and National Bureau of Statistics will ensure single source ownership; g) The Government in collaboration with stakeholders will speed up the refurbishment of school infrastructure in order to create conducive teaching-learning environment.

43 GOAL THREE: Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes

Introduction Since the countries’ independence, the thrust of the national development agenda has focused on economic growth and poverty reduction. Tanzania’s 2012 national Population and Housing census revealed that youths aged 15 – 35 years and those aged 15-24 years constitute 35 and 19 per cent of the population respectively. Inevitably, the skills and

educational experience possessed by this group are essential catalysts for economic development. The governments eager to tap the productive potential of a skilled human capital base through the design and implementation of appropriate life skills programmes. Similarly, continuing education programmes that target adults and youth are operational in many parts of the country. Rooted in the belief that education and training should equip beneficiaries with relevant functional knowledge and skills for life in the community, the relevance of life skills was recognized at independence such that the formulation of youth and adult education programmes around the guiding philosophy of “Education for Self- Reliance” was a notable theme.

When the six EFA Goals were formulated in 2000, quantifiable indicators on life skills had not been articulated. Tanzania is well acquainted with the concept of life skills having already established national guidelines and strategies to ensure the integration of life skills in education. This chapter focuses on national initiatives and assesses progress made to date in crucial domains of life skills and education programmes targeting youth and adults that impact on the development of the country including technical, vocational, secondary education, life skills, HIV and AIDS, and tertiary education

44 Policies, Strategies, Plans and Targets for Implementing EFA Goal 3 The delivery of life skills and learning programmes for young people and adults in Tanzania is guides and supported by various policy frameworks. These include the Tanzania Development Vision (2025), Education and Training Policy (1995), Technical Education and Training Policy (1996), National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP, 2010/11- 2014/15),HIV and AIDS Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSPHA III 2013/14 – 2017/18),Technical and Vocational Education and Training Development Programme (TVETDP-2013/14 -2017/18), Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Policy (2011, draft), Tanzania Five Year Development Plan (FYDP, 2011/12 – 2015/16), National Life Skills Framework on Education (NLSFE,2010), Guidelines for Implementing HIV/AIDS and Life Skills Education Programme in Schools (2004), Tanzania Third Multi- Sectoral Strategic Framework For HIV and AIDS (2013/14 – 2017/18), Secondary Education Development Plan (2004 – 2009), Higher Education Development Programme (2010 – 2015) and Guidelines on Youth Life skills (2011), among others. The existence of the policies and other instruments reflect Tanzania’s ongoing commitment to implement EFA Goal 3.

The NSGRP (2010/11-2014/2015) in particular places emphasis on the need to continually expand the quality and relevance of TVET to absorb secondary school leavers, to enhance the employability of young people, and to improve the quality of TVET provision using ICT in teaching and learning. Strengthening interventions in HIV and AIDS is equally emphasized. Similarly, the FYDP (2011/12 – 2015/16) prioritizes the expansion of human capital and skills development to achieve Tanzania’s Vision 2025.

This emphasis on skills development is well reflected in the national Five Year Development Plan (2011/12 – 2015/16) projections4 Through a process of benchmarking against middle income countries, Tanzania’s FYDP projects that by the year 2015, the country will need to grow the skilled workforce by almost 1 million5 people in key sectors to attain middle income status by the year 2025. The identified sectors will require training that is already taking place in the country’s tertiary and technical education training (TET) institutions. Professions required by 2015 range from teachers to engineers as identified in the FYDP. These include: a) 26,000 physical scientists and technicians; b) 88,000 architects, engineers and related technicians; c) 22,000 life scientists, and related technicians; d) 64,000 medical, dental and veterinary scientists; e) 30,000 economics related professionals; f) 63,000 accountants and financial sector professionals; g) 130,000 administrators and mangers; h) 320,000 teachers and 130,000 managerial workers.

In addition to vocational and technical training institutions, Folk Development Colleges (FDCs) have been in existence since the 1970s. Under the auspices of the Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children (MCDGC), FDCs aim to reduce poverty and encourage self-reliance through entrepreneurship and training in crafts such as mechanics,

4 Projections were derived in 2011 by the President’s Office Planning Commission (POPC) through a study in conjunction with the International Growth Centre (IGC) of the London School of Economics (TVETDP, 2013‐ 2018) 5 FYDP target for the year 2015/16 for skills in Science, Engineering, Construction and Manufacturing (EMC), Health and Welfare, Social Sciences, and Business is 932,000 (TVET Development Programme (TVETDP 2013/14‐2017/18) MOEVT, Dar es Salaam, February 2013).

45 bricklaying, and carpentry with a view to create and provide skills at the community level. Non-Formal courses are available to adults and youths including the marginalized (women and the disabled) through “short” and “long” modes of training that typically range from a few weeks to months. FDCs also impart life skills to prevent the spread of HIV.

To meet the demands associated with the positive expansion of primary education that has been witnessed by the country since the beginning of 2000s, the MoEVT established the Secondary Education Development Plan (SEDP). Commencing in 2004, the plan is expected to be implemented in three phases of five years each. The plan clearly recognizes the importance of youth completing the full cycle of secondary education (Forms 1 to 6) with acceptable learning outcomes. In fact, the SEDP goals are consistent with Tanzania’s Education and Training Policy (ETP 1995) which stipulates that the key objectives of secondary education are to “consolidate and broaden the scope of ideas, knowledge, skills and concepts already acquired at primary education level, prepare students for tertiary, higher, vocational, technical and professional education and training, and prepare students for the world of work”6The SEDP points out that economic growth is likely to occur in the informal economy and that most of the growth will be fuelled by small and medium sized businesses which are also likely to be established by those who hold at least a secondary education or higher qualification7. National household surveys also reveal that the benefits in earning potential for those with secondary or higher education certainly outweigh those with only primary education.

To achieve the SEDP goals, five strategies are identified in the Plan: a) Improvement of access; b) Equity improvement; c) Quality improvement d) Management reforms; and e) Education Management system improvement

Tanzania values tertiary education as a major contributor to economic development. The Higher Education Development Programme (HEDP, 2010-2015) is intended to contribute to national and internationally recognized goals including Tanzania Development Vision 2025, the National Strategy for the Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA) and Millennium Development Goals by ensuring “improved productivity and benefits from increased trained and skilled human capital through investment in higher education8”. To date, the country boasts 469 universities and university colleges.

HEDP calls for improvements in service delivery so that by 2015, the quality of education should be aligned to the economy. The programme further outlines the following indicators and targets to assess continual progress in universities and university colleges:

a) At least 50% of universities and tertiary institutions review and adopt curricula that are linked to the economy by 2015; b) At least 20% of universities and tertiary institutions establish knowledge hubs, innovation, and science and technology based centres by 2015;

6Education and Training Policy (ETP 1995) 7Education Sector Development Programme: Secondary Education Development Plan (2004‐2009), Ministry of Education and Culture (April, 2004) 8 Higher Education Development Programme (2010‐2015), MoEVT (February, 2010) 9 Basic Education Statistics in Tanzania (2013)

46 c) Staff development programmes are established, supported and implemented in at least 40% of universities; d) University and tertiary institutions enrolments increased by at least 70% by 2015; e) Renovation of selected academic infrastructure undertaken in at least 80% of public universities by 2015.

The implementation of HIV and AIDS interventions in Tanzania is guided by the national Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework For HIV And AIDS (2013/14 – 2017/18) which is intended to direct stakeholders involved in HIV and AIDS in their response to the pandemic. Estimates by the government on the toll the disease is taking on the education sector suggest that a multi-sectoral approach is crucial and should continually be addressed through existing frameworks and partnerships. For example, the government estimates that the education sector is at risk of losing more than 27,000 teachers to AIDS by 202010. School based interventions for primary and secondary schools are equally reflected in policies such as the HIV and AIDS Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSPHA III 2013/14 – 2017/18). The ESSPHA outlines key strategies for intervention in the education sector. These include: a) Integration of age appropriate comprehensive sexuality education in the curricula for various levels of education; b) Provision of peer based sexuality education through extra- curricular activities at all levels of education through; c) School-community engagement in the provision of sexuality education to young people; d) Development of policy guidelines on zero tolerance to stigma, discrimination and sexual abuse among learners and employees; e) Capacity building on issues related to stigma, discrimination and sexual abuse among learners and employees; f) Provision of comprehensive information on care and support services to employees; g) Facilitate provision and accessibility of care and support services to HIV and those with NCD through work place programme within the Education Sector at all levels; h) Facilitate a strong mechanism of coordination for funding HIV and AIDS and Non– Communicable (NCD) intervention programmes for the education sector of education; i) To have an monitoring and evaluation plan on HIV and AIDS for education sector; j) Capacity building for responsible staff- staffs in monitoring and evaluation; k) Timely dissemination of HIV and AIDS information on Education sector response to stakeholders; l) Development of prioritized research agenda.

Tanzania as a signatory to several regional and international commitments related to education is well positioned to monitor progress on the myriad dimensions of life skills. In fact, national strategies, policies and frameworks resonate well with regional agendas such as those on skills development and life-long learning. For example, the AU continental strategy to revitalize TVET in Africa11 advocates for the availability of quality TVET in countries to

10The Second National Multi – Sectoral Strategic Framework On HIV And AIDS (2008 – 2012), United Republic of Tanzania, Prime Minister’s Office, Page 12 (October 2007) 11 Strategy to revitalize Technical and Vocational Training in Africa (TVET) in Africa, Final Draft (AU, 2007)

47 enhance the employability of the youth, maintaining TVET as an attractive option, ensuring the availability of policy and harmonized frameworks, and promoting life-long learning. Similarly the Africa MDG report (2012) identifies investment in secondary, tertiary and vocational education as areas that “will enhance human capital, innovation and growth.”12

Contextualizing Life Skills in Tanzania MoEVT has established guidelines on Life Skills through the National Life Skills Framework on Education (NLSFE, 2010). Life Skills are considered as those skills that enable the individual to cope with life and to support their communities. The Framework envisages a number of strategies to ensure that life skills education is mainstreamed into school and communities. These include: • Using communication strategies which address issues of awareness and commitment; • Capacity development of teachers and other education staff in schools; • Enhanced coordination and adjust existing programmes; and • The need for an effective monitoring and evaluation system to support implementation of life skills interventions.

Life skills broadly encompass purposeful learning activities conducted in formal, non-formal or informal settings. Often, life skills are undertaken on an ongoing, voluntary and self- motivated basis with the aim of expanding the communities’ knowledge, skills and competences, increasing the recipient’s ability to participate in society, and enhancing self- esteem. Within the formal education system, life skills is not taught as a stand-alone subject but integrated into the curricula using various carrier subjects, and further enhanced through co-curricular activities such as theatre and even sports. To date the MoEVT has integrated life skills into selected carrier subjects at different levels of education as follows: a) Primary: Science, Social Studies b) Secondary O level: Biology, Civics c) Secondary A level: General Studies, Biology d) Teachers: Certificate: Civics and Science e) Diploma: General Studies and Biology

In 2007, The MoEVT recognized that the lack of a comprehensive national framework for life skills had resulted in fragmented approaches in the provision of life skills among stakeholders with no discernible impact. In addition to the importance of peer education as a key methodology to impart life skills, the Framework recognizes the crucial role of teachers, in particular, the role of pre-service and in-service as “entry points for life skills pedagogy” (MoEVT). In this regard, the NLSEF asserts that the goal of Life Skills is to ensure that “…all children and young people in Tanzania are provided with quality life skills education and utilize the life skills in an environment which encourages and enables them to do so for their own benefit and for the benefit of their society, with particular emphasis on adopting attitudes and practices that protect them against HIV infection”.

Crucial outcomes stipulated in the National Life Skills Education Framework (2010) relate to effective monitoring and evaluation to supply MoEVT with data on in-school and out-of- school life skills. The framework proposes relevant proxy indicators to guide stakeholders in the formulation of programmes with measurable impacts. As outlined in the Framework, these would include:

12 African Union Commission (2012) MDG Report: Assessing progress in Africa towards the Millennium Development Goals (Addis Ababa, 2012)

48 a) Increase of young people using Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) and Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT) services; b) Decline in school pregnancies and unwanted pregnancies; c) Delayed sexual initiation; d) Decrease in sexual harassment and abuse; e) Participation of young people in governance at the community level; f) Decline in conflicts at school among students themselves and between students and teachers/management.

Notable interventions and achievements Education on HIV and AIDS Since the first three AIDS cases were reported in Tanzania in 1983, the infection spread rapidly leading to a generalized pandemic with a devastating impact on social and economic development. At the end of 2000, a total of 11,673 AIDS cases were reported (MOHNACP)13 countywide, victims being young people aged 15 to 24 years. By the end of 2012, it was estimated that about 1.5 million people were living with HIV and there were approximately 86,000 new infections (TACAIDS, 2012)14.

Two transmission mechanisms account for most new HIV infections in Tanzania Mainland notably sexual contact and mother to child transmission (MTCT). Still, the Tanzania HIV/AIDS Indicators Survey (THIS 1983 – 2004) reported that 1 to 2 percent of young people aged 15 to 24 who had never had sexual relations were nonetheless HIV positive. This entails that multiple social, epidemiological, and behavioural factors can account for the high prevalence rate. The education sector has seriously been affected by the pandemic and the situation weighs heavily on the quality of education and on human resources.

The role of life skills to arrest the HIV/AIDS pandemic is acknowledged by the MOEVT and stakeholders. To address the situation, policy guidelines were developed in 1998 and revised in 2002 to guide the education sector to implement and evaluate its programmes. The policy guidelines focused on key priority areas related to life skills. These include: a) Strengthening management and coordination of programme activities; b) Reducing vulnerability of school youth to HIV and AIDS; c) Incorporating HIV and AIDS and Life skills in school curricula; d) Reducing unprotected sex among men and women with multiple sex partners; and e) Reducing vulnerability of women and in adverse cultural environments

The target set by the Education Sector HIV/AIDS Strategic plan (2003-2007) called for the provision of “preventive education and counselling to school youth to help them adopt and maintain responsible sexual behaviours leading to the reduction in the spread of HIV and AIDS among themselves and in the communities”. The strategies to meet the set targets included:

• Improving education sector responses mechanism on HIV and AIDS for better management and coordination of the programme; • Strengthening the implementation of a comprehensive inclusive HIV and AIDS preventive education in schools and teachers training colleges; • Increasing the provision of inclusive care and support services; and

13 Ministry of Health – Tanzania National AIDS Control Programme (MOHNACP) 14 Tanzania Commission for AIDS (TACAIDS, 2012)

49 • Establishment of a mechanism of addressing the impact of HIV and aids in the education sector. In addition, the 2012 National HIV and AIDS Response report15 outlines interventions aimed at “zeroing new HIV infections”. These interventions are implemented by various stakeholders including the education sector. The interventions included:

a) Provision of peer education programmes for in and out of school youth on HIV and AIDS and life skills, b) Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT ) of HIV; c) HIV testing and Counselling (HTC); d) Home Based Care (HBC), Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision, condom promotion and programming; e) Behaviour Change Communication programs (BCC), provision of comprehensive sexual and reproductive health

More recently, through the mass media, educational programmes on HIV and AIDS have reached at least 48 percent of men and 62 percent of women among the adult population (THMIS, 2012).

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) provides education and training opportunities upon completion of primary, secondary or other higher levels of education. Learners are trained to take up careers as skilled workers, technicians, and professionals mainly for industrial and self-employment. Coordinated by the TVET Division at MoEVT, the role of technical and vocational education and training is to impart the necessary knowledge and skills to youth and adults to enable them contribute to the socio-economic development of their communities, and ultimately, to that of the country. TVET is offered through numerous pathways including Technical Education (TET), Vocational Education and Training (VET), and Folk Development Colleges (FDCs).

Tanzania’s current “youth bulge” coupled with the countries’ steady economic growth over the last decade further emphasizes the increasingly important role of TVET to equip the youth with relevant skills to exploit the labour market. In addition, the substantive gains realized through the expansion of primary and secondary education have made TVET even more relevant today than it was a decade ago when initiatives such a the Primary Education Development Programme (PEDP) and the Secondary Education Development Plan (SEDP) were taking root. Growing numbers of young people in Tanzania will continually seek to improve their lives through decent employment, while also looking to expand their educational options through alternative educational channels such as technical and vocational education and training.

The National Qualifications Framework (NQF)16distinguishes between academic, vocational, technical and professional pathways which serves as a framework to guide providers and students on available options and opportunities to move from academic into vocational and technical education streams keeping in mind the life-long learning philosophy. Quality assurance on institutions and programmes that provide TVET is undertaken by regulatory

15 National HIV And AIDS Response Report, Tanzania Mainland (TACAIDS, 2013) 16 National Qualifications Framework (NQF), Tanzania Commission for Universities, TCU (Final Draft, March, 2010)

50 bodies in order to ensure there is synergy, consistency and continuity of learning experiences in the different education sub-systems. Specifically, the National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) and the Vocational Education and Training Authority (VETA) are responsible for regulation, quality assurance and accreditation of TVET providers.

TVET is promoted through various means including engaging with the public and private sectors to assess demand and supply for skilled manpower in crucial fields. For example, Table 9 highlights the results of an assessment conducted in 2013 involving 40 national stakeholders (including VETA, MOEVT, 4 VETA institutes, and oil, gas and construction companies). As shown by the table, more needs to be done to encourage gender parity in enrolment into programmes in demand. The consultations revealed that although almost 17,000 students were enrolled in programmes related to the lucrative oil and gas sector, supply of TVET graduates was still low in comparison to industry demands. Stakeholders also emphasized the need to increase the number of skilled graduates as well as promote quality assurance consistent with international standards.

Table 9: Identified vocational skills in the Oil and Gas Sector, Tanzania

Source: Presentation of Vocational Skills Gap in the Tanzanian Oil and Gas Sector, Stakeholders Workshop held in Dar es Salaam (November, 2013)

These findings concur with the 2012 TVET sector situational analysis17 which consulted a wide range of stakeholders including employees, learners and TVET institutions operating in the country where it was observed that: a) most employers reported the quality of vocational education and training graduates as being satisfactory (69% of respondents), b) TVET was not a viable option for primary and secondary schools leavers, c) the sub-sector was underserved, d) there was a need to increase in the number of vocational graduates and technicians. e) Low intake into VET is also attributable to the lower academic requirements for entry into vocational education and training programmes, further compounding

17 TVETDP Situational Analysis (MoEVT, September 2012)

51 the perception that future options for vocational graduates would not be as lucrative as those with more technical qualifications. f) Availability of sufficiently qualified teachers is low. g) Female teachers compared to their male counterparts are few signalling the unavailability of female role models to counteract negative perceptions of TVET as a male dominated arena. h) few women were enrolled in engineering, manufacturing and construction due to prevailing stereotypes. i) despite the existence of technical secondary schools that are intended to equip secondary school students with academic and technical skills to join the workforce as technicians, few secondary school students actually opt to join technical education and training institutes

Progress and Trends on HIV and AIDS: Although the HIV prevalence among the adult population aged 15-49 in Tanzania Mainland declined from 7% in 2003/04 to 5.3% in 2011/12, the reduction rate has been rather slow. HIV prevalence is still particularly high among certain groups in the population, including women, sex workers, truck drivers, and people injecting with drugs (PIWD). National HIV and Malaria Indicator surveys (THMIS) conducted in 2003/4, 2007/8 and 2011/12 reveal that by socio-economic status, HIV prevalence is higher in the wealthiest quintiles compared to the lowest quintiles. At the same time, the coverage and utilization of HIV testing and counselling Services has continued to expand.

According to THMIS, by 2012 the percentage of women and men aged 15-49 that had ever been tested for HIV and received their test results was 62 per cent for women and 47 per cent for men respectively. This however was not the case for young people where only 39 per cent of females and 25 per cent of males aged 15-24 years were tested for HIV in 2011 (TDHS 2010). The reason for the high percentage of women who are tested could be attributed to the requirement that all pregnant women should be screened whenever they attend maternal clinics. Currently, there are a number of options to ensure access to HIV Testing and Counselling (HTC). These include Client Initiated Testing and Counselling (CITC), Provider Initiated Testing and Counselling (PITC), and Home Based Counselling and Testing (HBCT). As depicted in Chart 16, these approaches have contributed to declines in prevalence rates.

Chart 16: HIV Prevalence 15-49 year olds, Tanzania Mainland

HIV Prevalence 15 - 49 year olds, Tanzania Mainland 9 8 8 7 6.8 7 5.8 6 6.3 6 2003/04 5.3 4.7 Percent 5 3.9 2007/08 4 3 2011/12 2 1 0 Total Men Women Source: THIS (2003‐2004), TMHIS (2007‐2008), THMIS (2011 ‐ 2012)

52

Although HIV prevalence has been declining since 2003/4, prevalence rates remain higher for women compared to men. As depicted in Chart 16, in 2003/4 compared to other age group, women aged 30-34 had the highest prevalence rate (12.9 per cent). This pattern persisted until 2007/8 when the prevalence rate for 30-34 year olds declined to 10.4 per cent. By 2011/12, prevalence rate for women in this age group had declined to 9.2 per cent; however, it was highest among women aged 45-49 and 40-44 at 10.2 per cent and 9.3 per cent respectively. These two age groups have witnessed an increase in prevalence between 2007/8 and 2011/12. For all years, prevalence is lowest for 15-19 year olds.

Chart 17: HIV Prevalence Rate by Age: Women HIV Prevalence by Age: Women 14 12.9 12 11.6 10.4 10.2

9.8 10 9.4 9.5 9.2 9.3 2003‐2004 8 7.6 8 7.9 7.0 6.8 2007‐2008 Percent 6 6.3 6 5.8 2011‐2012 4.4 4 2.1 1.3 2 1.3

0 15‐19 20 ‐ 24 25‐29 30‐34 35‐39 40‐44 45‐49 Source: THIS (2003‐2004), THMIS (2007‐2008), THMIS (2011‐2012)

As depicted in Chart 18, prevalence rate for men was highest in 2003/4 at 12.3 per cent for those aged 40-44 but has declined steadily since then. Notable decreases are observed for those aged 25-29 and 40-44 respectively. For example, prevalence rate for 25 to 29 year old men decreased by half from 5 per cent in 2007/8 to 2.5 per cent in 2011/12, and by 45 per cent for those aged 40-44 from 12.3 per cent in 2003/4 to 6.7 per cent in 2007/8. As is the case for women, 15-19 year old men had the lowest prevalence (under 1 %) in 2003/4 and 2011/12, while prevalence had increased marginally for men aged 40-44 (from 6.7 per cent in 2007/8 to 7.1 per cent in 2011/12) and from 6.1 per cent in 2007/8 to 6.5 per cent in 2011/12 for men aged 45-49 years.

53 Chart 18: HIV prevalence rate by Age: Men HIV Prevalence by Age: Men 14 12.3 12 10.6 9.8 10 8.6 2003‐2004 8 7.1 6.8 7.4 7.1 Percent 6.7 6.7 2007‐2008 6.5 6.1 6.5 6 5 2011‐2012 4.2 4 2.1 2.5 1.7 2 0.7 1.7 0.8 0 15‐19 20 ‐ 24 25‐29 30‐34 35‐39 40‐44 45‐49 Source: THIS (2003‐2004), THMIS (2007‐2008), THMIS (2011‐2012)

HIV Prevalence by Level of Education As depicted in Chart 18, prevalence rates for men and women with secondary education and above declined steadily since 2003/4, however, prevalence rate for men compared to women remains lower irrespective of educational attainment. For example, in 2011/12, women and men the highest prevalence rate was found among those who had completed primary education (6.7 per cent for women and 4.9 per cent for men respectively) while women with no education had higher prevalence rate (5.4 per cent) compared to males (3.5 per cent) in the same year. Unlike the case for males, in 2011/12, there was no statistical significance in prevalence for women who had completed primary or had incomplete primary (6.6 per cent and 6.7 per cent respectively). The decline in prevalence rate for women who have completed primary between 2007/8 and 2011/12 is also marginal (6.8 per cent and 6.7 per cent respectively).

Chart 19: HIV Prevalence by Level of Education

HIV Prevalence by Level of Education, 15 ‐49 year olds 10 9.3 9 8.8 8 7 7.3 6.8 No Education 7 6.6 6.7 5.8 5.9 6 5.8 5.8 4.8 5.5 5.4 5 4.9 4.9 Primary 5 4.5 4.2 4 Incomplete 4 3.5 Percent 3.5 3.4 Primary Complete 3 2 2 Secondary + 1 0 Women Men Women Men Women Men 2003‐2004 2007‐2008 2011‐2012

Source: THMIS 2003/4, 2007/8, 2011/12

HIV Prevalence by Region

54 Concerning HIV prevalence by region, variations were observed across regions. For example, in 2011-2012, Manyara registered the lowest prevalence (1.5 per cent) while Njombe, Iringa and Mbeya had the highest (14.5 per cent, 9.1 per cent, and 9 per cent respectively). Previous surveys (Tanzania HIV/AIDS and Malaria Indicator Survey 2007- 08) depicted similar scenarios. For example, across regions, HIV prevalence in 2007/8 was higher in Mbeya (9.2 per cent) and Iringa (15.7 per cent) and lowest in Manyara (1.5 per cent).

Chart 20: Prevalence rates for men and women (15-49) for selected regions in Tanzania Mainland (2011-2012)

HIV Prevalence, 15 - 49 year olds, selected regions, 2011-2012, Tanzania Mainland 0246810121416 Njombe 14.5 Iringa 9.1 Mbeya 9 Shinyanga 7.4 Rukwa 6.2 Pwani 5.9 TANZANIA Region 5.3 Tabora 5.1 Kagera 4.8 Mtwara 4.2 Kigoma 3.4 Lindi 2.9 Tanga 2.4 Manyara 1.5

Percent Source: THMIS (2011‐2012)

Since 2003, HIV prevalence has remained higher for women in both urban and rural areas, and prevalence rates have also decreased at a faster pace for urban men. For example, HIV prevalence for urban men decreased from 9.6 per cent in 2003/4 to 6.6 per cent in 2007/8 compared to HIV prevalence for urban women which decreased marginally from 12 percent in 2003/4 to 11 per cent in 2007/8. Prevalence rates among rural women also decreased marginally from 5.8 per cent in 2003/4 to 5.4 per cent in 2007/8 to 5.3 per cent in 2011/12, while the prevalence rates for rural men have decreased at a faster pace from 4.8 per cent in 2003/4 to 4.1 per cent in 2007/8 to 3.5 per cent in 2011/12.

55

Chart 21: HIV Prevalence 15-49 year-Olds, Urban/Rural

HIV prevalence 15 - 49 year olds, Urban/Rural 14 12 12 11 9.6 10 9.3 2003/04 8 6.6 5.8 5.4 5.3 5.4 2007/08 6 4.8 4.1 4 3.5 2011/12

Percent 2 0 Urban Rural Urban Men Rural Men Women Women Source: THIS (2003‐2004), TMHIS (2007‐2008), THMIS (2011 ‐ 2012)

Trends in knowledge of HIV prevention methods More men than women in Tanzania Mainland report having comprehensive knowledge of HIV. This is considered to be knowledge on the prevention of HIV by using condoms, limiting sex to one uninfected partner, knowledge that healthy looking persons could have HIV, and rejecting misconceptions about HIV prevention and transmission. In surveys conducted in 2007-2008 and 2011-2012, as depicted in Chart 22, the number of persons aged 15-49 that reported having comprehensive knowledge of HIV increased from 40 per cent to 42 per cent for women, and from 45 per cent to 50 per cent for men respectively. According to the TMHIS conducted in 2003, 2007 and 2011 more women and men in urban areas had comprehensive knowledge of HIV. Moreover, comprehensive knowledge for both sexes increases with age. For example, the age group 15-19 reported having the lowest comprehensive knowledge while those aged 25-29 had the highest.

Chart 22: Percentage of Women and Men aged 15-49 with Comprehensive Knowledge of HIV

Percentage of women and men aged 15-49 with comprehensive knowledge of HIV 60 54 50 50 46 45 40 42 40 Women 30

Percent Men 20

10

0 2003‐2004 (THIS) 2007‐2008 (THMIS) 2011‐2012 (THMIS)

Source: THIS (2003/4) THMIS (2007/8) THMIS (2011/12)

Achievements (HIV/AIDS) a) Tanzania is one of 20 countries that affirmed the Ministerial Commitment on comprehensive sexuality education and sexual and reproductive health services for adolescents and young people in Eastern and Southern African (ESA) in December, 2013. In this regard, efforts have been taken by the responsible

56 ministries (MoEVT and MoHSW) in collaboration with other partners to ensure realization of the agreed commitment and targets; b) Syllabus and training manual for life Skills for primary and secondary schools have been developed; c) Provision of life skills to all income generating groups has reached 3500 persons in 76 districts; d) Enhanced capacity of the MoEVT to develop effective Sexuality Education Curriculum through the training of 50 curriculum developers and senior education staff; e) Development of five curricula guidelines for integrating components of sexuality education into schools and teachers curricula; f) Enhanced capacities of 9 teachers training colleges in providing HIV and Sexuality Education through a newly revised Teacher Educator Program (the program includes among others, a standalone module on Comprehensive HIV and Sexuality Education); g) Stimulating the comprehensive review of pre-primary and primary education curricula , as well as the finalization of the 5-year education sector HIV/AIDS Strategic plan; h) Establishment of a bursary scheme to support MoEVT staff infected with HIV and AIDS; i) Launching of peer educators at work places and in schools and colleges. j) Integration into the education management information system (EMIS) of relevant indicators to measure the education sector response to HIV/AIDS taking into account teachers, students and the curriculum.

Literacy Rates The 2002 national population and housing census revealed that literacy rates for 15 years and above was 69 per cent while that for the age cohort 15 – 24 was 78 per cent. Slightly more males than females were literate (81 per cent and 76 per cent respectively). By 2012, literacy rates for persons 15 years and above had increased by 9 percentage points to 78 per cent with more literate men than women (83 per cent and 73 per cent respectively). This is slightly lower than the literacy rate of 15 – 24 year olds (86 per cent) while that of the population aged 15 – 35 years was 84 per cent. Regional disparities across the twenty five regions of Tanzania Mainland can also be observed in 2012. For example, Tabora registered the lowest literacy rate of persons 15 years and above at 59 per cent while Dar es Salaam registered the highest at 96 per cent. In addition, disparities by location and gender exist. Dar es Salaam and Kilimanjaro had the highest number of literate women (95 per cent and 90 per cent respectively) while Tabora and Katavi registered the lowest rates at 58 per cent and 52 per cent respectively.

57 Chart 23: Literacy Rates for 15 years and above in Selected Regions: Literacy Rates, 15 years and above, selected regions, 2012, Tanzania Mainland 120 92 96 100 78 80 82 84 80 70 66 67 68 68 70 59 60 40

Percent 20 0

Source: Population and Housing Census, 2012

As depicted in Chart 24, literacy rates are higher in urban areas compared to rural areas with differences of more than 10 percentage points prevailing in the 15-19, 20-24 and 25-29 age brackets, and much higher in older age groups. For example, disparities between rural and urban literacy rates can be as high as 20 percentage points for those aged 35 to 39 years (74 per cent and 94 per cent respectively) as shown in Chart 24.

Chart 24: Literacy Rates for 15 years and above by Age and Location: Literacy Rates, 15 years+ All regions, Tanzania Mainland 2012

74 40‐44 93 80 74 35‐39 94 Rural 81 73 Urban 25‐29 94 Mainland AGE 81 78 20‐24 96 84 82 15‐19 96 87 0 20406080100120 Source: Population and Housing Census, 2012

Educational Attainment: Educational attainment is uneven across educational levels. According to the 2012 national population and housing census, at least 83 per cent of the population registered primary education as the highest level of education attained compared to only 2.3 per cent of the population that held a university qualification or other. In addition, the highest level of schooling completed remains uneven across gender lines. More women (85 per cent) than men (81 per cent) have completed primary education. Less than 15 per cent of the population had attained secondary qualifications, and more men (14 per cent) than women (12 per cent) had attained a secondary qualification. Post-Primary and secondary training remain less popular with only 1 per cent pursuing these alternative pathways. Available statistics underscore that more needs to be done to address the demand and supply barriers at educational levels.

58 Chart 25: Educational Attainment

Educational Attainment 5 years and above, Tanzania Mainland 2.3 1 Primary School

1 12.9 Training after Primary

Secondary school

Training after 83 Secondary University and others

Source: Population and Housing Census, 2012

Secondary Education: In 2000, there were only 927 secondary schools in Tanzania Mainland. By 2004, at the start of the Secondary Education Development Plan (SEDP) the number of schools had increased to 1,291.Following the implementation of SEDP, coupled with the policy directive to construct secondary schools in each ward in the country, the number of secondary schools had increased to 4,576 by 2013. These expansions led to a remarkable increase in secondary school enrolment from 238,194 in 2000 to 1,804,056 in 2013. For example, towards the end of SEDP, enrolment in secondary schools grew by 20 per cent between 2007 and 2008 (from 1,020,510 to 1,222,403) and by 24 per cent between 2009 and 2010 (from 1,317,276 to 1,638,699). Enrolment actually decreased in 2013 to 1,804,056 from 1,884,272 the previous year. These trends subsequently led to GER increasing from 7 percent in 2002 to 32 per cent in 2013 while NER increased by five times in eight years from 6 per cent in 2002 to 30 per cent in 2010 but had declined to 29 per cent by 2013. Slight gender disparities remain as depicted in Chart 25. Of equal concern is the decline in coverage in recent years which warrants attention. Secondary sources of data also reveal that regional and wealth disparities have a bearing on access to secondary education. For example, the Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey (2010), reports secondary NER in the wealthiest households at 49 percent which was more than five times that in the poorest households (9 percent). Moreover, secondary school-age youth in urban areas were more likely to attend secondary school than their counterparts in rural areas (44 percent and 19 percent, respectively) (TDHS, 2010).

59 Chart 26: Secondary Gross and Net Enrolment

Secondary Gross and Net Enrolment (GER, NER), Tanzania Mainland

40 37 34 35 34 34 33 32 30 30 30 29 30 28 27 GER 25 20 GER females 15 14 13 Percent 15 13 NER 7 10 6 NER females 5 0 2002 2006 2010 2012 2013 Source: Best, various years

In spite of positive trends in the expansion of secondary enrolment since 2000, low transition rates from ordinary to advanced secondary level continue to translate into low coverage in the advanced secondary (Forms 5 and 6) levels of education. The proportion of both male and female students who are of the official secondary school-going age in advanced secondary students remains under 3 per cent in 2013 implying that few students will not only have access to tertiary education opportunities, but may also face limited employment options that may require skilled graduates with a secondary level of education.

Chart 27: Secondary Enrolment ordinary and advanced levels

SecondaryNet Enrolment (Form 4 and Form 6), Tanzania Mainland

40 37 37 34 35 34 (Form 1 ‐ 4) NER 31 30 30 25 (Form 1 ‐ 4) NER 20 Females)

Percent 15 13 14 (Form 5 ‐ 6) NER 10 6 3 3 (Form 5 ‐ 6) NER 5 0.4 1 1 2 2 2 1 0 Females) 2002 2006 2010 2012 2013 Source:Best, various years

Transition Rate from Ordinary to Advanced Secondary Education The end of the first cycle of secondary education culminates in the Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE). Successful candidates proceed to the second cycle of secondary education (Forms 5 and 6). However, transition rates have declined steadily over time from as high as 28 per cent in 2000 to 11 per cent in 2012. Likewise, once students are enrolled in ordinary level secondary, gross and net completion rates are low. In 2011 and 2012 Gross completion was below 50 per cent while net completion was 11 and 12 per cent respectively as depicted in Chart 28.

60 Chart 28: Transition rates, Gross and Net Completion, Secondary Education:

Transition Rates (form 4 - 5) Gross and Net Completion, Tanzania Mainland

45 42 39 42 Transition (Form 4 40 to 5) 35 30 30 28 28 25 Gross Completion 20 15 11 Percent 15 12 11 12 10 Net Completion 5 0 2000 2003 2006 2007 2009 2011 2012 Source: Best, various years

Technical Education and Training (TET) The 2011 draft policy on TVET is intended to facilitate expansion of student enrolment in subjects related to science and technology to propel the country to a middle income economy and enhance the competitiveness of TVET graduates. The policy also advocates for youths and adults to pursue entrepreneurial skills, and as promoted by the national qualifications framework, to ensure that there is horizontal and vertical mobility between different levels of technical and vocational education and training. Furthermore, the draft policy encourages private sector participation mainly to expand the provision of technical education so that national goals on economic development are more effectively achieved.

TVET subject areas typically absorb ordinary and advanced secondary graduates into government and non-government technical colleges. In 2013, the vast majority of students [46,321 out of 113,080(40 per cent)] were enrolled in business and management programmes. Between 2010 and 2013, enrolment in TET more than doubled from 50,173 to 113,080; however, less than 50 per cent of students are women. Consistent with the NQF, several awards (Certificate, Ordinary, Advanced Diploma's, Bachelor, Master, PhD, Post-graduate Certificate and Diploma) absorb students. Since 2010, compared to any other awards, the certificate has remained more attractive to the majority of students. More females (28,090) than males (27,562) enrolled in this programme in 2013, and at least half of all students were enrolled in the certificate programme. Furthermore, more women than men graduated from health and welfare, business, social sciences and law programmes in 2012 and 2013. In 2012, the majority of entrants into technical colleges were Form 4 and Form 6 graduates (48 and 23 percent respectively compared to primary school leavers. (BEST18 ,various years).

18Basic Education Statistics in Tanzania (BEST)

61 Chart 29: Enrolment and Graduates: Technical Colleges

Enrolment and Graduates in Technical Colleges, Tanzania Mainland

120000 112447 113080 100000 85040 80000 Total Enrolment

60000 53889 50173 53233 Female Enrolment 38698 39418 40000 33716 Total Graduates 20493 20856 20000

0 2010 2011 2012 2013 Source:Best, various years, refers to academic year ending

Vocational Education and Training (VET) Following the substantive expansion of primary and secondary education since 2000, the growth in the vocational training sector has also expanded accordingly to continually absorb students. Folk Development Colleges (FDC)’s and Vocational Education Training (VET) Centres have increased their enrolment steadily over time. For example, enrolment in 2007 stood at 79,429, almost doubling to 144,628 by 2013. Dar es Salaam, Arusha and Kilimanjaro (mostly urban areas), typically register the majority of students during 2011 and 2012 respectively. However, coverage in FDCs remains under 10 percent. For example, out of 144,628 students enrolled in VET and FDCs in 2012/12, only 8,192 students were in FDC s (BEST, 2013). Typically, more men than women are enrolled in vocational education and training and FDC programmes. Provision of vocational education is quite diversified with faith based organizations and private individuals constituting the main providers (29 and 27 percent respectively) while the vocational education training authority (VETA) and private companies own 4 and 11 percent respectively of centres.

Chart 30: Enrolment and Graduates in Folk and Vocational Education and Training

Enrolment and Graduates in FDC and VET

160000 144628 140000 127755 120000 104820 100000 female Enrolment 78132 80000 65798 66773 Total Enrolment 60000 55009 Graduates 40000 29646 20000 0 2007/8 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

Source:Best, various years, refers to academic year ending

62

Box 3 “MAMA” COURSES through Folk Development Colleges (FDC’s)

As of 2002, apart from offering general courses on a range of skills, some FDC’s through the assistance of a local NGO (Karibu Tanzania Association (KTA) have started to conduct skills training for girls who have discontinued education due to pregnancy. These courses are known as “Mama” Courses. The objectives of these courses are to train girls to acquire skills to improve their livelihoods. To date, a total of seven FDC’s in Kilimanjaro, Njombe, Iringa, Ruvuma, Coast), and Morogoro have conducted these courses.

Graduates in Vocational Education and Training and Folk Development Colleges: As depicted in Chart 29, graduates from VET centres and FDC's have increased steadily since 2006from 72,229 to 127,755 while most entrants into vocational programmes are Form 4 graduates rather than primary school leavers. In 2013, only 8 per cent of students enrolled in VET had an upper secondary or higher qualification. FDC's which typically offer educational opportunities to any youth or adult entrant remain less attractive to secondary school leavers partly due to their inability to guarantee opportunities to pursue formal qualifications, or to enhance a competitive edge in the labour market. Moreover, a Vocational Education and Training (VET) tracer study conducted in 2010 involving 18 to 29 year olds suggested that as many as 80 per cent of graduates were employed. Agriculture and food processing, construction and clothing and textiles emerged as the sectors with the highest employment rates (above 90 per cent). However, two key reasons emerged on the unemployment of VET graduates: lack of resources to start a business, and limited demand for skills acquired though VET (VETA, 2010).

Chart 31: Graduates and Enrolment by Entrance Qualifications

Graduates and Enrolment by Entrance Qualifications 2006 ‐ 2012 140000 127755 120000 110014 100000 2012 80222 78132 80000 72229 2011 60000 38011 2010 40000 2008 20000 3379 4666 0 2006 VET and FDC Enrolled with Enrolled with Enrolled with Enrolled with Graduates Primary (Folk) Primary Lower Secondary Lower Secondary (Vocational) (Folk) (Vocational)

Source:Best, various years, VET Data Handbook

63 Tertiary Education: Between 2005/6 and 2012/12 enrolment in universities and university colleges grew significantly from 40,009 to 204,175, an increase of more than 200 per cent. While the proportion of females in universities and university colleges has consistently increased at a faster pace than that of male students, less than 40 per cent of those attending universities and university colleges are women as depicted in Chart 30. Gross enrolment ratio in universities and university colleges19has remained relatively low since 2009. For example, in 2009/10 GER was 5.3 per cent, increasing to 8 per cent in 2010/11, before peaking to 9.5 per cent in 2011/12. By 2012/2013 GER had dropped to 5.5 per cent signalling that more needs to be done to address transition and quality at earlier stages of the education system to ensure a critical mass of the population attains tertiary qualifications.

Chart 32: Enrolment in Universities and University Colleges Enrolment in Universities and University Colleges 250000 204175 200000 166484

150000 139638 118951 Total 100000 Females 76172 74498 60592 50028 50000 40993 42239 13213 23942 0 2005/6 2007/8 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 Source: BEST various years Achievements in TVET a) Expansion of access in TVET education over the last ten years has resulted in substantive growth of the population engaged in employment and self-employment in TVET related areas in the formal and non-formal economy; b) Formulation of policies related to TVET has established basic mechanisms to guide the sector; c) Establishment of TET and VET regulatory bodies (NACTE and VETA) provides basic criteria for quality assurance through accreditation and registration; d) Participation of the private sector in TVET has grown over time and positively contributes to increasing access to TVET. In addition, the private sector in conjunction with government enhances access to information on emerging skills demand especially in capital intensive sectors such as mining and construction; e) Engagement with employees, industry, and students on the quality of TVET has established a basis for the continual improvement of TVET to meet the demands of the labour market; f) Establishment of the Skills Development Levy (SDL) generates financial support for VET; g) Establishment of a national qualifications framework that facilitates mobility from vocational to technical related subjects;

19Tanzania calculates GER for universities and university colleges using the theoretical population of the age group 20‐23 as the denominator.

64 h) Establishment of an education management information system that incorporates education statistics on TET and VET including the annual dissemination of data on TVET the national education statistics report.

Challenges (TVET) a) Reversing the negative perception of TVET For many parents and guardians, TVET is taken as a second chance after secondary education. It is mistakenly considered as an option for students who failed to enter secondary or advanced secondary education due to poor academic achievement. b) Increasing enrolment TVET programmes have not reached many of the school leaver who complete secondary education cycle but do not proceed with general A level secondary education. Yet, people disabilities and those in rural areas are missing out opportunities in TVET; c) Improving the quality and relevancy of the TVET curricula. There has been a mismatch between what is offered in TVET institutions and what is happening in industries. TVET graduates seem to lack important competences needed by industries. d) Enhancing Coordination and linkage between Vocational Education and Training and Technical Education and Training. Poor coordination of the sector has resulted into separation of VET and TET as well as limited information sharing between institutions that are owned or managed by other parent ministries; e) Strengthening of capacities to generate income and manage resources. The TVET sub-sector has a potential for generating own funds, through self-help projects. This could help in sustaining their training programmes. Yet, the runnings of existing programmes depend on SDL and donor funding. f) Quality data management The education management information system does not capture comprehensive data on TVET, in particular on key performance indicators on the sector and the impact of TVET on the economy.

Challenges for Life Skills a) Availability of teaching and learning materials Teaching and learning materials for life skills are in short supply to the extent that learners at different levels of the education system do not have something to learn on their own and in groups. This has resulted into undesirable behaviours, such as drug abuse, early marriages and pregnancies and extraordinary use of make-ups among youth. b) Creating awareness of stakeholders on life skills education; The subject matter of Life Skills is not commonly understood by many stakeholders including teachers. This limited understanding hinders effective support and appreciation on the value of the subject from stakeholders.

Recommendations (Life Skills) a) The Government in collaboration with other stakeholders will ensure the availability of adequate materials and self- learning books on Life Skills for learners and teachers in schools; b) The Government will promote adequate collaboration of the different providers of life skills in the education;

65 c) The Government will ensure that parents, the community and teachers have sufficient knowledge, attitude and skills on life skills to support learners;

Recommendations (TVET) a) The Government in collaboration with other stakeholders will sensitize communities on the meaning, purpose and importance of TVET. b) The Government will continue sensitizing communities on the importance of TVET institutions and learning centres; c) The Government will promote markets of products made by graduates from TVET institutions and centres in order to motivate local entrepreneurs; d) TVET sub-sector will strengthen linkage and collaboration with industries in relation to curriculum development and implementation; e) Government through TVET Division will establish and strengthen collaboration and linkages between VET and TET f) The Government through TVET Division will provide capacity building to VET and TET managers in order to enable them generate income and manage their resources

Challenges and Recommendations on HIV & AIDS a) Stigmatization Despite the many educational programmes and interventions, communities still point an accusing finger to people living with HIV and AIDS. In turn those affected have developed self stigma leading to new infections and further spread of the disease; b) Availability of friendly and counselling services to people living with HIV and AIDS People living with HIV and AIDS require friendly and counselling services in order to cope with the situation. Nevertheless, these services are not readily available to the needy.

Recommendations a) Government in collaboration with other stakeholders will strengthen and continue to implement education interventions for the communities; b) The Government in collaboration with other stakeholders will ensure availability of preventive services such as condoms, access to ARVs and counselling services.

66 GOAL 4: Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults

Introduction The value of literacy education both for personal wellbeing and national development cannot be under estimated. A literate person can use the acquired skills to perform socio-economic, cultural and political activities and solve the problems surrounding him or her. Evidence suggests that people with limited or no literacy skills find it hard to enjoy the fruits of modern technology such as using mobile phones to write or read text messages. Adult literacy20 and educational attainment can impact not only on UPE, but also on the other socio-economic and cultural aspects. Mothers with even modest literacy skills are more likely to send their children to school than those who are illiterate.

People of all ages often rely on access to non-formal education programmes for the acquisition of basic literacy skills when they have had little or no access to formal schooling. In Tanzania adult literacy is concerned with implementation of basic literacy and post literacy programmes which focus on the provision of reading, writing and numeracy skills, consolidation and sustenance of the 3R skills and prevention of neo-literate from relapsing into illiteracy due to skills loss. The basic literacy programme targets young people and adults who have had no access to formal schooling, dropped out from school or completed primary education cycle without mastering the skills. The post literacy programme encompasses all forms of education that accommodate youth and adult learners who have successfully gone through basic literacy courses.

Both programmes are implemented under the Integrated Community Based Adult Education (ICBAE) whose design encompasses income generating projects, which are meant to serve as participants’ entry points. ICBAE was initiated to cater for the increasing number of illiterate adults aged 19 years and above which stood at 5.5 million during the launching of the Adult Education and Non-Formal Education Strategy in 2003. In the ICBAE, literacy skills training for those who have never learned how to read, write and count as well as for neo-literates and youth is an integral part of the programme’s activities (Mushi, PAK and E.P. Bhalaluesa, 2002).

20 Adult literacy is the percentage of population aged 15 years and over who can both read and write with understanding a short simple statement on his/her everyday life (UNESO Institute of Statistics, 2009)

67 Policy Thrusts Beginning from the turn of the new millennium, the Government has initiated various interventions geared at improvement in levels of Adult literacy in the country. Firstly, it launched Primary Education Development Plan (PEDP I and II) for implementation between 2002 and 2011. The main objective of PEDP in relation to Goal 4 was to ensure that out-of- school children, youths and adults, including girls, women and disadvantaged groups have access to quality basic learning opportunities. Key targets of PEDP which have a bearing with eradication of illiteracy include:  enrol existing 234,331 out-of-school children in NFE centres and mainstream them into primary schools by 2008;  enrol 382,800 out-of-school youths in NFE centres by 2008;  enrol 3,800,000 adults in adult education programmes and improve adult literacy levels by 20% by 2009; and  enrol all out-of-school children, illiterate youths and adult with special learning needs by 2008.

Secondly, the Secondary Education Development Programme (SEDP I and II, 2004 – 2015) was launched. The main objective of SEDP was to improve access and equitable participation in secondary education. In relation to reduction of illiteracy and provision of continuing education for all adults, SEDP focuses on increasing enrolment of eligible beneficiaries to secondary education through ODL programme. The key targets of SEDP with regard to continuing education21 for adults were to:  enrol 50,000 out of school youth and adults through IAE’s ODL programme by 2009 and  have 60,000 (from 40,000 in 2008) youth and adults enrolled in the ODL programme by 2014.

The overriding strategy of EFA Goal on improvement in levels of Adult Literacy rate in Tanzania was embedded in the Adult Education and Non-Formal Strategy (2003/04- 2007/08). The overall objective of the Strategy was to ensure that out-of-school children, youth and adults have access to quality basic learning opportunities, with a view to improve the literacy level by 20%, and reducing the backlog of out-of-school children. The key targets of the Strategy were to reduce the:  number of illiterate adults from 3.8 million in 2004/05 to 1.5 million by 2007/08, and  number of students in Complimentary Basic Education in Tanzania (COBET) from 234,000 in 2004/05 to 70,566 in 2007/08. The programmes and plans are implemented basing on the Tanzania Development Vision 2025 and National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP I and II (2005/06 - 2014/15).

Programmes Implemented The Government and other stakeholders are implementing various programmes in provision of basic and post literacy, non-formal education and continuing education to children, youth and adults in the country. Continuing education embraces a variety of programmes including Correspondence Education and Open and Distance Learning. All these programmes impart knowledge, life skills for improvement of people’s livelihoods.

21 Continuing education is a branch of adult education which embraces instructional programmes that bring participants up to date in a particular area of knowledge or skills. Continuing education mainly encompasses courses designed especially for part‐time adult students

68

Basic and Post-Literacy Basic and post-literacy is provided under the Integrated Community Based Adult Education (ICBAE) which, was initiated to cater for the ever increasing number of illiterate adults aged 19 years and above which stood to be over 5.5 million during the launching of the strategy in 2003. ICBAE has been designed to increase access to adult basic education22 through non- formal education provision and facilitate adults to participate in making decisions on what is best for them to improve their livelihoods. The programme has four core principles, namely Empowerment, Participation, Ownership and Sustainability (EPOS). Its curriculum takes cognizance of the needs of the individual and the community around; hence its approach is flexible and learner centred. The learning cycle is 18 months.

Maasai learners attending a basic adult literacy class in Ilala, Dar es Salaam.

Continuing Education Continuing education is provided by various institutions for different levels and areas of study. In this report the Institute of Adult Education’s (IAE) continuing education programmes will be presented as case studies. IAE runs secondary education Open and Distance Learning (ODL) programme, diploma and degree courses as well as other courses. The target groups include out of school youth and adults, majority of whom are somehow so disadvantaged that it is difficult to benefit from formal education system. For the case of ODL, a bigger proportion of learners are pursuing non-formal secondary education to prepare themselves for the Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE) and Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education (ACSEE) as private candidates.

22 Adult basic education refers to the whole range of educational activities taking place in various settings that aim to meet adult persons’ basic learning needs. Educational activities of this nature are mainly done in non formal and in informal settings (Aitchison and Alidou, 2009)

69

Achievements in Adult Literacy and Continuing Education Enrolment of Adult Learners Considerable progress has been made in the course of implementing Adult and Non-formal education programmes within the Adult and Non-formal Education (AE-NFE) Strategy. Analysis of Ministry’s statistical data indicates that a total number of 2,958,273 adult learners participated in the basic and post literacy programme under ICBAE between 2005 and 2008, when the Adult and Non formal Education Strategy was implemented. These figures indicate that, the target of reaching 3,800,000 illiterate adults by 2007/8 through basic adult education programme was not achieved, though 77.9 per cent of targeted goal was attained. It is worth noting that following the adoption of the Strategy, the Government put more emphasis on educating out of school children and youth through COBET rather than revamping adult basic and post literacy programmes.

Table 10: Enrolment of Learners in ICBAE Learning Centres 2000 - 2012 Year Enrolment Average in 2 Years Male Female Total 2000 440,228 622,850 1,063,078 2001 443,193 630,123 1,073,316 1,068,197 2005 848,777 1,051,478 1,900,255 2006 778,408 890,095 1,668,503 1,784,379 2007 593,980 694,684 1,288,664 2008 507,793 551,331 1,059,124 1,173,894 2009 449,103 508,186 957,289 2010 451,108 473,785 924,893 941,091 2011 499,898 550,619 1,050,517 2012 434,466 473,305 907,771 979,144 Total 5,246,954 6,446,456 11,893,410 5,946,705 Source: BEST 2002-2012

Close examination of available data on adult education, reveals that 5,946,705 learners have participated in adult basic and post literacy programmes since 2000 to 2012.

The major challenges which the nation face in achieving a 50 percent improvement in levels of literacy is non use of a scientific method of determining literacy levels, which is through testing. Literacy testing comes after exposing the targeted learners into a literacy programme. Furthermore, Tanzania has not seriously implemented any national wide literacy programme for the past decade due to lack of funds. Due to limited coverage of ICBAE, particularly with regard to literacy education, literacy testing has not been possible. Apparently, this is why the Tanzania Education Sector Analysis points out that ICBAE covered only 24 per cent of illiterate adult population in the country in 2009. Owing to this state of affairs, it is difficult to draw conclusions that literacy levels in Tanzania have improved by any given rate leaves alone the 50 per cent projected by EFA Goal number 4.

70 Enrolment of Out of School Youth Available statistics on the enrolment of out of school youth in COBET Cohort II (see Table 4.2) centres indicate that a total of 360,665 learners were provided basic education for eleven years from 2003 to 2012. It appears that COBET has made remarkable contribution in controlling illiteracy amongst youth population in Tanzania.

However, there are challenges in implementing COBET as there are children who are not yet enrolled in learning centres. By 2007 there were 1.7 million out of school children and youth aged 11 – 18 years with Tabora, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Kagera and Kigoma having larger proportions (see Tanzania Education Sector Analysis (2007), pp 87,108). Non enrolment is attributed to inadequate efforts done in sensitizing and mobilizing the communities and lack of funds to run the programme effectively. The prevalence of non-enrolee out-of –school children is a manifestation of potential illiterate adults in the future. Overall, much more efforts need to be made to ensure that the COBET programme continues to cater for the educational needs of out of school children and youth.

Table 11: Enrolment of COBET Cohort II Learners 2000 – 2012

Year Enrolment Total Average in Male Female three years 2003 455 338 793 2004 122,005 110,081 232,086 2005 92,617 72,086 164,703 198,791 2006 44,023 26,708 70,731 2007 44,565 31,171 75,736 2008 24,287 17,881 42,168 94,318 2009 17,378 12,518 29,896 2010 12,857 10,621 23,478 2011 14,461 12,109 26,570 39,972 2012 14,759 12,815 27,574 27,574 Total 387,407 306,328 693,735 360,655 Source: BEST and MoEVT Reports.

Enrolment of adults in Basic and Continuing Education It is always difficult to find comprehensive data on the enrolment of learners in basic and continuing education programmes as there are many and various agencies which offer such opportunities. The agencies range from private learning centres, faith based institutes, learning centres managed and run by Civil Society Organizations to those which are owned by the government and its allied institutions. Continuing education is offered by the Institute of Adult Education’s (IAE) through Open and Distance Education. The learners attempting the Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations (CSEE) and Advanced Certificate of

71 Secondary Education Examinations (ACSEE) as private candidates are enrolled in the programme. Participation in national examinations is another indication of proof to illustrate the prevalence of continuing education in the country.

Available data indicate that cumulatively, a total number of 92,496 learners (42,614 males and 49,882 females) attended IAE’s secondary education ODL programme in twelve years from 2000 to 2012 (See Table 11). This figure is unjustifiably small given the nature of establishment of the IAE.

Table 12: Enrolment of Learners in IAE’s Secondary Education ODL Programme 2000 - 2012 Year Enrolment Male Female Total 2000 120 46 166 2001 96 36 132 2002 79 43 122 2003 162 72 234 2004 4,097 4,754 8,851 2005 3,240 3,542 6,782 2006 4,025 4,484 8,509 2007 3,133 3,576 6,709 2008 2,770 3,514 6,284 2009 2,527 3,102 5,629 2010 5,321 6,986 12,307 2011 12,997 14,270 27,267

2012 4,047 5,457 9,504 Total 42,614 49,882 92,496 Source: IAE

Still, in spite of its anticipation to have enrolled 50,000 learners by 2009 IAE enrolled only 33,913 learners, which is 68 per cent of the target. It is worth noting that although the overall participation is low for all regions, Kigoma, Lindi and Mtwara regions have the lowest enrolment figures. These figures imply that more efforts need to be taken in order to reach those who are still unreachable but are potential beneficiaries of the programme.

72 Literacy Attainment Literacy attainment could be determined by conducting surveys, census or by periodically testing the learners who participate in a literacy programme. Taking into consideration the financial constraint, surveys and censuses are not conducted frequently; as a result it is not possible to ascertain adult literacy rate annually.

Adult Literacy Rate (Age 15+) Adult literacy rate is a determining factor to ascertain the percentage of adults who are able to read, write and do simple arithmetic in an agreed language and environment. In Tanzania, censuses have been the major source of information to depict adult literacy rate by age group. Surveys which are conducted provide general information on literacy rate without taking consideration of adult’s age group.

Table 13: Literacy Rates of women and men aged 15+ years Year Women Men Average 2002 66.8 82 74.1 2004 67.0 79.9 73.5 2005 75.7 88.1 81.9 2010 71.9 81.8 76.9 2012 77.9 Source: National Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania Demographic and Health Surveys for 1999, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2010 and 2012.

The 2002 census had indicated that the number of illiterates in Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Mwanza and Ruvuma regions were 2,541,990. However, a diagnostic study which employed the Statistical Inference Method (SIM) was done in the four regions in 2007 to estimate the status of literacy among youth and adults aged between 19 and 65 years. The study revealed that 40.2 per cent were illiterate. The study indicated that there were 775,371 new illiterates in the four regions compared to the 2002 figures as indicated in Table 13.

Table 14: Literacy rates of men and women aged 15 to 49 years Regions Population Illiterate Population Illiteracy Rate Dar Es Salaam 2,497,940 761,372 30.5 Dodoma 1,698,996 812,120 47.8 Ruvuma 2,942,148 1,615,239 54.9 Mwanza 1,117,166 503,841 45.1 Total 8,256,250 3,317,361 40.2 Source: MoEVT, 2007

Youth Literacy Rate (Age 15 to 24) The youth literacy rate for both sexes aged 15 to 19 in 2002 was 77.5% (male 79.6% and female 75.6%) and for age group 20 to 24 was 78.9 % (male 82.1% and female 76.4%). In average youth literacy rate for both sexes aged 15 to 24 was 78.2 % (male 80.9% and female 76%). By 2010, the youth literacy rates were 80.5% (male 82.9 and females 78%). The

73 literacy rate for age cohort 15 to 19 for both males and females was 84.4% and 76.5% for age 20 to 24. These statistics indicate that compared with the situation in 2002 and 2010; there was improvement in the rate of literacy among youth aged 15 – 19 years whereas the rate declined for age 20 - 24.

Government efforts to provide education to youth since 2004 have focused on non formal education for out of school children and youth as well as formal junior secondary education programmes. With specific focus to out of school youth, COBET has enabled a significant number of youth to enrol and get education through non formal education mode of delivery then main-stream into formal schooling. The number of youth who were mainstreamed into formal primary schooling increased from 11,023 (6,194 male and 4,829 female) in 2004 to 19,644 (12,066 male and 7,598 female) in 2005; 22,812 (male 13,837 and 8,975 female) in 2006 and 34,867 (male 21,047 and female 13,820) in 2007.

In 2004 COBET learners who passed PSLE and joined secondary education were 98 (61 males and 37 females). A total number of 218 learners (146 males and 72 females) were mainstreamed in 2005 and 621 learners (415 males and 206 females) were mainstreamed in 2006. Further, 363 learners (1,601 males and 762 females) were mainstreamed in 2007. COBET learners who were mainstreamed into secondary education in 2011 were 2,776 (1,718 males and 1025 females). This represented 61 per cent (66% for males and 55% for females) of all learners who sat for the PSLE. This indicates that there was a significant increase of COBET learners who were mainstreamed in secondary education.

Gender Parity Index in Adult Literacy Gender parity index in adult literacy depicts the balance in gender in relation to literacy acquisition, between men and women. The enrolment of learners in adult literacy, especially in the ICBAE programme, indicated a positive scenario of female participation as discussed in Chapter six of this report.

Apart from community mobilization and sensitization, the positive scenario of gender parity in ICBAE was due to introduction of income generating activities and credit schemes which attracted many females.

Gender Parity Index in COBET Taking into consideration the statistics on COBET at national level, the enrollment of female learners was lower as compared with the male learners for both cohorts. The gender parity index ranged from 0.7 to 0.9, meaning that some girls remained unreached. The scenario of less female learners in COBET classes was attributed to ineffective sensitization and mobilization of the communities on enrolling the girl child at village level. The sensitization and mobilization conducted did not emphasize the importance of education to the girl child as an important issue. It was pointed out that the national scaling up of COBET missed a direct focus on the educational needs of girls and other vulnerable children.

74 Language of Instruction for Literacy and Continuing Education Both basic and post literacy programmes use Kiswahili language as a medium of instruction. The curricula and the teaching – learning materials are prepared in Kiswahili. Lessons are also conducted in Kiswahili.

Nevertheless, continuing education programmes such as non-formal secondary education are conducted in English which is also a medium of instruction for formal secondary education.

Literacy Environment A diagnostic study conducted in 2008 in four regions of Dar es Salaam, Dodoma, Mwanza and Ruvuma revealed that the regions had rich literacy environments consisting of learning centres, schools, colleges and daily newspapers such as Majira, Uhuru, Mwananchi, Nipashe, Mtanzania and Ijumaa;. Further, the study noted the availability of posters which carried messages on health, diseases, advertisements, politics and business. Yet, the regions had regional libraries, primary and secondary schools libraries, educational newsletters and pamphlets. Overall, this kind of environment was potential for nurturing readership and scholarly activities.

Use of Literacy Skills by Adult Learners Again, the diagnostic study (2008) found out that adult persons used the acquired literacy skills to deal with bank credits, business and legal matters as well as read newspapers, religious scripture, health and agricultural guidelines, to participate in games and sports, to make dress and cloth, process, participate in meetings and write letters.

Disability and Literacy The literacy survey which was conducted in three regions namely Dar es Salaam, Mtwara and Mbeya in 2013 revealed that there were very few adult learners with disabilities enrolled in adult literacy classes although there could be a possibility of having un-enrolled potential beneficiaries of the literacy programme. The findings indicated that only 6 out of 236 adult learners had disabilities, five of these were from Mtwara Municipality (four were physically impaired and one had autism) and one partially impaired from Temeke in Dar es Salaam. This shows that there are people with disabilities in the community who can be accommodated in the adult classes. Furthermore the scenario indicated that there were less efforts for ensuring that youth and adults with disabilities were enrolled in literacy classes. This might be attributed to the nature of materials and expertise needed to provide education to persons with special needs which are both expensive and scarce.

Role of NGOs in Provision of Literacy Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) including Faith Based Organization and Community Based Organization have been providing adult and non-formal education since the adoption of the Education and Training Policy in 1995. Programmes delivered have included adult basic literacy, post-literacy, life skills and a programme for out of school children, namely COBET.

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Many of the NGOs are coordinated nationally by the Tanzania Education Network/Mtandao wa Elimu Tanzania (TENMET) – an umbrella coalition of NGOs dealing with education. The NGOs are scattered all over the country such that majority of them have branches in various regions and districts. A survey which was conducted in 6 regions in 2003 indicated that, there was a total of 142 NGOs including 91 in Kilimanjaro, 22 in Mtwara, 14 in Dar es Salaam, 7 in Morogoro, 6 in Kigoma and 2 in Mwanza as indicated in Annex 4A. The impact of NGO involvement in the delivery of adult and non-formal education is less vivid because there is weak coordination by the Government.

INNOVATIVE PRACTICES

Box 4: Provision of Education to Disadvantaged Persons: The case of prisoners’ education at Isanga Prison in Dodoma Municipality

The Prisons Department in Tanzania has a policy of providing education and

training to prisoners as an important aspect of behaviour rehabilitation programme. The initiative is considered as part of adult education. It embraces efforts to provide learning opportunities not only to those who have never been to school to acquire literacy skills and useful knowledge about their socio-economic

environments but also to those with some degree of education and training in order to further and update their academic and professional qualifications.

The provision of education to prisoners has a long history but for Isanga Prison it restarted. with full strength in August 2008. During the re-launch of the prisoners’ education in the region, it was noted that 75 percent of the prisoners were illiterate. As. a result, it was concluded that high crime and illiteracy are closely linked. “Our main goal is to educate them and ensure that they gain knowledge which they can

put to good use once they have completed their sentences”, remarked one of the Prison’s officer.

Courses offered at Isanga Prison include basic literacy, post literacy, secondary education and vocational training. As of June 2013 the total numbers of learners in the basic literacy, post literacy and secondary education courses were 261 including 238 men and 23 women as further illustrated by the table below:

Course Number of Learners Males Females Total Basic literacy 122 06 128 Post literacy 90 10 100 Sec. education 26 07 33 Total 238 23 261

The delivery of education to prisoners in Tanzania is not without challenges. Key among the existing challenges are little budget for ensuring adequate supply of educational materials and cumbersome procedures for administration of examinations to prisoners.

76 Financing of Adult and Continuing Education Adult and continuing education in Tanzania is offered in varied forms by different providers ranging from government ministries, departments and agencies to non-governmental organizations. Funding of the programmes also come from various sources. Nevertheless, for the purpose of this review, finances emanating from the Government purse will be presented and discussed. Yet, although the Government has been financing adult and continuing education through the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, the Prime Minister’s Office, Regional Administration and Local Government and the Department of Community Development of the Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children, this report will dwell on funds allocated by the Government through the ministry of Education and Vocational Training because statistics from other ministries were not readily available.

Adult literacy and continuing education programmes are implemented at the Local Government Authority levels and by the Institute of Adult Education (IAE) respectively. The Local Government Authorities (LGAs) deliver basic literacy programmes under the auspices of the two ministries whereas IAE provides continuing education programmes through its regional centres.

As regards financing, each fiscal year the IAE and every LGA receive funds for the delivery of education within their areas of jurisdiction. The financing cover areas such as personnel remuneration purchase of teaching and learning materials and general administration. Furthermore other organizations such as UNESCO, UNICEF and ILO provide financial and technical support to complement the Government’s efforts.

Nonetheless, adult education sub-sector receives the lowest financial resources compared to other education sub-sectors as indicated in Table 9. Due to limited budget, adult and continuing education stakeholders have often reminded the Government on the need to increase budget allocation for the sub-sector. As exemplified in the Box 5, the repercussion for under-funding the sub sector is far reaching.

Box5: Repercussion of Under-funding

Studies conducted by the Kibaha Education Corporation have revealed that adult basic literacy classes in many districts of Pwani Region are not functioning as required mainly due to lack of budget. Consequently, three adults out of every ten, especially in rural areas, were illiterate. Mwananchi 18th June 2013

The public expenditure on adult and continuing education as percentage of total public expenditure on education is indicated in table 4.6.

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Table 15: Allocation of Funds for Adult and Continuing Education from 2008/9 to 2012/13 in Million Tanzanian Shillings Year 2010/2011 2011/2012 2012/2013 2013/2014 Ministry Adult Ministry Adult Ministry Adult Ministry Adult Education* Education* Education* Education* Budget 665,572.5380 4,085.2853 659,296.8620 3,791.0085 724,471.9370 5,921.5724 689,681.0550 4,789.4398 Allocation % 100 0.54 100 0.58 100 0.82 100 0.69 Source: MoEVT Detailed Budgets 2010/11 – 2013/14

* The budget includes funds allocated for (1) Department of Adult Education, Institute of Adult Education, National Correspondence Institution and National Adult Education Association of Tanzania.

As table 4.6 indicates, allocation of funds for adult and continuing education ranged from 0.54 percent to 0.82 percent of the total education budget between 2010/11 and 2012/2013. The funds are indisputably meager given the enormous illiteracy challenge faced by the nation.

Challenges in Adult Literacy and Continuing Education provision The main challenges which hinder effective provision of Adult Literacy and Continuing Education include: a) Availability of qualified, trained and permanent teachers for adult literacy and non-formal education b) Adult literacy classes depend on untrained volunteer teachers who are paid very little remuneration for the teaching. This has a negative impact on the sustainability of the literacy programmes. c) Revamping literacy supporting programmes d) Literacy supporting programmes such as libraries, radio and rural newspapers which help adult persons to sustain their literacy skills are no longer active to date. This has resulted into neo literates and primary school leavers relapsing into illiteracy. e) Availability of conducive learning environment f) Majority of adult literacy classes are conducted in primary schools. Many learners do shy away to enrol in the classes because they feel that the premises are not conducive for their learning. The classes also lack appropriate teaching and learning materials. g) Availability of a big number of illiterate adults who are yet to benefit from on going programmes; h) The number of illiterate people in the communities is on the increase. The increase is a result of non enrolment of children in primary schools, drop out of school pupils and low mastery of literacy skills amongst school graduates. The situation has a negative impact on socio-economic development of the country. i) Quality management of data and information.

78 Strengthening efforts to mobilize and sensitize communities to appreciate the value of adult literacy progrmmes. j) At community level, there are inadequate joint efforts to mobilize and sensitize communities to participate in literacy programmes. As a result, there is low enrolment and participation in the programmes.

Recommendations Provision of adult literacy and continuing education to youth and adults is fundamental for human rights and potential for socio-economic, cultural and political development at all levels. Adult literacy and continuing programmes need to be resourced in order to sustain them. The government is playing a great role but it needs a Public Private Partnership which involve the communities, private providers, CSOs, FBOs and individuals at all levels. In order to effectively implement the adult and continuing education the following recommendations are put forward: a) The Government will reinstate the decision of employing permanent teachers for adult education, especially for Yes I Can and COBET programmes b) The Government in collaboration with other stakeholders will revamp literacy supporting programmes. c) The Adult and Non-formal Education Division in collaboration with Tanzania Library Service Board will work closely to mobilize reading materials for rural libraries. d) The Government in collaboration with stakeholders will ensure availability of conducive learning environment e) The Government to expand adult literacy programmes will complement formal primary schooling f) The government in collaboration witn NSAs will mount joint efforts will sensitize communities to participate in adult literacy programmes.

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Goal 5: Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls' full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality. Introduction This part of EFA Assessment report focuses on the fifth EFA goal by assessing progress to date in achieving the goal in pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary education. In line with the international community, the United Republic of Tanzania has committed herself to eliminate gender disparities in pre- primary, primary and secondary schooling- higher education and to achieve gender equality by 2015. This report identifies policies, targets and strategies, documents national commitments, highlights effective policies and strategies, progress towards achieving the goal and draws attention to emerging challenges and gaps. Although the government of Tanzania has invested heavily to eliminate gender disparities leading to the attainment of gender parity in enrolment in primary education, much more remains to be done to achieve gender equality by 2015.

Definitions of gender and other dimensions resonate well with Tanzania’s own policies and strategic frameworks: Broadly; a) Gender in Tanzania is described as the culturally and socially determined characteristics, values, norms, roles, attitudes and beliefs attributed to women and men through constructed identity in a society (The United Republic of Tanzania, 2005). Tanzania considers gender equality- as equal and fair treatment of women and men in the provision and access to goods and services required to meet their social needs (The United Republic of Tanzania, 2005). b) Gender Parity: is defined as an indicator of the ratio of girls to boys. It is achieved when an equal number of male and female learners can access, participate and complete a cycle of education. The Gender Parity Index (GPI) measures the ratio of female-to-male value of a given indicator.

80 c) Gender equity is the process or means of ensuring fairness so that conditions are in place to provide all women and men with access to opportunities, and benefits. It involves designing strategies and processes that provide fair and equal chances for all to pursue and benefit from educational opportunities.

Government Commitments to promote gender equality In line with national priorities, consistent with Millennium Development Goal 3 and three out of the six Dakar Framework EFA Goals (Goals 2, 4 and 5 respectively), the government has developed several policies and strategies to support gender parity and equity in education.

The Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP) 1997 was developed to implement The Education and Training Policy (ETP), 1995 and to address the issue of fragmented educational interventions. It identified gender, HIV/AIDS, guidance and counselling and environment as important cross-cutting issues. The ETP forms the policy framework within which all education planning is developed. Among the ETP issues under discussion is the re- entry of pregnant school girls, which once approved, will enhance participation and completion of basic education for all girls.

The Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children (MCDGC) developed the Women and Gender Development Policy (WGDP) in 2000 and The National Strategy for Gender Development (NSGD) in 2005. The WGD states that by improving the existing situation in gender parity, education should be used to eliminate all forms of discrimination in the society. To implement NSGD the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT) has established the gender desk and appointed a gender focal person (GFP) who is responsible for ensuring that gender issues are mainstreamed in MoEVT’s policies, programmes and plans.

The MoEVT gender section developed the Medium Term Strategic Plan for Gender Mainstreaming (SPGM) for the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training for (2010/11 – 2014/15) in order to address the challenges of gender inequality in education. . The Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Policy paper of 1993, stipulated the overseeing of equity in access to Vocational Education Training to disadvantaged groups including girls and women. Similarly the Technical Education and Vocational Training

81 Policy (1996) and the National Higher Education policy (1999) were directed to improve access and equity and quality of education at these levels. The Directorate of TVET is in the initial stages of developing the Technical and Vocational Education and Training Development Programme (TVETDP) which will aim among others, to address issues of access and equity with a perspective on gender. The higher Education Development Programme (2010 – 2015) envisages addressing issues of access and equity of women in higher education in relation to increased enrolment of female students especially in science and technology programmes, to provide friendly physical learning environments, loans, grants and scholarships.

Implementation, Achievements and Challenges The Government remains committed to address gender disparities in education even before 2000 as reflected in the ETP, which currently is under review. The essence of gender disparities in Tanzania is linked to deep-rooted historical and cultural factors that have negatively impacted on the aspirations and life choices of girls and boys. For example, preferences for the education of the male child at family level, often linked to the perceived traditional gender roles of men as bread earners, has exacerbated the prevalence of historical and cultural factors which are gender biased culturally, socially and economically.

In response, the Government has embarked on diverse initiatives to eliminate gender disparities in education. These initiatives are in line with the Revised Edition of the Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP) 2008-2017, The Primary Education Development Plan (I) (PEDP) 2002 - 2006, Primary Education Development Plan (II) 2007 – 2011, Secondary Education Development Plan (SEDP) 2004 - 2009 and SEDP II 2010 – 2015,The Higher Education Development Plan (HEDP) of 2010 (ANFEDP) 2012- 2017, and Technical and Vocational Education Development Plan (TVEDP) of 2013. Key initiatives include;

a) Free and Compulsory Education is provided for all children of primary school going age.(ETP 1995). Capitation grants provided to complement the school running cost. b) Women and Gender Development Policy (2000) provides guidelines for mainstreaming gender in all sectors; c) The development of The Medium Strategic Plan for Gender Mainstreaming ( 2011- 2016);

82 d) The Law of the Child Act (2009),article 8 (1) stipulates on the right of a child to access education; e) The development of Instrument for Mainstreaming Gender into the Curriculum (2007); f) Curricula and other educational materials that promote gender stereotype in the education system are being revised to make them gender responsive ;-( ETP 1995) g) The Implementation of Science Camps for girls (2002) to increase achievements and eliminate disparities in science fields; 10th science camp done in 2011. h) The Implementation of TUSEME Programme (2005) for girls’ empowerment to break a culture of silence; i) The Girls Secondary Education Support (GSES) Project (1998-2005) provided to female students from low income households; j) The Girls Secondary Education Support (GSES) Project (1998-2005) provided to female students from low income households; k) Construction of Girls’ hostels by Tanzania Education Authority (TEA). l) The establishment of secondary schools in each ward (2004 – 2009); m) Establishment of Pre-entry Programme (PEP) and Preferential Admission Criteria (PAC) (1996/97). Both interventions are meant to promote girls/women enrolment in higher education. ensuring the right to learn is not just a question of numbers. It is part of a much broader agenda to achieve gender equality so that girls and boys, women and men, enjoy the same learning opportunities and outcomes, personally, professionally. This intention enshrined in the 2015 goal to achieve gender equality which covers rights to, within and through education n) Re-entry of pregnant school girls after delivery. The policy is in the process of approval.

Female enrolment as percentage of total enrolment by level of education (pre primary, primary, ordinary and advanced secondary education) The enrolment of girls in pre-primary school increased steadily alongside with that of boys. Although the total enrolment of pre-primary pupils has been declining since 2011compared to a decade earlier, at least half of all eligible pre-primary pupils have been enrolled. The expansion of enrolment has been equitable mainly due to implementation of PEDP I and II. Chart 33 shows that the enrolment was 554,835 in 2004 (female 49.6%) to 1,026,466 (female 50%). There has been an improvement in gender parity from 0.98 to 1.0 respectively (BEST,

83 2004-2013). This is due to social mobilization, aware creation and advocacy from different stakeholders.

Chart 33: Number of Male and Female Pupils in Pre Primary Schools 2004-2013

Source: MoEVT,BEST 2004-2013

Chart 34: Percentages of Female Pupils in Pre Primary Schools and Streams, 2004-2013

Source: MOEVT, BEST 2004-2013

GPI based on pre-primary enrolment had been achieved as far back as 2005 when GPI was 1.00; however, GPI was in favor of girls in 2007 and 2009. By 2013, parity had been achieved as shown in Chart 35.

84 Chart 35: Trends in Female Enrollment 2005 - 2013 Evolution of female enrolment and GPI: Pre- Primary Year Total Females males % Female GPI 2005 638,591 319,974 318,617 50.1 1.00 2007 795,011 407,143 387,868 51.2 1.05 2009 896,146 450,279 445,867 50.2 1.01 2011 1,069,208 530,730 538,478 49.6 0.99 2013 1,026,466 513,668 512,798 50.0 1.00 Source: BEST various years

The performance of pre-primary education since the inception of the PEDP and SEDP programmes is depicted for various years.

Chart 36: Gender Parity Index of GER and NER in Pre Primary Schools, 2004-2013

Source: MoVT, BEST 2004-2013

The policy of mainstreaming the provision of pre-primary education in primary schools (thus controlling unit costs) has enabled a growing number of children aged 5-6 years to benefit from pre-primary education (Tanzania Education Sector Analysis, 2011). However, gender disparities in attendance, learning processes and completion of the 2 year cycle are prevalent. Differences in nutritional intake, the inherent capacities of teaching and - learning environments are some contributing factors. Among the challenges is the low absorption capacity to enroll all eligible children. The shortage of pre-primary classrooms and other facilities might be among the factors that contributed to the low enrolment.

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a) Proportion of female teachers in pre-primary schools In several countries in sub-Saharan Africa, the prevalence of more female teachers at the pre- primary level is commonplace. In Tanzania, this situation is consistent with the gender roles commonly ascribed to women as natural caregivers. With regard to this popular perception, the education sector in Tanzania is comprised of pre – primary education than at higher levels of education. For example, most teachers that hold a pre-school certificate are women. In 2009, just 968 males and 1607 female teachers held the certificate. By 2013, the proportion of female certificate holders had doubled to 3,205 while male holders had increased to 1656 (Best, 2013).

Chart 37: Percentages of Female Teachers in Pre Primary Schools 2004- 2013

Source: MOEVT, BEST 2004-2013

86 Chart 38: Percentages of Qualified Female Teachers in Pre primary Schools, 2004-2014

In view of the fact that the percentage of female teachers has been increased compared to male, the percentage proportional of qualified female teachers has been increasing since 2008, with a positive trend to 2013.

Chart 39: Number of Teachers in Pre primary Schools, by Sex, 2004-2013

Source: MoEVT, BEST 2004-2013

From Chart 39, it is observed that the total number of female teachers was 10,381 in 2007 while for male teachers was higher in 2009 by 10,554. In recent years (2011 and 2012) number of female and male teachers was approximately to be nearly equal, unlike 2013, the proportion of female holders had doubled the male teachers. (Best, 2013).

Primary Education PEDP I was conceived and implemented between 2002 and 2006 its objectives were to improve education through enrolment expansion; quality Improvement; capacity building and strengthening institutional arrangement. These were implemented in line with building

87 teachers’ capacity in acquiring and developing gender responsive teaching skills, for enhancing love and academic excellence to pupils. The PEDP target was to enrol 1,041,880 pupils by 2005. These included enrolment of the majority of school aged children into formal education, and ensuring that all girls and boys from underserved regions including nomads, orphans and those affected by HIV and AIDS are enrolled in primary education.

Gender responsiveness was employed in the enrolment of standard 1 pupils aged 7 – 12 years through 2005. Abolition of school fees and enrolment related contributions strategy helped in eliminating gender disparity in primary education as well as contributing to gender parity attainment.

Ensuring Access and Equity through enrolment expansion in primary schooling was one of the main objectives of PEDP II. The targets for PEDP II were to enrol all 7-year old children, (6-year old girls), into Standard I by 2011. The targets for enrolling Standard 1 pupils and the corresponding actual enrolment for each year are indicated in Table 6.1. As indicated, the enrolment of girls ranged from 49.2 per cent to 49.7 per cent which implies that the enrolments for female pupils were almost equal to that of males for all the 5 years.

Table 16: Targets and actual enrolment of Standard 1 Pupils 2007 - 2011 Actual enrolment Year Target Male Females Total 2007 1,166,737 699,255 680,038 (49.3%) 1,379,293 2008 1,197,459 700,524 679,666 (49.2% ) 1,380,190 2009 1,232,569; 684,388 674,402 (49.6%) 1,358,790 2010 1,319,478 681,983 674,591 (49.7%) 1,356,574 2011 1,383,752 699,483 688,733 (46.6%) 1,388,216 Soruce: MoEVT’s BEST 2010, 2011

Chart 40 indicates the percentage of female teachers against male teachers in primary education. The trend shows that generally there is an increase of teachers of both sexes.

88 Chart 40: Number of primary school teachers by sex 2004 - 2013

Source: MOEVT, BEST 2008-2013

Other PEDP II targets included the provision of equitable quality basic education and vocational skills, an improved and gender sensitive learning environment, strengthening capacity building in gender issues at all levels of education and ensuring that gender issues are mainstreamed into existing policies, curricula, strategic plans, programmes and budgets.

The successes in the implementation of PEDP I and PEDP II increased the demand for secondary education. The expansion of enrolment in primary education increased the number of pupils completing primary education and those qualifying for admission into secondary education. The pressure generated by PEDP I and II resulted in the need for developing the Secondary Education Development Programme I (SEDP I) for implementation from 2004 to 2009.

a) GPI for Survival Rate to Grade 5 GPI for survival rate to grade 5 was 1.05 in 2000, fell to 0.98 in 2003 and improved to 1.12 in 2013. This indicates that Gender Parity in survival of male and female pupils to grade 5 has generally been achieved. The trend of GPI for survival rate to grade 5 is shown in Figure 24.

89 Chart 41: Gender Parity Index of Survival Rate in Primary Schools, 2000- 2013

Source: MoEVT, BEST 2000-2013

The performances of the education sector in relation to key selected indicators related to gender are as follows:

a) Gender Parity in Gross Intake Rate (GIR) in Primary Education GIR in the Standard One of primary education is the number of new entrants in the Standard One of primary education regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population of the official primary entrance age (UIS). GIR reflects the general level of access to primary education.

In 2000 GIR in primary education for male pupils was 109.2 per cent and female pupils were 110.0 per cent. GPI for GIR was 1.00. In 2011 GIR was 108.9 and 109.1 for male and female pupils respectively. Again, the GPI for GIR was 1.00. In 2012 GIR was 106.8 and 107.6 for male and female pupils respectively. As a result, the GPI for GIR was 1.00.

Generally, the GPI for GIR in primary education from 2010 to 2012 was 1.00. This is an indication that gender parity in primary education has relatively been achieved. From the statistics shown, there is equal demand between boys and girls to access primary education that led to equal gross intake.

90 Chart 42: GIR and NIR in Primary Schools, 2010-2013

Source: MoEVT, BEST 2010-2013

b) Gender Parity Index: Gross and Net Intake Ratio Primary education The number of new entrants in the Standard One of primary education regardless of age, and the number of 7 year old expressed as a percentage of the population of seven year olds had achieved parity by 2013 as observed in Chart 43 with only slight disparities in favour of girls in 2012.

Chart 43: GPI based on GIR and NIR (Primary)

GPI: Primary GIR and NIR Primary 1.04

1.03

1.02 Index

1.01

1.00 GIR Parity

0.99 NIR

0.98 Gender 0.97

0.96 2010 2011 2012 2013

2010 2011 2012 2013 GIR 1.01 1.00 1.01 1.01 NIR 1.02 0.99 1.03 1.01 Source: Best, various years

91 Gender Parity Index: Primary GER and NER Over the last fourteen years since 2000, the MoEVT’s policies to equally target the participation of male and female students of official primary school-going age has resulted in impressive gains. With the abolition of school fees in 2001, as observed from Table 2, not only had GPI based on primary GER and NER been achieved by 2013, the NER had increased by more than 30 percentage points since 2000 from 58.6% for males and 59.1% for females respectively, to 89.1% for males and 90.1% for females respectively by 2013 (BEST, 2000-2013). Slight disparities in favor of girls with GPI based on GER at 1.02 in 2013 can be observed from Table 3.

Chart 44: GPI Based on Primary GER and NER Gender Parity Index: Primary 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 GPI GER 0.97 GPI NER 0.96 0.95 Gender Parity Index 0.94 0.93 2000 2004 2006 2009 2010 2013 2000 2004 2006 2009 2010 2013 Year 2000 2004 2006 2009 2010 2013 GPI GER 0.96 0.97 0.99 1.00 1.02 GPI NER 1.01 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.01 Source: BEST various years

Gender Parity Index: survival rate to standard seven: Due to various factors that may influence the continual participation of students in primary school, as seen in Table 4, the GPI based on survival rate to standard 7 has been increasing steadily from 1.08 in 2009/2010 to 1.12 in 2012/2013 with disparities consistently in favor of girls in all years. Such factors are abolition of tuition fees and other enrolment related contribution strategies, continuing campaigns against child labor, community awareness, bursary support from development partners, NGOs and CSOs.

92 Chart 45: GPI Based on Survival Rate to Standard Seven

GPI: Survival rate to Standard 7 1.13

1.12

1.11

1.10

1.09

1.08

Gender ParityGender Index 1.07

1.06

1.05 2009‐2010 2010‐2011 2011‐2012 2012‐2013 GPI 1.08 1.08 1.12 1.12 2009‐2010 2010‐2011 2011‐2012 2012‐2013 Survival Rate males 66.6 64 68.1 65.1 Survival Rate females 72.1 68.8 76.5 72.8 Source: BEST various years

Gender Parity Index: Completion Rates For at least 5 consecutive years since 2009, the percentage of girls completing the Standard Seven of primary education is higher than that of boys. As observed in Table 46, both gross and net completion rates are in favor of girls for all years observed.

93 Chart 46: Completion Rates: Primary

GPI: Gross and Net Completion Rates 1.12

1.10

1.08

Gross Completion Index

1.06 Net Completion

Parity 1.04

1.02 Gender

1.00 2010 2011 2012 2013

2010 2011 2012 2013 Gross 1.04 1.08 1.09 1.09 Net 1.05 1.09 1.10 1.11 Source: Best, various years

Gender Parity Index Completion Rates: Secondary Education Looking at Completion rates for the first cycle of secondary education (Form 4),gross completion rates have increased between 2009 and 2013 from 37% to 45% for males and from 33% to 39% for females respectively (BEST, 2013). Gender Parity Index based on gross completion rates shows that less girls than boys continue to complete secondary education due to different reasons like early pregnancy, early marriages, cost sharing, distance to and from school, sexual harassment, poor school infrastructure and negative attitude from the community. In 2009, the GPI for gross completion for Form 4 stood at 0.85 and remained consistent until 2013 (GPI, 0.83). Net completion rates are in favor of girls with GPI decreasing marginally from 1.27 in 2009 to 1.04 in 2013 (BEST, 2013).

Gender Parity Index: Transition Rate from Primary to Secondary By 2012, only 2 out of 21 regions had achieved parity based on the percentage of students selected to join Form 1,( Iringa and Tanga). For the other regions, parity has remained in favour of boys for several years. GPI for 7 out of 21 regions is highlighted in Table 6 for randomly selected years and regions.

c) Improved Transition from Primary to Secondary Education Statistics show that from 2004 to 2005 gender parity for transition from Primary to Secondary education was attained. However, from 2006 to 2012 gender parity stagnated between 0.8

94 and 0.9 as indicated by Chart 30 This was highly influenced by low performance mainly caused by household chore, early pregnancies and early marriages to mention few.

Chart 47 GPI in Transition from Primary to Secondary Education

Secondary Education SEDP I was developed to improve access and equity in the delivery of education, retention of students in schools, quality of teaching and learning, and address management issues in the secondary education sub- sector. The summative review of SEDP I implementation noted that the programme was very successful in improving access and equity in the delivery of secondary education as illustrated in 6.

95 Box 6: Camfed’s Support to Girls’ Education – a Beneficiary’s Testimony

After recognizing that poverty, negative cultural practices and the impact of HIV and AIDS are major constraints to the attainments of gender parity in the access to education, Camfed

Tanzania established and runs a bursary programme which covers secondary education costs for orphans and girls from families with very low income levels. The bursary covers school fees and other costs including uniform, upkeep and accommodation.

Since its launch in Tanzania in 2005 some 64,227 children across 540 schools have benefited from a ‘`safety net’’ fund, helping them to meet basic school – going costs and therefore minimizing dropout rates. A total of 6,310 vulnerable girls have received comprehensive bursary support, covering all costs related to their secondary education, from school fees to text books.

Maua - a Camfed beneficiary in Kibaha rural says:”My father died in 2001 and my mother struggled to take care of the house. She does subsistence farming and our farm is very small. I remember when she had to ask me to stay at home one day to look after my sibling-I cried a lot because I didn’t want to miss school. I miss my father’s care a lot when watch my mother working so hard to meet our daily needs. Things changed when Camfed started sponsoring my secondary school education. I was extremely happy when the head master told me that I was going to be a Camfed bursary fund beneficiary; what came in my mind was that my dreams of attaining secondary school education was fulfilled! I am lucky to have this opportunity. I know my friends who couldn’t make it to secondary school because of poverty:.

SEDP II consolidated the gains made through SEDP I. In an effort to eliminate gender disparities, SEDP II focussed on improving girls’ participation and performance (as indicated in Box 7); improving access to secondary education for nomads, marginalized groups and disabled learners; expansion of Form 5 and Open and Distance Learning programme; and, completing construction of sanitation facilities which started during SEDP I to enhance girls’ attendance and participation; as well as constructing new structures, where required.

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Box 7: Gender equity related priorities in secondary education 2004 - 2015 i. Improve girls’ access to secondary education; ii. Improve performance of girls in mathematics and science; iii. Increase retention and completion rates for girls; iv. Improve life skills and support for girls’ education; v. Eliminate gender stereotypes in teaching and learning materials; vi. Improve teaching and learning environment to be gender responsive; vii. Apply of gender responsive pedagogy and adopt competence based curricula.

Numerous achievements were realized as a result of implementing the above mentioned priorities. Most importantly, Girls’ Empowerment programme, “TUSEME” that consists of strategies to improve retention and achievement of girls in secondary schools was scaled up to cover many schools. The target was to institutionalize the programme activities in all government secondary schools by 2009 at the end of SEDP I. In spite of the target not being met due to an inadequate budget. 163 schools were reached by the programme and 483 teachers were trained to handle the TUSEME programme activities.

Another area of achievement was the bursary support for girls from families with very low income levels, provision of materials, funds and school infrastructure improvement through construction of buildings (such as laboratories and assembly halls) and the selection of schools under FAWE support. As a result of the improvements, certain schools in the country (such as Mgugu, J.J Mungai and Lufilyo Secondary Schools) have been designated FAWE centres of excellence.

Girls’ Science and Mathematics Camps have shown impressive results. This initiative started in 2002 in order to address the ``perception that female secondary school students inherently perform more poorly in science and mathematics when compared to their male counterparts. The, programmers’ main objective is to assist girls to gain confidence and adequate competences in science subjects as well as boosting their overall performance in the sciences. While in the camps, girls are given opportunities to explore science by having hands-on activities in a fun, safe and enabling environment as depicted in the photograph..

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Physics activity: Determination of a refractive index of the material made the glass

Source: Camp Reports

The performance of secondary education as reflected in key selected indicators is as indicated here below.

a) GER, NER and GPI Secondary education enrolment improved from 261,896 (120,248 female and 141,648 male) students in 2000 to 1,884,272 (873,799 female and 101, 0473 male) students in 2012. During the implementation of SEDP I the number of secondary schools increased from 1,291 in 2004 to 4,102 in 2009. Many underserved communities were reached and enrolment in secondary education increased from 432,599 (199,963 girls and 232,636 boys) in 2004 to 1,466,402 (653,457 girls and 812,945 boys) in 2009 (BEST, 2007 & 2011).

The GER and NER improved from 7.4 percent and 6.3 percent respectively in 2003 to 36.9 percent and 34.3 percent in 2012. In both cases, GER for males is higher than that of females. (BEST, 2005 & 2012). In 2012 the GPI for both GER and NER was 0.9 as indicated by

98 Table 16 The table provides GER,NER and GPI in three years,2006 which is two years after 2004 when SEDP I started,2009 the end year of SEDP I and 2012 which is two years after the launching of SEDP II.

Table 17: Secondary Education GER , NER and GPI ,2006-2012 Grade Indicator 2006 2009 2012

Male Female GPI Male Female GPI Male Female GPI Form GER 21.0 19.3 0.9 47.8 39.3 0.8 54.1 48.8 0.9 1-4 NER 12.4 14.3 1.2 29.7 28.5 1.0 36.5 36.6 1.0

Form GER 4.1 2.4 0.6 5.2 3.6 0.7 6.9 3.2 0.5 5-6 NER 1.1 0.9 0.8 1.4 1.5 1.1 3.2 2.2 0.7

Form GER 16.0 13.7 0.86 35.3 27.4 0.8 39.3 34.4 0.9 1-6 NER 13.6 12.6 0.93 30.6 25.1 0.8 35.6 33.0 0.9 Source: BEST,2006 - 2012

As indicated in the table, the GER and NER for male students are higher than that of female students, showing that more boys than girls were enrolled in secondary education. There is positive impact of SEDP as the GER for both male and female students has increased marking improved access to secondary education for both boys and girls.

Despite the increasing trend of GER and NER for both male and female students, GER for males was higher than that of females. The GPI in the GER which is between 0.5 and 0.9 also indicates that gender disparity still persists. The gender gap is wider at Form 5-6 (A-level) than at Form 1-4 (O-level).

b) Proportion of female teachers in secondary education The percentage of female teachers in secondary education improved from 27.5 percent in 2000 to 32.5 percent in 2013 as shown in chart 31-.The improvement of female teachers in secondary education is due to government policy to support and encourage females to carry out secondary education, expand funding for Science camps and remedial programmes for girls and establishment of Pre-entry Programme and Preferential Admission Criteria.

99 Chart 48: Percentages of Female Teachers in Secondary Schools, 2000-2013

Source MOEVT, BEST 2000-2013

Completion rate for secondary Form 4 and Form 6 in 2008 – 2011 Available statistics show that students who completed Form 4 in 2008 were 131,194 out of these 73,675 were males and 57,519 (43.8%) were females. In 2011 a total number of 333,638 students completed Form 4 and out of those, 190,186 were males and 143,452 (43%) were females. In 2011 overall Gross Completion Rate (GCR) was 35.8%. GCR for male and female students was 40.7% and 30.9% respectively. Net Completion Rate was 7.3% and 7.7% for male and female students respectively. Total Net Completion Rate (NCR) was 7.5%. (BEST2011).

In the same vein students who completed Form 6 in 2008 were 20,337out of these 13,158 were males and 7,179 (35.3%) were females. In 2011 students who completed Form 6 were 37,090 out of these males were 23,902 and females were 13,188 (35.6%). In 2011 the overall Gross Completion Rate (GCR) was 4.2%. GCR for male and female students was 5.4% and 3.0% respectively.

Gender Parity Index for enrolment in Teacher Education The GPI for enrolment in Government Grade IIIA and Diploma teacher training colleges is still below 1.0 implying that more males are enrolled than females between 2005 and 2013. Low performance of female students in Mathematics, Science and English examinations limits the majority of females to access teacher education institutions.

100 The GPI in Non-Government Training Colleges has been above 1.0 from 2005 to 2009 implying that more females were enrolled than male students. Access to Non Government colleges is dependent on set pass marks obtained in the CSEE and or ACSEE only, without priority subjects as is the case for Government colleges.

GPI for Enrolment in Technical Institutions The GPI in TVET has slightly been improving from 0.1 in 2001 to as the GPI to 0.2 in 2006. The GPI trend shows that few women join technical institutions and that there are more male students than females. The same scenario is true for the teaching staff whose female population constituted 24.6 percent in 2010 and grew to 25.5 percent in 2012. Gender parity is not yet attained.

The persistence of gender disparity in technical education is attributed to various factors such as gender stereotyping, low female participation in science streams in secondary schools and poor performance in CSEE and ACSEE particularly in science subjects.

GPI for Enrolment of learners in ICBAE learning centres 2000 The enrolment of learners in the ICBAE learning centres indicates an overall GPI of 1.2 over the period between 2000 and 2012. This implies that there have been more female learners than males in the learning centres. The higher number of female learners denotes that women who missed out school opportunities school during childhood due to gender discrimination are challenged to seek alternative learning routes to compensate for the loss. Still, some learners could be former school dropouts due to pregnancy, early marriages and home-based child labour through which girls are challenged to take care of their siblings, sick relatives and perform certain tasks for the family.

Challenges  Availability of conducive learning environments for girls Sanitary facilities for girls at all levels are either inadequate or lacking in some unique cases. At lower levels of education system, there are no teachers to offer guidance and counseling services. In some communities, rampant violations of human rights including “nyumba ntobu” and forced teenage marriages. It appears that some communities do not appreciate the value of education for the girls child. All these practices have negative impact on education development in the country.

101  Bridging gender disparity between boys and girls at A-level and TVET in terms of academic performance, especially in Mathematics and Science subjects. Disparities in the academic performance in Mathematics and Science subjects leads to having a small proportion of females in better paid jobs compared to their male counterparts. As mothers have direct influence on their children’s education, less representation of females in the said subjects imply that the next generation is at risk to demonstrate mastery of these subjects and the corresponding professions.

Recommendations In order to achieve gender parity and equality in education in Tanzania, the Government will:  Expand gender-friendly physical facilities at all levels of education including constructing hostels for community secondary schools for both boys and girls.  Train teachers to offer guidance and counselling;  Advocate education for human rights;  Formulate school clubs to encourage boys and girls to interact and support each other in addressing challenges they face;  Establish and implement a national wide community awareness campaign on the importance of education for the girl child.  Reinstate the provision of bursary scheme for promoting girls’ participation science and mathematics; expand funding for science camps and remedial programmes for girls.

102 GOAL 6: IMPROVING ALL ASPECTS OF THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION AND ENSURING EXCELLENCE OF ALL SO THAT RECOGNIZED AND MEASURABLE LEARNING OUTCOMES ARE ACHIEVED BY ALL ESPECIALLY IN LITERACY, NUMERACY AND ESSENTIAL LIFE SKILLS

Introduction The Tanzanian government is a signatory to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals and the Jomtien Declaration on Education for All as reaffirmed in the Dakar Framework of Action, 2000. It is also implementing “Tanzania Development Vision 2025,” which amongst other areas, accords high priority to education as instrumental in bringing about social-economic transformation in the lives of Tanzanians. According to the vision,“Education should be treated as a strategic agent for mind-set transformation and for the creation of a well educated nation, sufficiently equipped with the knowledge needed to completely solve the development challenges”. The 2000 World Forum on Education for All (EFA) developed six specific targets for countries to achieve. Five areas are for education and one of them is, “to improve all aspects of quality education and ensure excellence.”

Definition of the Term Quality Education Quality of education is commonly described as the degree to which education can be said to be of high standard, satisfies basic learning needs and enriches the lives of learners. In other words, quality of education involves effectiveness and efficiency in the use of the available educational resources (human, material and financial) in meeting nationally and locally agreed goals, relevant to the needs, rights, and expectations of the learners, community and the society at large.

Efforts to improve quality of education have been informed by Tanzania Development Vision 2025, MKUKUTA II (2012), Education and Training Policy (1995) and sub-sector plans. In respect to Tanzania Development Vision 2015, points out that education should prepare a well educated, knowledgeable and skilled Tanzanian able to competently and competitively cope with political, social, cultural, economic and technological development challenges at national and international levels. MKUKUTA II envisages improving the quality of social services (education, survival, health and nutrition, clean and safe water, sanitation, decent shelter and a safe, sustainable environment).

The Tanzania Development Vision and MKUKUTA goals and targets have been mainstreamed into the Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP), sub-sector plans and strategies. The main focus has been on early childhood care and education, primary education, secondary education, teacher education, technical and vocational education and adult, non-formal and continuing education.

103 Early Childhood Care and Education The quality of inputs into education in terms of children determines its outputs. Thus the health of the mother before the child is born is just as important as the care of the child after birth as well as its stimulation before he/she is enrolled in basic education. The policy direction as a way forward in implementing the goal on quality as reflected in the EFA 2000 Assessment report and ESDP was for the government and ECCE stakeholders to strengthen efforts to reduce child mortality and improve children nutritional status. Other policy directions were to ensure the development of an integrated policy and a comprehensive plan in order to facilitate the provision of ECDE services to its young children in an integrated approach. The approach views the child holistically and ensures that the ECDE services are comprehensive, cross sectoral and are culturally appropriate

In addition, other directions included review of the curriculum and materials; training of teachers in learner- centred modes of delivery; construction of pre-primary school infrastructure in each of the primary schools and formulation of strategies for collaboration with other stakeholders.

In view of the policy directions, it was envisaged that healthcare for pregnant women and under 5 year children, nutrition and child protection would have improved by 2015. Nutritional status of families has improved in recent years due to strengthening advocacy and community sensitization on school feeding. The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training in collaboration with other ministries, Children in Crossfire (CiC) and other ECCD stakeholders has established the Talk to your baby “Zungumza na Mtoto”(ZUMM) programme aimed at improving literacy and communication skill of young children as stepping stone to their enrolment in pre-primary education. Parenting education is a priority intervention which aims at enhancing knowledge and skills of parents so that they provide care and rearing services to their babies. The programme will be funded through the Literacy and Numeracy Education Support (LANES) programme under Global Partnership in Education (GPE), 2914/15-2017/18.

In 2011 the government through the IECD Inter-ministerial committee approved the Standards for ECCE. Operational guidelines and minimum standards for ECDE service provision were also approved. Also there are clearly established requirements for ECCE professionals teaching in public pre-schools, where they are required to have completed Ordinary Level Secondary Education and two years of pre-service training.

The integrated policy and a comprehensive plan are being developed within the framework of United Nations Development Programme (UNDAP). Though the process is slow and has taken three years, but its importance cannot be underestimated. While the policy is supposed to guide the implementation of activities, the programme would outline objectives, strategies and activities in collaborative way between ministries (including Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children; Ministry of Education and Vocational Training and Ministry of Health), Non-State Actors (NSAs), communities and parents.

Pre-primary curriculum was reviewed and syllabus and guidelines for establishment and management of ECCD centres was developed though there are very few ECCD qualified teachers as most of the Pre-primary education teachers are Grade A certificate teachers, not specific for ECCD. Service providers in Day care Centres are either auxiliary trainees or para-professional teachers. No reported in-service training for ECCD teachers has been reported since 2000. In most circumstances children at

104 home in the communities are assisted by their mothers while in town or in cities they are assisted by house girls.

Improvement of Quality in the Provision of Primary Education by the year 2015 Policy direction as reflected in ESDP is to increase access to equitable quality education by:  Ensuring curriculum is relevant, learner centered and not gender stereotyped  Ensuring that no child is deprived of education for lack of learning materials, adequate space and qualified teachers; availability of infrastructure and other school facilities.  Ensuring multi-grade teaching is used to facilitate learning where there are shortage of classrooms and teachers.  Ensuring that qualification framework is developed and effectively used for accreditation of institutions, recognizing learning outcomes, assessment of learning experiences and certification.

Curriculum and Materials Between 2005 and 2010 the Primary education curriculum was revised and updated to ensure that it is competence based rather than knowledge based as it used to be. The revised curriculum also accommodated cross-cutting issues like gender, HIV and AIDS, environment, life skills, Human Rights and special education issues.

The curriculum was later reviewed and streamlined into seven subjects from 13 subjects. At present the subjects are Civics, History, Geography, English, Kiswahili, Mathematics, Science and ICT. However, examinable subjects are five, namely Mathematics, English, Kiswahili, Science and Social Studies.

Although the curriculum was changed from content based to competence based, there was no proper orientation of teacher prior to the implementation at the school level. As a result, many teachers are not able to interpret the curriculum properly. Teacher education curriculum is in line with primary and secondary education in which competence based learning are emphasized. Implementation of teacher education curriculum puts the learner at the centre while addressing specific competencies in different areas of study. Teacher education philosophy throughout the country strives to enabling students to learn in a more experiential, hands-on manner, characterized by more open communication, challenges and appropriate feedback. Within competency-based instruction, learner-centred approaches like inquiry-based learning focus on fostering the intellectual curiosity of students by allowing them to create conceptual frameworks for their own experiences and use of problem-solving methods. In this way, teaching and learning emphasizes process and learning outcomes that result in knowledge and skills applicable in real-world contexts.

Apart from addressing the core subjects and methodologies, teacher education curriculum focuses on learners’ diverse needs, special needs education being the case in point. For the matter of effective physical and human resource management, a special teacher college is established to deliver in- service courses for special needs education. Teachers attending special needs education courses become specialists in the delivery of special education to learners with special learning needs at primary and secondary education levels. .

Supply of relevant teaching and learning materials The quality of delivery of education across levels is enhanced by the availability of quality teaching and learning materials especially textbooks. The policy direction was to ensure that multi-textbooks

105 policy was relevant for 21st century, hence be use to supply various books for each level in primary schools. The aim was to enable learners and teachers gain knowledge and skills from variety of books and publications. In doing so, the Government would have facilitated the development of textbook industry and competition among textbooks and reference books publishers and suppliers for sustainable supply of textbooks and other reading materials for the education sector.

Capitation grant of US $ 10 was introduced in 2002 to ensure there was sufficient and relevant instructional materials are available in schools. To complement this, parents are responsible for providing exercise books, pencils and rulers. In implementing the textbook policy, there was a guide outlining materials selected and approved by Educational Management Approval Committee (EMAC) to be used in schools. Every school had its own choice as School Committees determined the number of textbooks required for their schools. However, the number of books ordered depended on available funds in Capitation Grant. Due to shortage of funds policy thrust was almost abandoned in 2012.

Book Pupil Ratio in Primary Education According to the PEDP evaluation reports, the book-pupil ratio (BPR) was 1:20 in 2001 and improved to 1:5 in 2007/8 and further improved to 1:3 in 2008/9. However the ESDP Performance Report of 2011/2012 shows that the BPR declined to 1:5. Statistics from twelve sampled Councils indicate that Government efforts to increase the supply of teaching and learning materials in school yielded positive results in three Councils as the BPR improved between 4.4 percent and 30.3 percent from 2006 to 2011. The situation in the remaining Councils worsened as indicated in Table 17 and Chart 49.

Table 18: Book Pupil Ratio (2006 - 2011) for the Selected Councils Name of District BPR 2006 BPR 2011 % Change Remark (+ve for improvement) Kigoma Town Council 0.38 0.38 0 No change Kibondo District Council 1.44 1.00 -30.6 Worsened Shinyanga Municipal Improved 1.48 1.78 23.0 Council Kahama District Council 0.68 0.71 4.4 Improved Babati Town Council 0.33 0.43 30.30 Improved Kiteto District Council 0.59 0.64 8.47 Improved Newala District Council 1.18 0.80 -32.20 Worsened Mtwara Mikindani T/C 0.94 0.69 -26.60 Worsened Lushoto District Council 1.84 1.30 -29.35 Worsened Tanga City Council 2.10 0.82 -60.95 Worsened Kibaha Town Council 0.84 0.44 -47.62 Worsened Mkuranga District Worsened 0.89 0.63 Council -29.21 Grand Total 1.06 0.80 -15.86 Worsened Source: District Data, 2012

106 Chart 49: Book – Pupil Ration in Selected Councils 2006 - 2011

Improving teaching and learning processes Quality teaching and learning is mainly determined by the processes taking place in the classroom. The teacher in the classroom is the main instrument for quality learning. The policy directives on improving the quality of teaching and learning as outlined in ETP (1995) and ESDP (1997) was to ensure teachers are qualified and meet the needs of the expansion enrolment of pupils in primary and secondary schools. The main aim was that all categories of teachers i) Permanent and pensionable (ii) Contract (iii) Temporary teachers Employed and deployed have the qualified standards.

Primary school teachers with required qualifications The status of implementation of Education and Training Policy directions show that in 2000 qualified teachers in primary schools were 47.6% out of 107,111while in 2009 only 9.9% of teachers were under qualified. Most of the under qualified teachers (Grade C and B) had either retired or had taken upgrading courses to Grade A.

Beginning from 2000 the Ministry initiated various in-service courses in order to improve the professional skills of teachers. The courses included ICT (started in 2004), Science, Mathematics and Language (started in 2008) and school-based INSET. ICT course in teacher colleges was meant to improve interaction and student understanding of the subject. Course in Science, Mathematics and Language was aimed at improving teachers’ competences in teaching the subjects. The school-based INSET was delivered through open and distance mode, to primary and secondary schools teachers, supported by UNICEF, was implemented in seven Local government authorities of Makete, Hai, Siha, Magu, Mwanga-rural, Temeke and Bagamoyo..

Pre- service and in-service courses has enabled teachers to improve their teaching skills and abilities to create a good ambiance by using variety of teaching methods including problem solving, group and

107 pair work, individual learning. Training has provided them with positive attitude with regard to promoting discipline, fairness, recognition of learners varied abilities and rewarding pupils’ achievement.

Within the framework of Public Private Partnership Policy (PPP), private colleges were also established to train teachers. Currently there are 118 teacher education colleges of which, 84 are non Governmental. These efforts have resulted into having all primary school teachers qualified in Tanzania as of 2013.

Teacher Pupil Ratio (TPR) The Teacher Pupil Ratio (TPR) is among the key factors for the quality of teaching and learning (classroom interaction). Having the right number of teachers, equitably a support child’s learning. The government set four main objectives to be achieved with regard to teachers’ training, recruitment and deployment: to recruit adequate number of new teachers, to establish teacher-to-pupil ratios (TPR) that effectively accommodate enrolment increases, to ensure an equitable and gender balanced distribution of trained teachers, and to improve the use of existing teachers. With regard to teacher availability in schools, the policy requires each teacher to teach 40 pupils. However, the statistics show that there have been fluctuations in teacher pupils ratio between 2000 and 2013 as indicated in Chart 50.

Chart 50: Pupil Teacher Ratio in Primary Schools 2000-2013

Teacher Pupil Ratio by Region Teacher distribution has been faced with challenges including unequal balance between the increase of primary schools and available teachers’ houses to accommodate newly deployed teachers. Similarly, social and geographical locations of some District Councils do not attract teachers to join the teaching post. As a result, some schools have high PTR and others have relatively low PTR.

Table 17 shows the status of teacher distribution in primary schools in Tanzania from year 2000 to 2009 in which the top and least ranking regions are listed. As observed, Morogoro and Pwani have an ideal proportion of PTR while Dar es Salaam and Arusha seem to have excess number of qualified teachers. With these exceptions, other regions have high PTRs, denoting that they have acute shortages of teacher.

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Regional Disparities The PTR in sampled secondary schools shows variation when you compare urban and rural areas whereby the PTR in rural areas is very low the case is opposite to urban areas. The statistics show that both PTR and PqTR are worse for Mara and Kigoma Regions with corresponding situation in urban and rural areas. Table 18 shows the variation in regions in terms of PTR and PqTR.

Table 19: Government Secondary Schools’ Teacher to Pupil and Qualified Teacher to Pupil Ratios, by Location and Region, 2000- 2009 Total Urban Rural

PTR QTPR TPR QTPR TPR QTPR Arusha 1:30.1 1:38.31:20.3 1:23.8 1:39.5 1:54.3 Dar es Salaam 1:22 1:24.7 1:17.5 1:18.9 1:45.2 1:60.3 Dodoma 1:43.7 1:58.2 1:42.9 1:51.5 1:44.7 1:62.9 Iringa 1:53.7 1:69.51:40.1 1:43.9 1:58.0 1:80.2 Kagera 1:56.9 1:80.01:34.5 1:42.1 1:65.2 1:97.1 Kigoma 1:67.5 1:99.2 1:51.5 1:62.8 1:75.3 1:122.3 Kilimanjaro 1:47.0 1:59.6 1:39.2 1:42.8 1:48.4 1:64.2 Lindi 1:51.3 1:73.31:53.6 1:70.8 1:50.4 1:73.8 Manyara 1:53.3 1:88.2 1:41.2 1:53.7 1:54.3 1:93.7 Mara 1:68.4 1:111.6 1:60.8 1:79.7 1:73.5 1:125.9 Mbeya 1:54.3 1:70.91:44.8 1;56.1 1:56.9 1:75.2 Morogoro 1:32.5 1:43.2 1:21.9 1:25.0 1:36.3 1:50.5 Mtwara 1:58.3 1:77.01:38.6 1:48.1 1:68.4 1:93 Mwanza 1:53.9 1:73.9 1:35.3 1:41.0 1:65.3 1:102 Pwani 1:37.1 1:42.91:27.6 1:34.8 1:40.7 1:45.6 Rukwa 1:43.2 1:62.51:40.3 1:51.4 1:45.1 1:69.2 Ruvuma 1:49.9 1:63.5 1:38.7 1:49.4 1:54.5 1:69.4 Shinyanga 1:53.8 1:77.2 1:48.1 1:60.2 1:55.8 183.6 Singida 1:59.3 1:90.21:44.6 1:59.0 1:63.2 1:102.5 Tabora 1:52.7 1:76.71:51.3 1:67.3 1:54.3 1:85.9 Tanga 1:47.0 1:62.21:28.8 1:32.5 1:59.9 1:89.6

Total 1:46.0:1 1:60.7 1:31.1 1:36.0 1:54.4 1:77.6

Source: BEST database, 2009. Based on a sub-sample of schools for which information was available.

School infrastructure Development Availability of adequate and friendly classrooms, pit latrines, furniture, electricity, teachers’ houses are inevitable in facilitating provision of quality education at primary education level. From 2000, the School infrastructure development was targeted to make the school environment conducive and inclusive for effective learning and teaching for all children.

Beginning from 2001, Government efforts focused on reducing overcrowded classrooms and attain a Class Pupil Ratio of 1:40. A systemic plan to accommodate 1,041,800 young learners was implemented within the framework of PEDP. National statistics show that Class Pupil Ratio (CPR) improved from 1:92 in 2006 to 1:66 in 2010/11. Then it declined to 1:70 in 2012.

109 Although the overall national shortage of classrooms stood at 41.9 in 2013, there were regional disparities indicating shortages of classrooms at different degrees whereby Rukwa had the highest shortage of 67.4 percent followed by Geita (62.2%), Katavi (58.5%), Mwanza (55.3%), Simiyu (54.4%) and Kigoma (52.5%) (See table 19).

Table 20: Availability of Classrooms in Primary Schools by Region Classrooms Region Required Available Shortage % of Shortage

Arusha 8,198 5,931 2,267 27.7 Dar es Salaam 11,328 6,597 4,731 41.8 Dodoma 9,716 5,200 4,516 46.5 Geita 9,242 3,494 5,748 62.2 Iringa 5,255 3,596 1,659 31.6 Kagera 11,166 6,235 4,931 44.2 Katavi 2,531 1,051 1,480 58.5 Kigoma 8,359 3,966 4,393 52.6 Kilimanjaro 7,971 6,792 1,179 14.8 Lindi 4,164 3,199 9,65 23.2 Manyara 7,016 4,549 2,467 35.2 Mara 9,997 5,747 4,250 42.5 Mbeya 12,538 7,000 5,538 44.2 Morogoro 8,418 5,386 3,032 36.0 Mtwara 6,338 3,940 2,398 37.8 Mwanza 12,566 5,623 6,943 55.3 Njombe 4,248 3,283 965 22.7 Pwani 6,064 3,431 2,633 43.4 Rukwa 3,384 1,103 2,281 67.4 Ruvuma 7,445 5,094 2,351 31.6 Shinyanga 7,124 4,564 2,560 35.9 Simiyu 8,010 3,650 4,360 54.4 Singida 6,507 3,944 2,563 39.4 Tabora 9,526 4,923 4,603 48.3 Tanga 10,507 6,532 3,975 37.8 Grand Total 197,618 11,4830 82,788 41.9

110 Teachers’ houses are an incentive for teachers in particular to those employed and deployed in difficult and hard to reach areas. However, most of teachers do not have houses and this demotivates them and increase attrition of teacher in those areas. Statistics for 2013indicate that overall all 25 have acute shortage of teacher houses with Dar es Salaam having the worst situation by 94.1 percent, followed by Tanga (85.7%), Mwanza (84.8%), Shinyanga (84.2) and Tabora (82.8%). Table 19 presents the regional disparities in teacher houses.

111 Table 21: Availability of teachers’ houses by region Regions Teachers' Houses

Required Available Shortage % of Shortage

Arusha 7,945 1,917 6,028 75.9 Dar es Salaam 14,214 844 13,370 94.1 Dodoma 9,742 1,585 8,157 83.7 Geita 8,608 1,470 7,138 82.9 Iringa 5,713 2,004 3,709 64.9 Kagera 10,581 2,139 8,442 79.8 Katavi 2,397 570 1,827 76.2 Kigoma 8,008 1,393 6,615 82.6 Kilimanjaro 8,948 1,369 7,579 84.7 Lindi 4,228 1,299 2,929 69.3 Manyara 6,354 1,966 4,388 69.1 Mara 9,430 2,317 7,113 75.4 Mbeya 15,200 3,502 11,698 77.0 Morogoro 8,516 1,894 6,622 77.8 Mtwara 6,188 1,617 4,571 73.9 Mwanza 14,294 2,176 12,118 84.8 Njombe 3,187 1,302 1,885 59.1 Pwani 6,172 1,524 4,648 75.3 Rukwa 4,008 1,290 2,718 67.8 Ruvuma 7,483 2,579 4,904 65.5 Shinyanga 7,395 1,167 6,228 84.2 Simiyu 8,017 1,809 6,208 77.4 Singida 6,956 1,951 5,005 72.0 Tabora 8,810 1,516 7,294 82.8 Tanga 11,448 1,635 9,813 85.7 Grand Total 203,842 42,835 161,007 79.0

The number of desks in primary schools increased from 8,519 in 2006 to 9,560 in 2011, an increase of 12.2 percent. In 2013, there was a shortage of 1,174,827 desks which shows an acute shortage of desks but it is higher in government schools than in private schools. The shortage is 39.5% and 7.7% respectively.

112 Improvement of quality of assessment in primary, secondary and teacher education In Tanzania context, the term assessment in education is conceptualized as a process of measuring student’s performance using different tools such as homework, exercises, weekly and monthly test, midterm and annual tests, mock examinations and national examinations. Whereas national examinations are categorized as summative, the other examinations are formative in nature.

The National Council of Tanzania (NECTA) deals with Summative Examinations. As a body of excellence, NECTA assumes the responsibility of providing feedback to curriculum implementers in order to ascertain quality provision of education. NECTA administers summative assessment with respect to Primary, Secondary, Teacher Certificate and Diploma courses. The assessments include Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE), Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE), Grade A Teacher Certificate Examination (GATCE) and Diploma in Secondary Education Examination (DSEE).

Statistical data for PSLE indicate that the performance of learners rose from 21.95 percent in 2000 to 79.88 percent in 2006 but there was a gradual decline in 2007. As shown in Table 21 and Chart 51, a notable decline was observed in 2008 (52.73%) followed by gradual decline in 2009 (49.4%), increase in 2010 (53.5%), decline in 2011 (42.51%), a sharp decline and increase in 2012 (30.7%) and 2013 (50.61%) respectively.

The factors which might have contributed to the decrease in the level of performance of pupils in the PSLE evolve around expansion of enrolment which did not match with efforts to improve the quality of education. More importantly, the expansion of enrolment lead to overcrowded classes which caused difficulties among teacher in assisting pupils as well as shortages of teaching and learning supplies.

Table 22 Trend of Performance in PSLE 2000-2013 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 201 201 201 201 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 28.7 36. 34.4 47.6 55.4 68.5 80.9 78.8 59.7 55.6 59.0 39.3 35.6 55.0 Male 0 16 3 2 7 8 4 3 5 0 0 3 0 1 Femal 15.4 21. 20.1 32.5 41.8 54.5 79.0 77.6 45.5 43.2 48.3 45.4 26.4 46.6 e 9 39 1 5 4 8 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 8 21.9 28. 27.1 40.0 48.6 61.7 79.9 78.2 52.7 49.4 53.5 42.5 30.7 50.6 Total 5 62 4 6 8 6 8 1 3 0 0 1 0 1 Source: NECTA/BEST

113 Chart 51: Trend of Performance in PSLE 2000-2013

Source: NECTA/BEST

National data on assessment indicate that performance of learners in the CSEE increased from 77.4 percent in 2001 to 91.5 percent in 2004. Thereafter, there was a steady decline until 2013 when the overall performance stood at 58.25 percent. The decline in learners’ performance in the CSEE might have been caused by expansion of enrolment under the Secondary Education Development Programme I which resulted into acute shortages of teachers and teaching and learning supplies.

Chart 52: Trend of Performance in CSEE 2000-2013

Source: NECTA/BEST

As shown in Table 21, performance of learners in the ACSEE improved from 94.7 percent in 2000 to 98 percent in 2004. This was followed by a marked decline until 2007, marginal improvement from 2008 to 2009 and fluctuations between 2010 and 2013. The reasons behind the decline of performance might be the same as those experienced in CSEE.

114

Chart 53: Trend of Performance in ACSEE 2000-2013

Source: NECTA/BEST

Table 23: Trend of Performance in PSLE 2000-2013 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Male 28.70 36.16 34.43 47.62 55.47 68.58 80.94 78.83 59.75 55.60 59.00 39.33 35.60 55.01 Female 15.49 21.39 20.11 32.55 41.84 54.58 79.00 77.61 45.55 43.20 48.30 45.40 26.40 46.68 Total 21.95 28.62 27.14 40.06 48.68 61.76 79.98 78.21 52.73 49.40 53.50 42.51 30.70 50.61 Source: NECTA/BEST

Status of SACMEQ Assessment Tanzania was among 15 countries which are members of the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality (SACMEQ) which participated in the assessment of quality of education in 2000 and 2007. SACMEQ II Project (2000-2004) focused on extensive assessment of the performance levels of students and their teachers in the areas of Literacy and Mathematics. Along with that, the Project conducted a research on ‘’Learning Environment and Quality Education’’ whose results revealed that friendly learning environment including availability of qualified teachers and resources such as teaching and learning materials and teacher resource centers are key factors for improving the quality of education. As shown in Table 22, the performance results in Tanzania showed that the mean score in reading was 545.9 which was 63 percent in 2000 and increased to 577.8 which was 77.9% in 2007. In Mathematics the mean score was increased from 522.4 (18.1%) in 2002 to 552.7 (31.5%) in 2007. When compared to SACMEQ II conducted in 2000, there was a significant improvement in Reading and Mathematics under SACMEQ III conducted in 2007 due to effective monitoring and evaluation, and effective implementation of PEDP I.

115 Table 24: SACMEQ Scores in Reading and Mathematics and Share of Pupils Reaching Minimum Skill Levels, 2000-2007 SACMEQ II (2000) SACMEQ III (2007)

Reading Math Reading Math Mean Score 545.9 522.4 577.8 552.7 (Standard Errors) (5.00) (4.17) (3.40) (3.51) % of Pupils with minimum 82.3% 39.5% 89.9% 57.0% reading/mathematics skills (≥ Level 4) (1.68) (0.93) (1.05) (0.82) % of Pupils with reading/mathematics 63.5% 18.1% 77.9% 31.5% skills ≥ Level 5 (1.03) (0.55) (0.82) (0.57) Source: SACMEQ 2007 data, MoEVT.

However, according to UWEZO Annual Learning Assessment Report of 2012, fifty seven percent (57%) of children enrolled in Standard 3 or above were able to read a simple Standard 2 level story in Kiswahili , compared to 58 percent in 2011. Rates of English competence are much lower than Kiswahili, four out of ten children in Standard 3 or above could read a Standard 2 level story in English. Furthermore, the report shows regional disparities in children’s learning outcomes. Overall, the highest rates of literacy and numeracy among children aged 9 – 13 years were recorded by children in Dar es Salaam region (62%) followed by Kilimanjaro (54%) and Arusha (51%). The lowest rates were found in Shinyanga (31%), Tabora (31%), Mara (30%) and Kigoma (30%) regions in which on average only three out of ten children of the same age group passed the test.

The report also revealed that there were variations among districts. In Temeke district in Dar es Salaam sixty seven percent (67%) of children aged 9 – 13 years passed all the 3 subjects (Kiswahili, English and Numeracy). The best performing districts were all urban and had more than 6 out of ten children passing all the 3 subjects. The five weakest districts were all rural and had an average of 2 out of 10 children who passed all the three subjects.

It is understood that low performance of children in literacy and numeracy resulted from massive expansion of enrolment of school aged children over the past 15 years which did not match with efforts to improve the quality of education due to inadequate resource.

The findings by UWEZO are confirmed by the Government while developing the Literacy and Numeracy Education Support (LANES) programme 2013 – 2016. In the rationale section, the programme document points out that poor literacy and numeracy skills at the lower grades are limiting achievement of required skills in higher grades, hence poor performance in the Primary school Leaving Examination. LANES is therefore expected to address the challenge of low mastery of literacy and numeracy among children in and out of school.

The 1978 Education Act No. 25 which was amended by Education Act No.10 of 1995 emphasised amongst others the roles to be played by each education player including the school inspectors. The Education and Training Policy (1995) which is under review, is another document which guides the public and other education stake holders on their roles for the full attainment of quality education.

The School Inspectorate as a department is a legally established tool of the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT) mandated with the responsibility of ensuring that the provision of quality 116 education is sustained to meet the nation’s educational goals, as stipulated in Sections 40 – 43 of the Education Act No. 25 of 1978 and in sections 41 – 44 of its Amendment CAP 353 R.E. 2002, section 43 parts (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e). These sections of the Act empower school inspectors to perform their duties and exercise their powers accordingly

The policy direction on inspection as reflected in the Education Act No. 25 of 1978 and its amendment CAP 353 R. E. of 2002 demands that school Inspectors should conduct school inspection and assess the provision of education in the school and provide appropriate advice to rectify any anomalies noted Primary and Secondary school after 2 years and for teachers college every year. In implementing this policy direction, the inspectorate provides supports to under-performing teachers, new teachers, owners and heads of schools and personnel responsible for school registration. In terms of school registration, inspectors are responsible for ensuring that schools are not registered unless they fulfill basic prerequisites such as having adequate classrooms, teachers’ houses, administrative block and assembly hall. Other requirements include pit latrines separate for boys, girls and the general staff, Science laboratories, library, Store, Enough furniture for students and Staff and a strong room or Safe

In implementing their role and responsibilities, the inspectorate Division has achieved the following; (i) school categorization where group A and B are inspected once for 4 years/time, and a visit inspection every year. Group C schools are inspected once in 3 years and 2 visit inspections every year, and a follow up inspection is made if necessary. In groups D and E schools are inspected every year for whole school inspection, two visits yearly and several follow-ups.

Furthermore, three new zonal offices were established in July, 2008, made a total of 11 inspectorate zones in order to bring inspection services close to consumers. Yet, training of newly appointed School Inspectors from 2000 to 2014 to meet the demand of manpower required: (i) emphasizing and making a follow up on the use of learner centred teaching and learning techniques during whole school inspection so as to enhance competence based teaching/learning; (ii) (ii) to work closely with RAS, REOs, DEDs and DEOs in order to ensure that they know what is happening to their schools and design/plan strategies for immediate improvement and (iii) (iii) through UNICEF assistance the department is in the process of improving its communication system by establishing the Inspectorate Management Information System (IMIS).

The inspectorate has been conducting normal and ad hoc visits to schools, colleges and adult education centres. The normal visits are carried out to observe what is taking place in schools; for example, staffing, buildings, teaching/learning resources or any other issue of educational interest. The specific aim of the ad hoc has been to inspect specific issues/items in schools/colleges, for example, availability of teachers and text books, students and teachers attendance in schools and classrooms. As observed in Table 23, the proportion of schools and colleges inspected in 2000/2001 is more satisfactory than that of 2010/11 and 2012/13. The reason was shortage of financial resource and equipment.

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Table 25: School inspection in selected years LEVEL 2000/2001 2010/2011 2012/2013 Target inspected % of the target Target inspected % of the target Target inspected % of the target Primary 5753 4,309 75 7200 3948 59 10,528 3835 53 Secondary 407 326 80 2,174 1630 1577 Teacher 42 31 74 93 51 117 Colleges Source: Budget Speech

Re-establishment of the Directory of Adult and Non formal Education and coordination office at a regional level The policy direction as reflected in the Election Manifesto of the Ruling Party, ESDP, and the 2000: EFA Assessment, Adult and Non Formal Education towards intensifying literacy achievements and levels were to ensure that illiteracy rate is reduced by 50% by 2015. Measures which were taken included re- establishment of the Directorate at ministerial level and reinstating the position of Regional Adult Education Coordinator. The main aims were to enable these structures to play advisory role on policy, regulations and legislations, planning, coordination, monitoring and evaluation of adult and non formal education plans and programmes at regional, district, ward, and centre levels.

Consistent with improving the administrative arrangements, another policy thrust was to expand the implementation of the Integrated Community Based Adult Education (ICBAE) and Complementary Basic Education in Tanzania (COBET) to cover all districts and improve the quality of delivery of services. Furthermore, there was also a need to revamp advocacy and sensitization campaigns in order to popularize education programmes in general and adult, non-formal and continuing education in particular.

Improved curricula and materials The Adult and Non Formal Education Strategy 2003/4 – 2007/8 emphasizes the use of learner-centred teaching and learning methods and techniques. In light of this principle, teaching and learning materials for the Integrated Community Based Adult Education (ICBAE) were developed. The subjects are multi- disciplinary in nature as they comprise basic and post literacy, extension activities, income generation and life skills. Facilitators Guides in Agriculture, Socio-politics, Simple Book-keeping, Health and REFLECT Guide. The Guides assist the facilitators to conduct teaching – learning processes using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools such as maps, Venn Diagrams, matrices and calendars.

In 1999 the primary education curriculum was compressed to allow out of school children acquire basic education for an average of .three years. The subjects taught include Mathematics, English, Kiswahili, General Knowledge, Vocational Skills and Personality Development.

As regards continuing education, Level 1 ((equivalent to Form 1and 2) and Level 2 (equivalent Form 3 and 4) modules for Open and Distance Learning (ODL)were reviewed and printed for distribution in non

118 formal secondary education centres and evening secondary schools coordinated by the Institute of Adult Education (IAE). Modules for Level 3 (equivalent to Form 5 and 6) have also been developed and are ready for use.

In 2009, a competence-based curriculum for the Integrated Post Primary Education (IPPE) programme, which integrates academic, generic and vocational skills, was developed. Academic skills are provided in ordinary subjects such as Mathematics, English, Biology, History, Geography, Civics, ICT, Book Keeping and Commerce. Vocational skills are acquired through cookery, motor vehicle mechanics, welding and fabrication, plumbing, carpentry and joinery, tailoring and needlework, masonry and bricklaying, motor vehicle driving, electrical installation, electronics, agriculture, animal husbandry, secretarial skills and music. Generic skills are provided through subjects like health education, traditions, cultural practices and moral values, income generation, cross cutting issues, civics education and life skills.

Learners Facilitator Ratio The standard Facilitator Learners Ratio is 1:25. The national average FLR for 2006 – 2013 is 15. This may be due to low enrolment in COBET centres, despite villages and urban areas having a big population of out-of-school children estimated to be 1.7 million countrywide. Kilimanjaro has the highest FLR of 206 followed by Ruvuma and Pwani with 97 and 40 respectively.

Table 26: Number and Ratio of COBET Learners to Facilitators 2006-2013 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

COBET Learners 221,479 18,5206 111,413 82,989 72,799 82,459 76,867 54,029 Facilitators 13,820 11,459 9,203 6,946 6,011 4,641 4,292 3,628

LFR 1:16 1:16 1:12 1:12 1:12 1:18 1:18 1:15 Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, BEST 2006-2013

Chart 54: Number and Ratio of COBET Learners to Facilitators 2006-2013

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, BEST 2006-2013

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Facilitator learner ratio in ICBAE learning centres The standard LFR for ICBAE is 1:30. Available statistics indicate that the LFR was above the set standard in all years between 2006 and 2013 except in 2009 where the ratio was 1:21, below the standard.

Table 27: Number and Ratio of ICBAE Learners and Facilitators 2006-2013 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 ICBAE Learners 1668503 1288664 1059124 957289 924893 1050517 907771 845380 Facilitators 35591 39722 32566 45879 29701 30909 25221 17536

FLR 1:47 1:32 1:33 1:21 1:31 1:34 1:36 1:48 Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, BEST 2006-2013

Table 25and Chart 38 shows that the highest FLR was in 2013 where it was 1:48 followed by 2006 (1:47) and 2012 (1:36). This implies that there were few facilitators such that each facilitator taught more learners than the required number. The increase in FLR might have been caused by the drop out of some facilitators due to either delays or non-payment of monthly allowances resulting from limited financial resources.

Chart 55: Number and Ratio of ICBAE Learners and Facilitators 2006-2013

Number of COBET learners Mainstreamed in formal and vocational education The number of COBET learners who were mainstreamed in formal education system at primary and secondary levels as well as in VET centres indicates the degree at which the programme is beneficial to its recipients.

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Table 28: Number of COBET Learners Mainstreamed in Form1 and Vocational Education Years 2010 2011 2012 2013 Sex Male COBET learners sat for standard VII 4913 2606 1253 977 examination Female 3262 1912 920 929 Total 8175 4518 2173 1906

Male COBET learners mainstreamed in 3026 1718 914 804 form 1 and vocational education Female 1540 1058 662 596 Total 4566 2776 1576 1400 Male 61.59 65.92 72.94 82.29 % of Mainstreamed Female 47.21 55.33 71.96 64.16 Total 55.85 61.44 72.53 73.45 Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

As shown in Table 27 and Chart 56, the number learners who sat for PSLE and those who mainstreamed into Form One and vocational education was highest in 2010 but declined in the following years. This trend notwithstanding, the overall percentage of learners who were mainstreamed improved from 55.85 in 2010 to 73.45 in 2013.

Chart 56: Percentage of COBET Learners Mainstreamed in Form 1 and Vocational Education, 2013

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

121 Chart 57: Percentages of COBET Learners Mainstreamed in Standard 5

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training

Public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure Government expenditure on education indicates the degree to which it is willing and committed to invest resources in the delivery of quality education. The less the expenditure, the low the quality of education provided. Conversely, the higher the investment, the higher the quality of education.

Chart 58: Share of Education Sector to the Public Budget 1999-2014

Source: MOEVT BEST

Chart 58 shows that the share of the education sector budget is an average of 17.9 percent of total Government budget from 2003/4 to 2013/14. The highest allocation was in 2006/7 (19.8 %) and lowest in 2004/5 (15.1%).

122 Public expenditure on education as a percentage of Gross National Product (GNP) The ratio of public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP increased steadily from 3.8 percent in 2002/3 to 6.5 percent in 2012/13 followed by marginal decrease in 2013/14 (6.2%) as indicated in Chart 59.

Chart 59: Percentage of Education Sector Budget on GDP 1999-2014

Water and Sanitation Increasing access to improved drinking water is one of Millennium Development Goals that Tanzania has adopted in 2002.The source of drinking water is important because water borne disease including diarrhea and dysentery are prevalent in Tanzania. Children who have access to safe water are likely to be free from water borne diseases thus enhancing learning readiness and increasing retention in school. The majority of Tanzania households have access to clean water sources; 33% from piped water, 13% percent from protected wells and 8% from streams. In addition, data show that 22 % households have improved toilet facilities compared with 9% in rural areas.

Challenges a) Orientation of teachers after curriculum change Teachers at all level are oriented to the existing curricula during their initial training. When they go out to their work stations, they implement the curricula by applying the knowledge and skills acquired. Unfortunately, when the curricula change teachers are not provided with in-service training to orient them on how to implement the new curricula. This leads to confusion and mismatch between what was intended to be taught and what is actually taught. b) Mastery of requisite skills and improvement of students performance at all levels There is a general concern among stakeholders that mastery of the requisite competences and skills among learners at all levels has declined. This is evident in various results of studies such as that of” Uwezo” and national examinations. 123 | Page

c) Bridging of regional disparities in terms of availability of school infrastructure, teachers, teaching – learning resources and learners performance; Regional disparities in terms of school infrastructure results from ineffective participation of communities in managing schools. It also discourages teachers from being willing to stay and work in those areas which in turn results into lowering academic progress of students. Improving the working conditions of teachers; Poor performance of learners at primary, secondary and teachers colleges is a result of low morale of teachers, among other factors. d) Ensuring learners’ attitudinal change School graduates at various levels do not exhibit socially acceptable behaviours. Neither are they able to perform economic and cultural activities. This is a result of rote learning which is based on transfer of knowledge by means of theoretical instruction and memorization.

Recommendations a) The Government will insist on the requirement to provide in-service training and retraining on the changes of the curricula. b) The Government will increase efforts to improve the work morale of teachers; provide adequate teaching – learning materials and reinforce the implementation of a policy of ensuring that every child passes through pre-primary education before enrolling in primary school. c) The Government will continue to re-distribute teachers in order to balance the Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR); improve school infrastructure, sanitary facilities and Pupil Book Ratio (PBR); d) The Government will identify un-conducive working environment for teacher, decide on compensation package and sign contractual agreements with teachers. e) The Government will improve the working condition of teachers by rewarding exemplary performance, upgrading those who perform in time (after every 3 years), providing in-service training. f) The Government will re-emphasize on the philosophy of education for self reliance which is based on participatory and practical teaching – learning methodologies, problem solving and critical thinking.

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Priority Action Points for Tanzania Mainland on Education for All beyond 2015

The Government shall concentrate on the following priority areas:

1. Strengthening Early Childhood, Care and Education by developing and implementing ECCE policy, guidelines and comprehensive programmes. 2. Improve and expand educational infrastructure to accommodate learners at all levels. 3. Strengthening school leadership, management and governance at School and Ward/District levels to ensure effective management and accountability. 4. Development and management of teachers and professionalism. Ensure teacher recruitment on demand, equitable deployment, remuneration, retention and performance monitoring. 5. Promote literacy, reading culture, continuing education, alternative learning and lifelong learning to ensure sustenance of knowledge society. 6. Expand and strengthen life skills education, technical education and vocational training. 7. Strengthening of Quality Assurance Frameworks to ensure accreditation and effective quality control mechanisms. 8. Mobilization of resources, effective allocation, management and utilization. Mobilize and allocate enough resources to all education intervention programmes in particular ECD, basic education, adult literacy and continuing education, and technical and vocational training.

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ANNEXES

Annex 1

Sample of NGOs Providing Adult and Continuing Education in Selected Regions

S/N NAME OF NGO/CBO/FBO DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL REGION

1. Street Children Care and Development Temeke Dar es Salaam Trust [SCCADET] 2. Chama cha Uzazi na Malezi bora Temeke Dar es Salaam Tanzania – Kituo cha Vijana Temeke 3. Tandika Youth Handcraft Group Temeke Dar es Salaam

4. Child in the Sun Kinondoni Dar es Salaam

5. Tukolene Youth Development Centre Temeke Dar es Salaam

6. Dogodogo Centre Ilala Dar es Salaam

7. Amana Youth Centre Temeke Dar es Salaam

8. Mbagala Street Girls Home Ilala Dar es Salaam

9. Msimbazi Centre Temeke Dar es Salaam

10. CARITAS Dar es Salaam Ilala Dar es Salaam

11. Education Development Centre (time Ilala Dar es Salaam bound) 12. St. Alban’s Street Children Society Ilala Dar es Salaam (Tuamoyo Street Children) 13. Street Children Trust Ilala Dar es Salaam

126 | Page

S/N NAME OF NGO/CBO/FBO DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL REGION

14. Yatika Group Trust Fund Temeke Dar es Salaam

15. PHC Ambassador Foundation Hai Kilimanjaro

16. Mkombozi Centre for street Children Moshi Kilimanjaro

17. Kalali Women Group Hai Kilimanjaro

18. For Development Association (FODA) Hai Kilimanjaro

19. HAWODEA (Hai) Hai Kilimanjaro

20. HVTC – Boma Hai Kilimanjaro

21. KIWAKKUKI Hai Kilimanjaro

22. Angaza Women Group Hai Kilimanjaro

23. Neema Group Hai Kilimanjaro

24. Nronga Women Group Hai Kilimanjaro

25. Envirocare Hai Kilimanjaro

26. Nkwarungo Sanaa Troup Hai Kilimanjaro (NKWASATI) 27. SWAAT Hai Kilimanjaro

28. AMREF Hai Kilimanjaro

29. HATGA Hai Kilimanjaro

30. Kamati ya Mila na Desturi Hai Hai Kilimanjaro

31. UMATI (Hai) Hai Kilimanjaro

32. C.E.F. Consolidated Education Fund – Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro Moshi Urban 33. St. Anne School Association (SASA) Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

127 | Page

S/N NAME OF NGO/CBO/FBO DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL REGION

34. Conflict Resolution Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

35. Mkombozi Centre for Street – Children Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

36. Poverty Africa Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

37. White Orange Youth Organization Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

38. TAHEA/Mkombozi MVTC Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

39. KIMSWAKI Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

40. KINSHAI – Kilimanjaro NGO Cluster Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

41. Youth Alive Kilimanjaro Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

42. WIDA- women in Development Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro Association 43. CHAWAVUMA – Kilimanjaro Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

44. POA WIFI/USOKA Group Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

45. UMATI Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

46. RED CROSS Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

47. TRETA – Trans Regional Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro Environmental Technology 48. Kilimanjaro CRB Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

49. KTCTC – Kilimanjaro Technological Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro and Commercial Centre 50. Institute of SRS of Kilimanjaro Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

51. KIWODEA Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

52. ENVIROCARE Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

53. KIWAKKUKI Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

128 | Page

S/N NAME OF NGO/CBO/FBO DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL REGION

54. MOSHI CHAPLE Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

55. QUOHEALTH FOUNDATION Moshi Urban Kilimanjaro

56. KTA Same Kilimanjaro

57. IAC Same Kilimanjaro

58. YMCA Same Kilimanjaro

59. Same Group Media (Habari) Same Kilimanjaro

60. KUHAWA Same Kilimanjaro

61. PADET Same Kilimanjaro

62. KARAMATAC Same Kilimanjaro

63. NAFGEM Same Kilimanjaro

64. CHIFU Same Kilimanjaro

65. R.C. Women Development Same Kilimanjaro

66. KKT – Dayosis Same Same Kilimanjaro

67. KITAA Same Kilimanjaro

68. SADEA Same Kilimanjaro

69. KIFUMWA Mwanga Kilimanjaro

70. UWAMWA Mwanga Kilimanjaro

71. SPIDER Mwanga Kilimanjaro

72. MIFIPRO Mwanga Kilimanjaro

73. KIWAKKUKI – Mwanga Branch Mwanga Kilimanjaro

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S/N NAME OF NGO/CBO/FBO DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL REGION

74. TAFOPA Mwanga Kilimanjaro

75. 4H – Head, heart, hand and Health Mwanga Kilimanjaro

76. PADET Mwanga Kilimanjaro

77. MWETIF Mwanga Kilimanjaro

78. DALTA Rombo Kilimanjaro

79. Women Financial Trust Fund Rombo Kilimanjaro

80. SACCOS Rombo Kilimanjaro

81. UEPA Rombo Kilimanjaro

82. RONGOKO Rombo Kilimanjaro

83. ULCOP Rombo Kilimanjaro

84. UWAMIRO Rombo Kilimanjaro

85. CAM Rombo Kilimanjaro

86. UMARARO Rombo Kilimanjaro

87. Benk Kala Shimi Rombo Kilimanjaro

88. Envirocare Rombo Kilimanjaro

89. WIFIPOA Rombo Kilimanjaro

90. RESF Rombo Kilimanjaro

91. Poverty Africa Rombo Kilimanjaro

92. KWIECO Rombo Kilimanjaro

93. Rainbow Centre (R.C.) Rombo Kilimanjaro

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S/N NAME OF NGO/CBO/FBO DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL REGION

94. Maadili Centre Moshi rural Kilimanjaro

95. TAHEA Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

96. VEP Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

97. YCGT Moshi rural Kilimanjaro

98. WEECE Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

99. MKUKI Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

100. 4H Organization Moshi rural Kilimanjaro

101. Roots and Shoots Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

102. Red Cross – HIMO Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

103. UDEA Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

104. Kilema workshop (NGO) Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

105. TEACA Moshi Rural Kilimanjaro

106. MEDI Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

107. MSEDA Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

108. MDDF Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

109. FAWETA Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

110. WAWATA Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

111. SACCOS Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

112. CHAWATA Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

113. WABISOCO (CBO) Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

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S/N NAME OF NGO/CBO/FBO DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL REGION

114. SWAAT – Mtwara Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

115. CHIMDO Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

116. BAKWATA Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

117. TCC Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

118. Girls Guide (G.G.) Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

119. TAHEA Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

120. ADETA Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

121. MTUWETU TRUST Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

122. UPT (Unite Peasants of Tanzania) Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

123. CHAWAMU Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

124. MASHA Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

125. SWISS AID Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

126. MRENGO Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

127. SEW Mtwara/Mikindani Mtwara

128. Faraja Trust Fund Morogoro Municipal Morogoro

129. L. Ugalla Morogoro Municipal Morogoro

130. Daru-L-Arquam Primary School Morogoro Municipal Morogoro

131. Jema Trust Fund Morogoro Municipal Morogoro

132. Mihayo Morogoro Municipal Morogoro

133. Tarbiat Morogoro Municipal Morogoro

132 | Page

S/N NAME OF NGO/CBO/FBO DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL REGION

134. Kanisa Katoliki Mazimbu Morogoro Municipal Morogoro

135. Action Aid Tanzania Kigoma Rural Kigoma

136. CORD – Kasulu Kasulu Kigoma

137. CARITAS Kigoma Rural Kigoma

138. Good Samaritan Kigoma Rural Kigoma

139. MERD – Movement for Education, Relief and Kigoma Rural Kigoma Development 140. Neighbours Without Border (NWB) Kigoma Rural Kigoma

141. KULEANA Mwanza Municipal Mwanza

142. Upendo Daima Mwanza Municipal Mwanza

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