36 Global Review 5(4)

Pre-primary in : Does it Meet the Educational Needs of Newly Naturalized Refugee Children?

Laurent Gabriel Ndijuye The of Dodoma, Tanzania

Nirmala Rao University of Hong Kong

Abstract Over the past five decades Tanzania has hosted over two million refugees, about 200,000 of whom have been naturalized as Tanzania citizens. Children from this group face numerous challenges within the mainstream educational system. This paper considered education policy in Tanzania, with a specific focus on access to quality pre- for children of naturalized refugees. It analyzes relevant policy documents published from 2006 – the year before Tanzania started its latest refugee naturalization phase, to 2016. The 2014 Tanzania Education and Training Policy (ETP), the Pre-primary Curriculum, and the Pre-primary Guide give the most focus to pre-primary education. Three National Five-year Development Plans considered all levels of formal education, except the pre-primary level. Findings revealed that policy documents articulate a commitment to providing equal educational opportunities for all people, regardless of their background, acknowledge existing problems with the educational system and make sensible recommendations. These include abolishing fees in all public schools; increasing flexibility in the choice and use of languages of instruction; decentralizing of program management and accountability; and, recommendations related to curriculum issues. However, the associated working documents do not suggest specific strategic and implementation plans to meet the intended goals, nor do they prioritize increasing educational participation for naturalized refugee children.

Keywords Pre-primary education policy, naturalized refugees, Tanzania pre-primary education, refugee education

Introduction who are socially and educationally Reducing disparities in educational participation disadvantaged in terms of language, poverty, and achievement between pupils from ______Corresponding Author advantaged and less-advantaged groups has Laurent G. Ndijuye, 15 Block J, Nkuhungu West, P.O Box been a priority for many societies in recent years. 523, Dodoma, Tanzania. Hence, many countries endeavor to provide Tel: (+255) 764-800 982. unbiased, high-quality education to all (Lewin, Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] 2007; UNESCO, 2015). The inclusion of children

______Global Education Review is a publication of The of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC by 4.0), permitting all use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the license is provided, and you indicate if changes were made. Citation: Ndijuye, Laurent Gabriel, & Rao, Nirmala (2018). Preprimary education policy in Tanzania: Does it meet the educational needs of newly naturalized refugee children? Global Education Review, 5 (4), 36-54.

Preprimary education policy in Tanzania 37

ability, ethnic minority status, uncertain civil Tanzania-URT, 2014). However, compulsory status, or who have special learning disabilities covers only pre-primary been a safe-haven for freedom fighters, refugees, through to lower secondary levels. The pre- and other immigrants from both neighboring primary level covers one or two year(s) of has typically been a policy priority (Lewin, 2011; schooling enrolling children aged 4-5 years, Perry et al., 2014). Since the 1960s, Tanzania has primary level is supposedly to take six years, and far-off countries (Akaro, 2001). The well- though practically it takes seven years from known and the most dominant immigrant group grade one to seven. At early primary level - have been naturalized refugees of Burundian grades one and two, the child is equipped with origin Center for the Study of Forced Migration basic skills required for further (CSFM), 2008. education development which includes reading, One of the most important roles of writing and arithmetic. education policy is to ensure that all children Further, after primary level, children need from all backgrounds have equal access to four more years for lower secondary level – quality basic education (Britto, Yoshikawa, marking the end of compulsory basic education &Boller, 2011; UNESCO, 2007). Once in cycle. At this level, students sit for examination Tanzania, naturalized refugees and other to advanced secondary school level. Having immigrant children can obtain access to successfully completed advanced provided under the existing education education, the students join college or tertiary policy alongside children from the local majority level of education leading to the award of a [Ministry of Education and Vocational Training diploma or bachelor degree. The award of the (MoEVT), 2014]. However, information about bachelor degree enables one to join for higher the extent of access and the quality pre-primary degrees such as Master and/or doctorate education they receive is not known. Against this degrees. background, this paper analyzes pre-primary educational policy with a focus on education Tanzania Education Policy Context provision for naturalized refugee children. More Over the years, education scholars have specifically, it: established that formulating and implementing 1) explores how the educational needs of education policies based on solid empirical pupils of naturalized refugees and from evidence is a major factor in improving and other disadvantaged groups are promoting standards in education systems addressed in Tanzania’s existing (Eurydice, 2017; Pearson, 2015). Evidence-based education policy; and, education policy is more inclusive, and may lead 2) investigates how the educational needs to a better understanding of what works in which of naturalized refugee pupils are context, and thus improve educational practices addressed in existing action plans and (Dowda, Pate, Almelda & Sirard, 2004; Rao, strategic documents. 2006). Societal needs are rapidly changing due to changes in technology and immigration The Education System in Tanzania (Dowda et al., 2004; Eurydice, 2017), and the The system of education in Tanzania is complexity and multi-dimensional nature of categorized as pre-primary, primary, secondary, current educational systems (Eurydice, 2017). and higher education (United Republic of However, a caution should be noted, especially 38 Global Education Review 5(4)

when dealing with sub-Saharan Africa, where policy changes, and then consults the broker - in limited empirical evidence exists. In recent this case, the Tanzania Institute of Education years, there have been grievances raised over (TIE) which then summons such education Western methods being too often transferred to stakeholders as teachers, researchers, parents, the Global South without considering the context and school inspectors to discuss the proposed (Engle, et al., 2007; Vargas-Baron, 2015). policy. The drafted policy may be sent to the Data driven education policies are various education stakeholders, who comment considered efficient (Grundy, 1994) and have on various sections. There is no other way, been proven to be more fruitful in low-and- formal or informal, to consult stakeholders in middle-income contexts where they increase educational policy formulation in Tanzania. participation of all groups across societies (Mtahabwa, 2015; Vargas-Baron, 2015). In Global Contexts of Refugees formulating evidence-based education policy, The humanitarian problem of refugees came to there are two dominant but related routes the fore during the First World War, when the countries choose to take. Some countries have first wave of global refugees was displaced compulsory legal requirements to conduct (Ongpin, 2008). Refugees can be categorized impact assessment and they invite educational into two groups – internally displaced persons stakeholders in the process of planning, piloting, (IDP) and cross-border refugees. Worldwide, implementation, and evaluation of any new there are currently an estimated 14.7 million policy or major shift in the policy direction IDP, sometimes referred to as domestic refugees (Eurydice, 2017; Grundy, 1994). Other countries (Alix-Garcia, & Saah, 2009). Cross-border do not have such legal requirements, and opt for refugees are those who move from their internal and external knowledge brokers respective home countries to seek asylum in (experts) to interpret empirical evidence and neighboring countries. It is estimated that, by mediate between empirical evidence providers 2010, there were about 43.7 million forcibly and policy-makers (Eurydice, 2017). Tanzania displaced refugees globally, about half of whom follows the second route. However good it may were in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East seem, using empirical evidence to develop pre- (UNHCR, 2014; 2016). primary educational policies in most sub- Countries have coped with the problem of Saharan developing countries such as Tanzania, educating refugee children by making decisions is a laborious and resource-intensive task, thus that reflect three different types of refugee civil almost non-existent (Mtahabwa, 2010). status: (i) voluntarily repatriated; (ii) resettled in In Tanzania, education policy is typically the third country; and (iii) locally naturalized or formulated by the Ministry of Education, integrated (Akaro, 2001; Warner, 1994). Science, and Technology (MEST), ideally in Voluntary repatriation is done when stability in collaboration with different education the refugees’ home country has been restored; stakeholders, although there is no legal resettlement in a third country normally involves requirement to involve them. Generally, the moving from refugee camps, usually in the third MEST, through its Department of Policy and world, to a more developed country, where Planning uses its own team of policy experts to refugees are often offered full citizenship (Crisp, formulate education policies for various levels of 2004; Ongpin, 2008). education (URT, 2017). The team proposes Preprimary education policy in Tanzania 39

Local integration or naturalization is a 240,000, while the self-settled population had process whereby a refugee is legally offered grown from about 55,000 to 90,000 (UNHCR, citizenship in his or her asylum country (Akarro, 2014), some 72 percent of whom were born in 2001). Ideally, a naturalized refugee is expected Tanzania (MoH, 2014). A distinctive feature of to enjoy almost all the civil rights and privileges the self-settled refugees was that they did not accorded to citizens of that country (Crisp, receive any kind of assistance from the UNHCR, 2004). There are legal and social processes a apart from meeting their educational needs. This refugee must undergo for naturalization. Most was financed through the government of governments use education as a tool to integrate Tanzania (Ongpin, 2008, UNHCR, 2014). The naturalized refugees fully into their new society second wave of refugees (or second case-load) (Center for the Study of Forced Migration came to Tanzania throughout the last decade of (CSFM), 2008). Tanzania coped with the the 20th century, and was settled in camps in problem of refugees by adopting naturalization, north-western Tanzania (UNHCR, 2014). resettlement in third countries, and repatriation. However, some illegally moved from those In this paper, the focus is on naturalized refugee camps to urban areas across Tanzania refugees who were locally integrated/naturalized and beyond (Chaulia, 2003; CSFM, 2008). into Tanzanian society. By 2008, peace and stability had been officially restored in almost all neighboring The Contexts and Civil Status of Refugees countries that had experienced socio-political in Tanzania upheaval, and the second case-load was For the past fifty years, Tanzania has been a safe repatriated, or resettled in a third country haven for and home to almost two million (CSFM, 2008). The government of Tanzania and refugees who fled their countries for political or international donor agencies had to seriously economic reasons, or because of civil war consider long-term solutions for the first case- [Tanzania Ministry of Home Affairs (MoH), load of refugees still in settlement areas, as well 2014; UNHCR, 2013]. Most come from such as the self-settled refugees. This group was neighboring countries as Burundi, the considered distinct, due to both the length of Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire), time they had been in exile in Tanzania (more Rwanda, and Somalia, as shown in Table 1. The than half were born in Tanzania), and their first wave of refugees, commonly known as the economic benefit to the country (Kuch, 2016; first case-load, came to Tanzania in 1972 (CSFM) Ongpin, 2008). 2008; UNHCR, 2010). This group was initially In 2007, Tanzania announced its settled in different parts of the Kigoma region, readiness to naturalize those who wanted to stay especially in border villages along Kigoma and (CSFM, 2008). However, the 1972 self-settled Kasulu towns. About two-thirds of them were refugees were not included in this program until later moved to Ulyankulu, Mishamo, and 2010, when the government sorted out their civil Katumba settlement areas in the Tabora and status by naturalizing them (Chaulia, 2003; Katavi regions, while the rest remained in MoH, 2014; UNHCR, 2012). This study focuses villages among the local majority, as “self-settled on how the current educational policy in refugees” (CSFM, 2008) Tanzania addresses the educational needs of By 2010, the first case-load refugee children from the first case-load self-settled population had risen from 150,000 to about naturalized refugees. 40 Global Education Review 5(4)

Table 1 Population and location of settled naturalized and camped refugees Natives Refugee population Region District Camp/Settlement Nationality Population In regions with refugees Kigoma Nyarugusu Camp Congolese 63,728 Kasulu Nyarugusu Camp Burundian 4,153 Nyarugusu Camp Mixed Nationality 212

Spontaneously settled in villages Burundian 90,227 2,127,930 Tabora Urambo Ulyankulu Burundians 77,239 2,291,623 Tanga Handeni Chogo Somalis 2,117 2,045,205 Katumba Burundian 88,733 Katavi Mpanda Mishamo Burundian 77,791 564,604 Total population 404,200 7,029,362 Source: Tanzania Ministry of Home Affairs (2014); NBS, (2012)

The Policy and Practice Dialect of appropriate (Kagan, 2006). Naturalized refugee Educating Naturalized Refugees in children, like their local majority peers, differ in Tanzania terms of strengths, personalities, preferences, The primary objective of Tanzania’s 2014 ETP and approaches to learning, as well as in their was to ensure that children from different pace across various domains of development. As backgrounds have access to appropriate Tanzania is a signatory to such international educational services (URT, 2014). It directed treaties and commitments as CRC and EFA, its state action by providing overarching guidelines existing education policy and even its “next that set and shape the education system. door” strategic documents are likely to be According to the ETP, pre-primary education is positively influenced by such global initiatives. intended to provide children with learning In Tanzania, the policy of educating experiences that will best promote their naturalized refugees began to take its current development, learning, and readiness for form in 2000, when the UNHCR released CRC primary school (NAEYC, 2009; URT, 2014). In guidelines regarding the provision of education the context of the current study, quality pre- to children of refugee backgrounds (UNHCR, primary education refers to both structural and 2000). The creation of more educational process domains of quality services which reflect opportunities for naturalized refugee children and relevant to socio-cultural needs of children was based on the claim that children fleeing their in low-income country (Britto, Yoshikawa & home country are typically traumatized, and the Boller, 2011; Matafwali & Nunsaka, 2011). routine of schooling is critical for their long-term Practically, it is crucial that education policy psycho-social health and life normalization consider what is individually and culturally (Retamal, Devadoss & Richmond, 1998). The Preprimary education policy in Tanzania 41

CRC emphasizes all children must have equal Method access to high-quality education, regardless of Criteria for Documents Selection their backgrounds, , or their parents’ Pre-primary education in Tanzania was accepted socioeconomic status (SES) (United Nations, and adopted as part of the formal education 1989). To contextualize and implement the CRC, system in 2015 (URT, 2014). As such, there are a Tanzania enacted the Act Number 21 of 2009 limited number of documents related to pre- popularly known as Law of the Child Act, which primary education as a sub-sector, or to emphasized increasing access to education for all naturalized refugees as a social group. Thus, to social groups (URT, 2009), including naturalized obtain rich and valid data for this study, refugee children. government-issued documents released by However, by 2010, almost 300,000 Tanzania government for official or academic children aged between five and eight years were use that addressed education or issues related to not in schools in Tanzania, and almost 70 education were selected and explored for percent of those were either from a refugee information related to pre-primary education background or were IDPs (MoEVT, 2012). policy. The documents selected included the According to the National Bureau of Statistics 2014 Tanzania Education and Training Policy (2012), the total population of pre-primary-aged (ETP), the Pre-primary curriculum, the Guide children (five- to six-year-olds) in Kigoma (a for Pre-primary schools, the Tanzania Long- Tanzanian region with the highest number of Term Perspective Plan (LTPP) 2011/12 to self-settled naturalized refugees) was 176,183, 2024/25, and three Tanzania Five-Year about 35 percent of whom were enrolled in Development Plans (T5YDP) (2006/7-2010/11; various pre-primary schools. In the same year, 2011/12-2015/16; and 2016/17-2020/21) (TIE, the population of pre-primary-aged naturalized 2014; URT, 2006, 2011, 2006). refugee pupils in Kasulu and Buhigwe- two districts with the highest number of self-settled, Methods of Analyses newly-naturalized refugees in the region was To understand changes in educational policy, about 40,000. However, only 18 percent of them and to identify major trends and issues in pre- received pre-primary education (MoEVT, 2014). primary education (Ezzy, 2002; Patton, 2009), Against this background, the current study seeks the 2014 ETP was descriptively analyzed, and to answer the following research questions: selected words in strategic and working 1) How is information about the documents were counted to indicate their educational needs of pupils from importance. A descriptive policy analysis process naturalized refugees and other describes the development process of policy disadvantaged groups addressed in under scrutiny (Patton, 2009) hence Tanzania’s existing education policy? identification of the existing flaws.By using 2) How are the educational needs of multiple sources (policy and action plan naturalized refugee pupils addressed in documents) and two different data analysis existing action plans and strategic approaches (descriptive and word count), documents? researchers can clearly understand the policy context and implementation atmosphere, thus 42 Global Education Review 5(4)

enhancing the quality of their findings deep understanding of the contexts (Onwuegbuzie, Leech & Collins, 2012). (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2012; Patton, 2009) in As noted earlier, in most sub-Saharan which immigrants and disadvantaged groups countries, there are various forces that access education in Tanzania. The words necessitate the formulation of or changes to selected for counting were: ethnic minority, educational policy (Mtahabwa, 2010; Vargas- disadvantaged group, naturalized refugees, Baron, 2015). However, such changes do not inclusion/inclusive education, integration (in necessarily reflect grassroots’ educational needs education or society), equality, and equity. The (Mtahabwa, 2010). As such, descriptive text number of times each word was mentioned in analysis of policy documents was chosen as the each document was counted and noted. As such, most appropriate method of analysis, for it the selected method was appropriate to answer allows researchers to discern the meaning of the the research questions of this study. text, discover the larger picture under which the policy was formulated, and capture its larger Results hidden meaning (Patton, 2009). This enables This section first offers a critical descriptive researchers to deconstruct policy texts, to analysis of the 2014 ETP document, and then a understand the meaning and significance of more quantitative analysis of the what was being communicated through the implementations and action plans documents. document (Grundy, 1994). Specific focus was on language used and context interpretation, to Analysis of 2014 Education and Training understand the social and educational issues Policy (Onwuegbuzie, Leech & Collins, 2012) of Following the implementation of structural naturalized refugees and other minority groups adjustment programs, from the mid-1980s to the in Tanzania. early 2000s, Tanzania pursued a liberalization The word-count method is useful in that it policy, in which education was offered on a cost- unobtrusively allows researchers to explore, in a sharing basis. Pupils’ parents had to pay school non-reactive way, how action plans and other fees and make “other” contributions, such as strategic documents consider and prioritize the laboratory costs, and school uniforms; while the educational needs of minority disadvantaged government employed the teachers, and paid groups (Hsieh-Fang & Shannon, 2005). The capitation grants to cover schools’ administrative extent to which an issue is articulated in policy and recurrent costs. The 2014 ETP abolished and associated documents indicates how payment of school fees and “other contributions” educational policy weighs that issue (Grundy, in public schools (Policy statement 3.1.5) to 1994). Themes were left to unfold and develop ensure pupils from poor households and other naturally from the data (Ezzy, 2002). The marginal groups can more readily access criteria for selection of the counted words were education. those related to: (i) inclusive educational The Policy also established compulsory practices for immigrants, ethnic minority free basic education, by replacing the former groups, and/or the marginally disadvantaged; education cycle. This included two years of pre- (ii) pre-primary education, or (iii) immigrant or primary, seven of primary; four of lower civil status. These criteria allowed flexibility and Preprimary education policy in Tanzania 43

secondary, two of senior secondary, and three settled naturalized refugees would benefit plus years of . On the other tremendously from this policy. However, no hand, the new education cycle had one (or two) provision was made for children below four year(s) of pre-primary, 10 years of primary and years of age, whose educational and lower secondary, two years of senior secondary, developmental needs were left to families and and three plus years of tertiary education (Policy communities. statement 3.1.2-4). By establishing compulsory The new ETP ended several-decades’ free basic education that ranges from pre- debate on whether to use English or Kiswahili as primary, through primary, to lower secondary, a medium of instruction. The policy clearly all pupils from marginalized and disadvantaged articulated the flexible use of Kiswahili as a backgrounds are likely to have access to medium of instruction in all public pre-primary educational skills, knowledge, and attitudes that and primary schools, which should also may enable them to break the vicious, inter- “properly” teach English as a subject (Policy generational cycle of poverty. statements 3.2.19-20). For over a century, However, it should be noted that, though Kiswahili has been used as a tool to unite the policy document seemed to focus on Tanzanians, and is considered a key reason why increasing access to educational participation, it Tanzania is peaceful, stable, and enjoying did not adequately emphasize education quality. unprecedented economic and social progress. As noted earlier, increasing the number of Flexibility in the choice of the educational children who attend schools does not guarantee medium of instruction is likely to increase their learning (Uwezo, 2014).Indeed, education multicultural understanding and inclusion. quality is of critical importance, especially at the The policy directed that there would be pre-primary level, as the higher a program’s special language programs for pupils from quality, the more enduring its impact (Aboud, minority groups who lag behind in mastering 2006; Britto, et al., 2011). To ensure fairness and Kiswahili, the language of instruction, to ensure sustainability, existing educational policy should naturalized refugee pupils not only go to school, focus on equitable access to high-quality pre- but also learn. Also, mastery of Kiswahili would primary education for children from diverse help them more easily blend and integrate into backgrounds (Li, Wong, & Wang, 2010). the larger Tanzanian society and culture. Before the new policy (Policy statement The policy also established a clear 3.1.2) was enacted, pre-primary education in division of power and responsibilities between Tanzania was neither compulsory nor part of the the Ministry of Education, the President’s Office, formal education system (MoEVT, 2014). regional administrations and local governments Afterward, every primary school in the country (formerly under the Prime Minister’s Office), had to establish a pre-primary class for children and regional, district, and local education above five years of age. As it was both free and a authorities (Policy Statement 3.5.1-3.5.3; section recognized part of formal education, it was likely 5.2). By decentralizing educational management more children would access pre-primary and administration, the voices of marginal and education services. Given the advantages of minority disadvantaged groups could be better investing in pre-primary education, especially identified and heard. The devolution process for pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds, self- also increased local control over educational 44 Global Education Review 5(4)

resources, meaning naturalized refugees were implementation and day-to-day education more likely to access quality education. management, monitoring, and delivery are the As naturalized refugees come mainly responsibility of local government authorities. In from war-torn countries, the new ETP is such a context, selected cross-sectoral contextually appropriate, in that it introduces documents were analyzed by counting selected peace management and conflict resolution words to understand and interpret policy studies into the curriculum (Policy statement implementation settings (Onwuegbuzie, Leech & 3.7.1). Given the traumatic mental and physical Collins, 2012). As figure 1 shows, the number of experiences of many naturalized refugee pupils, times a word or phrase appeared in a specific this approach should help them mend the deficit, document was counted to determine its place and ease their integration into Tanzanian and significance, in the context of pre-primary society. education in Tanzania. However, the implementation of an In 2015, the Tanzania Pre-primary ambitious policy that aimed to overhaul the Curriculum was developed in response to a entire education system would undoubtedly face dramatic decline in academic and non-academic some challenges. For example, the policy skills in preceding years. The curriculum focuses stipulated that the Ministry of Education was on the three R’s (Reading, Writing and responsible for formulating education policy, Arithmetic), and presents a sequence of and for teacher training, while the Ministry for instructions, experiences, and goals based on the Regional Administration and local governments 2014 ETP. In the document, equity was were responsible for employing, monitoring, and mentioned 3 times, disadvantaged groups, managing teachers. Such a division of power and equality, and inclusion were each mentioned 2 duties between two unrelated ministries could times, and ethnic minority, naturalized pose unnecessary bureaucratic challenges that refugees, and integration were not mentioned at might make teachers’ administrative and all. management issues everybody’s business, and The 2015 Guide for Pre-primary Schools is hence nobody’s duty. Further, while the a government circular that sets standards for decentralization process may increase access to establishing pre-primary education in Tanzania. quality education by tailoring educational policy Developed to reflect new ETP directives, the to local population needs, it poses a serious risk Guide requires all public and private pre- to how efficiently that policy is implemented. primary schools to meet a set standard of This is because in Tanzania, decentralization has quality. In this document, ethnic minority, long been linked to corruption and lower disadvantaged group, and inclusion were each efficiency due to lower local institutional mentioned 3 times, equity and equality each capacity, while central institutions have proven were mentioned 5 times, and naturalized to be more efficient. refugees and integration were never mentioned at all. Analysis of Strategic Working Documents The Tanzania Long-Term Perspective Plan and Action Plans (2011-2026) is a strategic directional roadmap In Tanzania, education policy is formulated by for Tanzania’s drive to become a middle-income the Ministry of Education, while policy country. The 15-year plan provides a link Preprimary education policy in Tanzania 45

between the Tanzania’s 2015 Long-term inclusion 12 times. Naturalized refugees and Development Vision and its short-term strategic integration were not mentioned. and implementation Five-year Development The second Five-year Development Plan, Plans. The document seems less focused on pre- which spanned 2011/12-2015/16, aimed primary education in general, or on minority primarily at stimulating and boosting economic disadvantaged groups. In the section on human growth from its current rate of 7 percent, to 10 capital development and social services, under percent. It focused on the development of which the education sector is categorized, ethnic different economic and service sectors, such as minorities were mentioned 2 times, while Infrastructure, Industry, Human Development, naturalized refugees and integration were not and Social Services. To achieve its goals, access mentioned. Disadvantaged group, equality, and to high-quality education was identified as a key inclusion were each mentioned 2 times, and strategic sector in both the Human Capital equity 3 times. Development and Social Services domains, to The Five-year Development Plan is a facilitate the projected socio-economic growth. governmental implementation plan that reflects In the education section of the document, ethnic the country’s development agenda, considering minority was mentioned 5 times, and overall development goals, policy objectives, disadvantaged group 7, both referring to sectoral initiatives, Long-Term Perspective Plan hunter-gatherer societies in north-eastern benchmarks (2011/12-2025/26), and key Tanzania. Equality was mentioned 10 times, findings of the Review of Vision 2025 (United equity 12 times, and inclusion 15 times. Republic of Tanzania (URT) 2012). In this study, Naturalized refugees and integration were not three consecutive Five-year Development Plan mentioned at all. documents, spanning financial years 2006/7- The third Five-year Development Plan 2010/11; 2011/12-2015/16 and 2016/17- (2016/17-2020/21) was launched in January 2020/21, were analyzed. 2016, and was intended to end Tanzania’s status The 2006/7-2010/11 Five-year as a lower-income country, and have it Development Plan was the new government’s designated as a middle-income country. As in blueprint for massive expansion of Tanzania’s the first Five-year Development Plan, access to macro-economy, and of educational high-quality education is regarded as very opportunities in the country. Its overall mission important for moving Tanzania toward being was to improve living standards through designated a middle-income economy by 2025. increased participation in the economy and in In the education section of this document, ethnic education. To that end, decentralization of minority and disadvantaged group are education was set as a key strategic goal. In this mentioned 14 times each. However, both sets document, ethnic minority was mentioned 4 refer to hunter-gatherer societies found in north- times, and disadvantaged group 5 times, with eastern parts of Tanzania. Equality is mentioned both sets of instances referring to hunter- 18 times, equity is mentioned 23 times, and gatherer societies. Equality was mentioned 7 inclusion 27 times. Naturalized refugees and times, equity was mentioned 10 times and integration are never mentioned.

46 Global Education Review 5(4)

Figure 1. Frequency of counted words in the selected documents

30

25

20 Ethnic minority 15 Disadvantaged group 10 Naturalized refugees 5 Inclusion

0 Integration Equality

Equity

PPC-2009

GPPS-2005

T5YPD-2006-11 T5YPD-2011-16 T5YPD-2016-21 PANEL A PANEL B

Abbreviations and number of pages PPC-Pre-primary curriculum (54 pages) GPPS-Guide to pre-primary schools (73 pages) T5YPD2006-11-Tanzania’s five-year development plan from 2006-2011 (182 pages) T5YPD2011-16-Tanzania’s five-year development plan from 2011-2016 (178 pages) T5YPD2016-21-Tanzania’s five-year development plan from 2016-2021 (190 pages)

Discussion serious about a certain sector is the extent to This paper reviewed the extent to which existing which that government articulates and handles education policy considers and prioritizes the matters related to that sector’s policies (Garcia, needs of naturalized refugee pupils as a distinct Pence & Evans, 2008). minority disadvantaged group, and how existing One of the indicators of government action plans systematize the educational needs seriousness and commitments in addressing of self-settled, newly-naturalized Tanzanian needs of a social group is having clear preschoolers. implementation plans to handle and solve the Although the ETP documents appear to underlying problems facing that group signal the need to overhaul the existing (Mtahabwa, 2010; Pianta, 2004). The gap education system to serve the needs of all between education, policy directives, and clear Tanzanians, the current analyses suggest workable strategies in implementation implementation documents (PPC, GPPS, documents suggests that pre-primary education T5YDP’s and LTPP) so far only seem to is underrated as a level of education in general, minimally include the educational needs of as are the educational needs of naturalized newly-naturalized immigrant Tanzanians and refugee children in Tanzania. More important, it other disadvantaged minority groups. Indeed, indicates that the educational needs of children one of the indicators that a government is from these groups occupy a low position in the Preprimary education policy in Tanzania 47

government’s priorities, and there is limited including pre-primary, are in short supply in commitment to ensuring these children can Tanzania (MoEVT, 2014), and those few equally access high-quality early years’ education available are not of a high-quality (Qorro, 2013). (Mtahabwa, 2009). The fragmentation starts By establishing free basic education, the with how education policy itself is made. As current ETP document seems to affirm noted earlier, education policy in Tanzania is promotion of access to education for all, centrally initiated by policy experts at the including disadvantaged peripheral social and Ministry of Education, who are not legally cultural groups. This is a good move, given the required to base their recommendations neither diversity within Tanzanian society. However, in on evidence, nor to consult with other the working documents, mentions of minority stakeholders in the policy-making process. disadvantaged groups generally refer to The new ETP clearly addresses the needs traditional hunter-gatherer societies in north- of disadvantaged minority groups in accessing eastern Tanzania. Given that these hunter- pre-primary education. For instance, it gatherer societies are not the only disadvantaged mandates the use of Kiswahili as a medium of minorities in Tanzania, the best approach for instruction, but also requires that schools teach working document to take is to be as inclusive as English “properly” in pre-primary and primary possible, so that huge numbers of naturalized schools, across the country. As with other rural refugees are not locked out of Tanzanian society. groups, newly-naturalized rural Tanzanian By mandating compulsory introduction of pupils speak their mother tongue at home which pre-primary classes at all primary schools, the likely is neither Kiswahili nor English. Various ETP and other supporting documents analyzed studies have established that optimal learning seem to uphold the long-held belief among occurs when pupils are taught in their mother education scholars in Tanzania that pre-primary tongue, or in a language they master as a education is a downward extension of primary medium of instruction (Brock-utne& Desai, education (Mbise, 1996; Mtahabwa, 2007; 2005; Roberts, Jurgens, & Burchinal, 2005). 2010). However, given the current gross Choice of language of instruction affects enrolment rates at the pre-primary and primary not only access to, but also quality of pre- levels, the move will likely increase the number primary services provided to naturalized of children accessing pre-primary education, and refugees in Tanzania. In the last five years, boost enrolment at that level. In the past seven Kasulu and Buhigwe districts, which host most years, gross enrolment at the pre-primary level of Tanzania’s naturalized refugees, have been has been stagnant and very low (about 30 ranked among the lowest achieving districts, in percent), compared to that at the primary level terms of literacy and tests for early (almost 90 percent). graders (RTI international, 2014, Uwezo, 2014). The Pre-primary Curriculum and the Pre- As such, the new ETP mandates special language primary Guide seem deliberately to avoid the programs for pupils from minority groups, who words ethnic minority, naturalized refugees, lag behind in mastering Kiswahili. It is highly and integration; instead, they emphasize issues likely this will help create equal ground for related to equity in general. Official circulars newly-naturalized Tanzanian and local majority include language that suggests fairness in access pre-primary pupils to enter their Grade 1 to education, especially by marginal and classroom on an equal footing. However, disadvantaged groups. Some curriculum language teachers at all levels of education, activities, such as kuonyesha mwenendo sahihi 48 Global Education Review 5(4)

wa mwanamichezo (fair game and athletics Increasing the educational access and inclusion ethics and values), directly target such equity of marginalized immigrant and disadvantaged issues as unity, peace, harmony, and anti-racism, groups is considered a critical component of which are important aspects of building an sustainable development (Alix-Garcia & Saah, inclusive and just society. 2009; CSFM, 2007; Li, Wong & Wang, 2010). The new ETP does not attach any Though the closely-related strategic and importance to formalizing Early Childhood working documents (T5YDP, LTPP) might seem Education for children below four years of age. to mention and seriously consider issues related The first five years of a child’s life are critical to to equality, equity, and inclusion in mainstream cognitive and socio-emotional development, education, it is not clear whether they include which ultimately influence pedagogical practices such minority disadvantaged groups as (Black, et al, 2016). Further, there are huge naturalized refugees, or if they are more focused socio-economic returns associated with investing on bridging gender differences and the rural- in ECE (Heckman, 2010; UNESCO, 2007), urban divide. Among scholars in the areas of particularly among children from immigrants education and social justice, it is an established and disadvantaged backgrounds (Han, Lee & fact that efforts to increase economic growth and Wadfogel, 2012; Tobin, 2017). Ignoring pre- participation should deliberately focus on society primary education for this age group, especially in its totality, with a specific focus on individual for children from refugee backgrounds, is marginal and minority groups, particularly in probably the biggest shortcoming of the 2014 terms of early childhood nutrition, maternal ETP. health, and equitable access to Tanzania’s 2011-25 Long-term provision of good quality (Britto, et al., 2016; Development Plan has ignored, or avoided, Castelli, Ragazzi, & Crescentini, 2012; Engle, et mentioning inclusion of minority disadvantaged al., 2007; UNESCO, 2010). The support required groups in education as the solid foundation by, and the needs of a naturalized minority rural upon which sustainable development stands. In refugee pre-primary-aged girl, for example, this document, Tanzania is envisioned to be a might be different from those of a rural majority middle-income country by 2025, and education non-refugee age-mate of either gender. is said to be one of the most important tools for However, the analyzed documents seem to realizing this vision. The document lists other avoid - or technically ignore - mentioning the levels of education, such as primary and higher words “integration’’ and ‘‘naturalized refugees” education, but notably excludes pre-primary. This might not be by chance. It is worth noting As of 2012, about one-third of households that, though most naturalized refugees received in Tanzania lived below the basic need’s poverty verbal notice of their naturalization in 2007, line, earning less than one US dollar a day (NBS, their relocation (the second stage in the process 2012). Given the economic advantages of naturalization) was put on hold and, as of associated with investing in pre-primary 2015, they had not legally been naturalized education, (see Heckman, 2011; Shonkoff & (UNHCR, 2016, US Department of State, Phillips, 2000; UNESCO, 2007) it is imperative 2014).This places them in a legal limbo as, in the to have an inclusive pre-primary education process of naturalization, they had renounced policy, supported by clear and workable action their previous citizenship, meaning they legally plans as a strategy to alleviate poverty and bring belong to neither Tanzania nor their former about sustainable socio-economic development. homeland. However, because they received Preprimary education policy in Tanzania 49

verbal notification of their naturalization, they the development of strategic plans and working are no longer considered refugees, but do not yet documents that can be translated into effective enjoy civil rights, such as access to compulsory educational delivery and good practices. Pre- free high-quality pre-primary education, as primary education, as a sub-sector of formal legally naturalized education, is new in Tanzania. As such, there are Observations of counted words indicated a limited number of documents addressing it. that educational documents (pre-primary The documents analyzed were of different times curriculum and Guide to pre-primary schools) and lengths. This increased coverage in terms of rarely mentioned equity, equality and inclusion. time span and allowed observation of inter- The 2 documents never mentioned naturalized ministerial and inter-sectoral strategies to refugees nor disadvantaged group. The key include naturalized refugees and other strategic working documents (the three 5-year minorities in accessing quality education in development plans) seem to progressively Tanzania. Close observation of existing working increase mentioning almost all the accounted and implementation documents indicate that it words over the years. This suggests that there is is unlikely that all in Tanzania will be able to neither coherence nor consistency between access high-quality pre-primary education for at educational and key strategic documents. This least a few more years. To realize the gains may be attributed to limitations associated with associated with investing in pre-primary comparing documents of different lengths and education, education policy directives should be time. However, difference in documents’ length translated into action by more equitable and and time did not pose a threat to this study inclusive strategic action plans, and working because the selected documents were meant to documents. guide and record the Tanzania government The analyses conducted herein do not educational routines and practices. wholly and comprehensively present the socio- By not mentioning, or even acknowledging cultural and educational context of Tanzania. the existence of naturalized refugees, the Instead, they provide insight into the policy government may be implying that naturalized concerns facing Tanzania as it attempts to serve refugees are not considered to be a minority or the educational needs of naturalized refugees disadvantaged group in need of protection and and other minority groups. From the specific treatment. If so, this suggests the observations made, it appears Tanzania needs a government is not willing to take necessary steps separate, comprehensive, integrated Early to proactively shoulder their burden of equal and Childhood Education and Care policy that quality access to education for all children in considers health, education, and social welfare Tanzania. needs of all socio-economic and cultural groups. This necessitates empirical study to ascertain Limitations and Conclusion learning experiences and outcomes for newly- The presence of good educational policy and naturalized Tanzanian pupils in the mainstream supporting strategic documents does not Tanzania education system, so that it might guarantee good practices. That said, this study respect and represent both majority and only focused the mentioned documents, and not minority rights. what is happening at the school level. However, it is important to note that an integrated and comprehensive educational policy is critical to 50 Global Education Review 5(4)

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implementation of 2014 Education and critique of liberal mathematics. Journal of Training Policy. Retrieved from Refugee Studies, 7(2-3), 160–174. http://www.moe.go.tz/index.php/sw/doc. pdf About the Author(s) United States Department of State, Bureau of Dr. Laurent Gabriel Ndijuye is an assistant Population, Refugees and Migration professor in the School of Psychology and (2014). Field Evaluation of Local – The University of Dodoma, Integration of Former Burundian Refugees Tanzania. Dr. Ndijuye’s areas of research in Tanzania: Field Visit Report. Evaluating interests include Early Childhood Education, the effectiveness of humanitarian early literacy and language acquisition, early engagement and programming in numeracy acquisition skills, social justice and promoting local integration of refugees in equity in education, refugee education and Zambia, Tanzania and Cameroon. (IDIQ development, and immigrant and minority Task order No.SAWMMA13F2592). education. Retrieved from: http://www.state.gov/documents/organiz Professor Nirmala Rao is Serena H.C. Yang ation/235056.pdf Professor in Early Childhood Development and Uwezo. (2014). Are our Children Learning? Education, Developmental and Chartered Literacy and Numeracy in Tanzania: (Educational) Psychologist, Faculty of Annual Learning Assessment Report. Dar Education, The University of Hong Kong. es Salaam: Twaweza East Africa. Professor Rao’s Areas of Expertise include Early Vargas-Baron, E. (2015). Policy planning for Childhood Development and Education; Child early childhood care and education: 2000- Development and Educational Policy; 2014. Prospect, 16, 15–38. Developmental and ; Warner, D. (1994). Voluntary repatriation and Culture and Pedagogy. the meaning of returning to home: A