Journal of International and Leadership Volume 3 Issue 3 Fall 2013 http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252

Literacy for All: A Neglected “EFA” Goal?1

Hiroshi Ito Nagoya University of Commerce and Business

This paper attempts to address reasons that for All and thus Education for All (EFA) may be such difficult goals to achieve and explores strategies to address them by examining the action plans submitted by 28 countries to UNESCO in preparation for the High-Level International Round Table on Literacy that took place as a closing event for the UN Literacy Decade at the UNESCO Headquarters in September 2012. This paper first reviews progress in adult literacy, along with other EFA goals, since the 2000 Dakar Forum and then analyzes challenges and strategies toward the attainment of universal adult literacy in the context of EFA. The paper is concluded with a discussion toward solutions.

Keywords: adult literacy, literacy for all, education for all, UNESCO

1 Universal adult literacy, unlike universal , is not an EFA goal. EFA Goal 4 related to adult literacy (everyone aged 15and over) aims at achieving a 50% reduction in adult illiteracy rates by 2015, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults. Literacy for All Ito

1. Introduction without reaching full achievement, the progress in adult literacy has slowed (UNESCO, 2011). 1.1 Introduction of the Problem Failure to improve adult literacy by halving adult illiterate rates by 2015 (Goal 4) has EFA is a global movement aimed at severely impacted EFA. Given that literacy “is a providing quality for all children, basic learning need and a key learning tool youth, and adults. The movement was launched integral to achieving all the EFA goals” (Lind, during the World Conference on EFA in Jomtien, 2008: 59) and “literacy for all lies at the heart of Thailand in 1990. In order to scale up efforts EFA” (UNESCO, 2009: 4), EFA can never truly toward the achievement of EFA, the six EFA be quality education for all, despite its nominal goals were adopted at the World Education implication without tackling the problem of Forum in Dakar, in 2000: 1) Expanding adult literacy. and improving comprehensive early childhood This paper first reviews the progress on the care and education; 2) Ensuring that by 2015 all adult literacy since the 2000 Dakar Forum. It children have access to and complete free and analyzes challenges facing the realization of compulsory primary education of good quality; adult literacy benchmarks and strategies to 3) Ensuring that the learning needs of all young address these challenges based on the action people and adults are met through appropriate plans submitted by 28 countries to UNESCO in learning and life skills programs; 4) Achieving a preparation for the High-Level International 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy (i.e., Round Table on Literacy “Reaching the 2015 a 50% reduction in adult illiteracy rates) by 2015 Literacy Target: Delivering on the Promise” that and equitable access to basic and continuing took place at the UNESCO Headquarters on 6 education for all adults; 5) Eliminating and 7 September 2012 and attracted over 200 disparities in primary and participants from 41 countries, including 14 by 2005 and achieving in Ministers. This conference was a closing event education by 2015; and 6) Improving every for the Literacy Decade aspect of the quality of education (UNESCO, proclaimed by the UN General Assembly and 2000). officially launched in 2003. This paper Upon closer examination of the statistical concludes with a discussion toward solutions numbers related to the EFA goals with specific deadline targets (i.e., universal primary 2. Progress in adult literacy since 2000 education, gender equality, and adult literacy), net enrolment (Goal 2) and gender parity (Goal Literacy is an essential skill toward better 5) have made considerable progress since 2000. academic performance and/or socioeconomic The net enrolment rate (NER: the number of success. Literacy is a source of empowerment, children of the -aged population enrolled equity, and opportunity to participate in civil at school as a percentage of the total number of activities globally and locally, as Freire (1970) school-aged children) improved from 83.8% in describes: reading the word is reading the world. 2000 to 89% in 2010 and the gender parity index Literacy is also a social entitlement, a (GPI: the ratio of girls to boys in school) at the determinant of well-being, and a goal of human primary level improved from 0.94 in 2000 to development (Maddox, 2008; Nussbaum, 2006; 0.98 in 2010 (UNESCO, 2003; UNESCO, 2012). Sen, 1999). While the other goals have made progress, albeit Despite its importance, promoting adult Literacy for All Ito literacy has been a difficult task. Although the While more and more younger generations have adult literacy rate (ALR) improved by 4.4％ become literate, the majority of adult illiterates from 79.9％ to 84.1% between 2000 and 2010 at the time of the Dakar Forum may still remain (UNESCO, 2003; UNESCO, 2011), these illiterate. Other than implementing sporadic numbers may be deceiving in reality as they do adult literacy programs or campaigns (Oxenham, not necessarily refer to adults becoming more 2008), EFA stakeholders tend to rely exclusively literate but may refer instead to young literates on formal primary education for literacy joining the adult pool. Given that the number of improvement by sending “future adults” to years of schooling an individual has had is often school (Ahmed, 2011). This suggests that the the method for measuring literacy, it is estimated second part of EFA Goal 4―equitable access to that a large part of the ALR increase derives basic and continuing education for adults―lags from youth literacy (15-24 years old) behind achievement. Why is it so difficult to improvement; that is those who were previously make adult illiterates become literate? The next under 15 years old and who went to school and section will review issues that may hinder the acquired literacy skills are now over 15 and improvement of adult literacy. count as adult literates. According to my calculation based on the 3. Literature Review World Population Prospects (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs This section reviews literature discussing Population Division, 2011), there were impediments to achieving adult literacy, approximately 4.281 billion adults (aged 15 or including a lack of commitment at the policy over) in 2000 and 5.11 billion adults in 2010. and the application level; scarce financial This indicates that the adult population increased resources; failure to reach marginalized by 0.829 billion between 2000 and 2010. Since illiterates; too many language choices; the adult literacy rate was 79.7% in 2000 and population growth; the absence of coherent 84.1% in 2010, the number of adult literates was language policies and planning, and estimated to be 3.411 billion in 2000 and 4.292 coordination and partnership mechanisms; billion in 2010, which indicates that the number challenging process of monitoring and of adult literates increased by 0.881 billion evaluation; and low quality of literacy programs. during that period. If it is assumed that these The issue of a lack of commitment to literacy young adults received formal education and are has been addressed by various scholars. considered literate by current literacy standards, Robinson (2005), for example, examined how at least over 70% of the gain in ALR is literacy has been treated by international attributed to these young adults who have gone organizations, national , and other through education systems rather than adult EFA stakeholders and concluded that adult learners who were previously considered literacy was not a focus of action among them. illiterate and have become literate through adult Lind (2008) reviews stakeholders’ motivations literacy programs.2 In other words, the increase for and against literacy and argues that “adult in ALR largely stems from the increase in NER. literacy has de facto been neglected in actual strategies and resource allocation” (20). 2 While not all current young adults have received Oxenham (2008) argues that EFA affords adult and/or finished formal primary schooling, both school enrolment rate and survival rate to the last literacy a lower priority than primary education grade of primary education had been close to 90% or because while EFA Goal 2 on primary education surpassed 90% in the 2000s (UNESCO, 2012). Literacy for All Ito pursues universal access, Goal 4 related to adult (2006; 2008), the percentage of female illiterates literacy pursues a 50 percent improvement in has remained the same since the 1980s. levels of adult literacy by 2015 (UNESCO, 2000: The language of instruction for literacy 72). The 2011 Global Monitoring Report programs is also a complicating factor in adult (UNESCO, 2011) describes literacy as a literacy development (UNESCO, 2006). The forgotten EFA goal―few EFA stakeholders are majority of countries worldwide are bilingual or committed to promoting literacy―and also multilingual (Crystal, 2003). While a variety of concludes that achieving a breakthrough in languages may be used daily for unofficial literacy requires national governments’ as well purposes, one or two languages of high variety as other stakeholders’ commitment, which that are socially more powerful than others are relates directly to a lack of education budget for often used for official domains such as public adult literacy that is often less than one percent administration and education (Baker, 2006). (Oxenham, 2008). Indeed, acquiring literacy in the dominant The infeasibility of developing successful languages is essential for formal schooling, projects in reaching out to the marginalized, political participation, and community activities. such as rural populations, indigenous peoples, The language gap between official and unofficial nomads, the disabled, people in conflict-affected languages causes a number of problems that areas, including refugees, and females. Although often leave minority language speakers rural populations are more disadvantaged with linguistically, educationally and fewer resources than their counterparts in urban socioeconomically disadvantaged (Wagner areas, they generally receive less support (Lester, 2003). Among language experts, there is general 2012). In adult literacy training, however, those consensus that education should be received in who could expect to benefit the most are rural learners’ mother tongues to best enhance their farmers (Oxenham, 2008). Literacy rates among academic performance (Brisk, 2006; Bühmann indigenous populations remain low in many and Trudell, 2008; Cummins and Schecter, 2003; countries in part because few programs are Tse, 1999). Yet, given the complexity of available in their languages (McKenna and language landscapes, it is implausible to provide Fitzpatrick 2004). Nomads are often excluded education in everyone’s native language. from formal education partly due to their life Population growth has a negative impact on style and end up being illiterate (UNESCO, improving literacy. Even if the adult literacy rate 2008). The disabled may be one of the most is increasing in many parts of the world, in some disadvantaged majority as over 90% of disabled regions, the absolute numbers of illiterate adults children in developing countries do not attend continue to rise as have difficulty in school and their literacy rate is as low as 3% providing a large number of students with (UNESCO, 2008). Another major obstacle to quality education (Lind, 2011). Such regions achieving literacy for all is the high proportion often have an absence of clear and coherent of countries that are experiencing or have literacy policies and/or planning, and the process recently emerged from conflicts. Violence and of monitoring and evaluation (Rogers, 1999). As instability may mean that entire groups miss out Ahmed (2011: 182) argues, “the inherent on the chance to develop literacy skills weaknesses in assessment and measurement of (UNESCO, 2011). Improving female literacy is literacy, together with the consequent policy and a matter of urgency as two-thirds of adult program deficiencies, have put in jeopardy the illiterates are female. According to UNESCO achievement of all six 2015 EFA goals.” A lack Literacy for All Ito of adequate coordination mechanisms leads to UNESCO in preparation for the High-Level waste of resources and/or failure to attract International Round Table on Literacy that took funding. The absence of monitoring and place at the UNESCO Headquarters on 6 and 7 evaluation systems are associated with the low September 2012 and attracted over 40 countries, quality of literacy programs (UNESCO, 2008). including 14 Ministers. Some of these challenges crash over each other. A lack of commitment at the policy level is 4. Challenges and Strategies Toward directly related to insufficient financial resources, Improving Literacy which affects other literacy issues such as reaching out the marginalized and providing the This section examines challenges and quality of literacy programs. Coordination and strategies in the action plans for improving partnerships mechanisms can generate or attract literacy submitted to UNESCO in preparation funding, and monitoring and assessment can for the High-Level International Round Table on help spend funding effectively by identifying Literacy held at the UNESCO Headquarters in effective and ineffective literacy programs and September 2012. While the literature review activities. introduced literacy issues, it does not tell how While the literature review introduced literacy prevalent those issues are throughout the world. issues, it does not tell how prevalent those issues Based on the action plans, therefore, the are throughout the world. The next section will challenges and strategies different countries examine challenges and strategies in the action working toward improving literacy are tabled plans for improving literacy submitted to and analyzed.

4.1 Challenges toward Improving Literacy Table 1. Challenges toward improving literacy Challenges Number of Countries 1 Insufficient financial and human resources 18 2 Lack of quality teachers and facilitators 12 3 Lack of commitment at the policy level 11 4 Lack of commitment at the application level 9 4 Regional disparity 9 4 Weak institutional capacity in literacy programs 9 7 Difficulty in conducting monitoring and evaluation 8 8 Insecurity 7 8 Weak coordination and partnership mechanisms 7 8 Gender disparity 7 8 Lack of literacy environments 7 12 Poverty 6 13 Lack of nonformal education infrastructure 5 13 High dropout rates from formal schooling 5 13 Low attendance/retention rates 5 16 Unavailability of reliable statistics 4 16 Insufficient post-literacy programs for neo-literates 4 Literacy for All Ito

16 Lack of relevance 4 19 Low level of recognition, validation, and certification in 4 adult literacy programs 19 Lack of the institutionalization of national language 4

The challenge that countries presented as the main cause for the dropout of learners from most prevalent in their action plans is literacy programs. The action plan of Pakistan insufficient financial and human resources demonstrates the country’s “lack of trained and (18/28 countries). With regard to financial professional program staff for literacy and resources, The action plan of Iran highlights a non-formal basic education at provincial and concern about inappropriate “provision and district level,” but “there is no institutionalized allocation of the required funds” while Togo’s system or core professional organization to plan indicates that the officials are provide the training needs.” apprehensive of “dependence on external A lack of commitment at both the policy funding.” The action plan of Burkina Faso level and the application level are serious issues reveals a difficulty in mobilizing “financial to be addressed. According to the action plan of resources for the non-formal education” the Central African states, the including adult literacy programs. At any event, country’s government officials show little as stated in the action plans of Central African interest in adult literacy largely because “literacy Republic and Yemen, the government does not is not perceived as a development policy.” The allocate enough budgets for literacy and a action plan of Pakistan also states that a “lack of financing gap to be filled exists for improving political will was observed in the literacy. implementation of literacy and non-formal As to human resources, the action plan of education programs. Funds were sanctioned but Pakistan reports, “[Especially] at the provincial politicians could not provide leadership and level, very limited professional support staff these programs were caught by politicization exists to implement literacy policies, plans and during different time periods.” Along with a lack programs effectively.” The Pakistan’s plan of political commitment, the motivation of adult continues, “Due to lack of professional and literacy learners has been a matter of serious inadequate resources, the existing literacy concern. The action plan of Iraq reports “weak programs will not meet the requirements of the community awareness about the seriousness of future literacy programs in the next decades.” illiteracy as a phenomena” and of “the benefits The action plan of Papua New Guinea also of literacy programs.” points out the country’s need for increasing the Wide regional disparity is also a serious number of qualified administrators and trainers issue. In general, adult illiterates in rural areas in literacy programs. and conflict areas tend not to be provided with As touched upon above, human resources sufficient opportunities to learn literacy. In include teachers and facilitators of literacy Sierra Leone, for example, poor road conditions programs. Indeed, a lack of quality teachers and prevent monitoring and supervising literacy facilitators is the second most common problem programs in remote rural areas, especially during that countries noted. The action plan of the rainy seasons. In Iraq, there are few or no Mozambique, for example, identifies schools at all in certain areas due to armed “inadequate training for literacy educators” as a conflicts.

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The issue of weak institutional and illiterates are women. As the action plan of organizational capacity in literacy programs was Mozambique dictates, “The main challenge was raised by quite a few countries. In Benin, for the retention of the learners, especially women. example, a “lack of organizational structure for Many girls and women face constraints to recruitment and human resource management in continue their studies due to their social, literacy and education” leads to inadequate and economic, and cultural role in the family.” insufficient trainers and administrators in Lack of literate environments negatively literacy programs. also appears to affects literacy acquisition for illiterates and have “weak institutional and organizational retention for new literates. In Eritrea, for capacity [as] an obstacle for building example, there appears to be a concern about literacy/NFE [nonformal education] initiatives.” “uneven access of information due to the current Some countries seem to have difficulty in illiterate environment in large areas of the conducting monitoring and evaluation properly. country (especially in remote areas)” and “the Pakistan claims that “monitoring and evaluation risk of relapsing into illiteracy (for most literacy of the literacy and NFBE [nonformal and basic centers are located in totally illiterate education] programs could not be carried out environments).” regularly at the grass root level due to lack of Poverty may also lead to low attendance of human and financial resources.” literacy programs because potential learners Several countries mention insecurity as an have to work to make a living rather than impediment for literacy learners to attend classes. attending literacy classes. In Cambodia, for Iraq, for example, reports that “Security example, “many, including children, cannot instability on many occasions” prevent literacy afford to leave their work in order to attend full learning opportunities. Some other countries in time studies.” The action plan of Iraq also conflict such as Chad and Burkina Faso have reports, “the deteriorating economic situation of similar security problems. Iraqi households” does not allow adult illiterates A weak coordination and organizational to enroll in literacy programs. structure makes it difficult to provide “clear A lack of nonformal education roles and frameworks for partners,” as reported infrastructure may affect improving both access in the action plan of Iraq where there appears to to and the quality of literacy programs. The be a “lack of coordinated action amongst action plan of Pakistan reports that “since the stakeholders, including the Government of Iraq, number of federal government literacy centers is civil society, NGOs and the private sector.” For very limited, access remains a big issue.” The instance, some ministries attempt “to educate Cambodian plan also states, “most areas of the their illiterate members without coordination country lack adequate numbers of school and/or with MOE [Ministry of Education].” The plan a complete range of classes and teachers.” concludes, “In the absence of an umbrella for High dropout rates from formal schooling coordinating work among all parties, funding may generate illiteracy. In Chad, “the large remains scattered between civil society number of out-of-school children between 9 and organizations and governmental institutions.” 14” affects improving literacy. Iraq also has a Wide gender disparity hinders improving literacy. similar issue: “the continuous flow of illiterates In general, women are at disadvantage in due to the dropout of students from formal literacy acquisition. In Chad, “86% of illiterates education.” are women.” In Indonesia, over 70% of the total Low attendance/retention rates of literacy

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Literacy for All Ito programs was also mentioned by several levels of recognition, validation and certification countries. Some varying reasons cited for the in adult literacy and NFE” discourages learners low attendance/retention rate of literacy from enrolling in literacy programs and staying programs included the nomadic life style of in the literacy programs. In Pakistan, “No learners (e.g., Eritrea, Guinea and ) and equivalence of certification has been notified by insecurity (e.g., Burkina Faso, Chad and Iraq). the relevant authority. As such, students Unavailability of reliable statistics makes qualified through literacy/NFBE centers have stakeholders unable to capture the whole picture been facing numerous problems regarding their of literacy situations and to address the existing admissions in regular stream and post literacy issues. , for example, seems to have employment.” “difficulties in collection, processing and The lack of the institutionalization of analysis of data on LNFE [literacy and national language was also noted (3/28). The nonformal education]” while the Cambodian action plan of Togo suggests the country’s plan claims that the obtained statistics are “absence of a policy for the promotion of imprecise. national languages.” The Eritrean plan also The issue of insufficient post-literacy reveals its “lack of varied and adequate reading programs for neo-literates needs to be addressed. materials in mother tongues.” For example, Chad’s literacy programs lack The action plans submitted by 28 countries “reflection about the development of post indicate that insufficient financial and human literacy.” The Mexican plan indicates the resources is the most common challenge against country’s concern about its “insufficient improving literacy. This is followed by the low program quality for neo-literates that tend to quality of literacy programs, including that of relapse into illiteracy.” The action plan of the teachers/facilitators. A lack of commitment was Central African Republic also demonstrates that also stated often. The insufficient financial and the current literacy programs do not take the human resources, quality of literacy programs, post-literacy into account. and the lack of commitment are related as the Questions of relevance (4/28) are crucial in lack of commitment leads to insufficient funding, identifying of literacy skills and motivating which affects securing sufficient quality human learners. In Pakistan, “relevance of the literacy and technical resources for improving literacy. program failed to attract illiterates because the All of these issues are touched upon in the literacy course contents did not match the literature review section, and as explained there, demand of local communities and had negligible they are all interwoven. Many governments productive value for the literacy graduates.” The claimed that they do not have enough funding Eritrean plan states that question of the for literacy and have to rely on external funding relevance of meeting learning needs could be the from international community. Yet, since more cause of poor attendance and drop outs. Iraq also and more countries have become wealthier, it is claims that it “need[s] to develop a thorough possible that the governments are not counted to curriculum for literacy that is relevant for the extent that they take actions. As the action targeted beneficiaries.” plan of the Central African Republic said, for Low level of recognition, validation, and example, the issue is not only financial but certification in adult literacy and NFE (3/28) political―literacy is not integrated in was indicated as a problem by some countries. development policies. It is obvious that a lack of The Gambian plan reports that continuing “low financial supports affect human and thus

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Literacy for All Ito technical resources for literacy. experiences of interacting with ministers, senior Apart from lack of financial, human, and officials and education experts from these 28 technical resources, as well as a lack of countries. The lack of the institutionalization of commitment at the policy and the application national languages is related to the issue of the level, regional disparity can be categorized in choice of the language of instruction. Literacy is reaching out the marginalized. There seem to be measured in official languages, and national issues ranked low but considered important. languages and/or native languages of adult According to a UNESCO program specialist, the learners are often disregarded. The next section issue of lack of relevance and low level of discusses strategies to address these issues. recognition should be cited more from his

4.2 Strategies toward Improving Literacy Table 2. Strategies toward improving literacy Strategies Number of countries 1 Teacher/facilitator training 19 2 Improvement of monitoring and evaluation system 16 2 Enhancing political commitment and advocacy 16 2 Improvement of coordination and management 16 mechanisms 5 Establishment and improvement of infrastructure 14 6 Review and implementation of policies on NFE 13 7 Institutional capacity building 12 7 Improvement of partnerships 12 9 Development and provision of literacy materials 10 10 Mobilization of resources 9 11 Improving female literacy 6 12 Promotion of national and local languages 5 12 Developing research programs and data bases 5

Strategies are planned and in some cases 13 districts” have been trained in Sierra Leone. implemented in order to address the literacy Improvement of monitoring and evaluation challenges stated in the action plans. In response systems (16/28) also corresponds to the to insufficient quality teachers and facilitators, challenge of the lack of monitoring and 19 out of 28 countries noted that evaluation mechanisms cited in the previous teacher/facilitator training will be the top section. In Niger, “tools for monitoring and priority in their strategies. The Senegalian evaluation of LNFE [literacy and nonformal government, for example, is developing “a education] projects and programs will be reference framework for training nonformal designed and implemented by different actors.” education teachers.” Yemen appears to be Chad trains “personnel in charge of monitoring engaged in capacity development of “about one and evaluation” on literacy programs. thousand teachers and inspectors annually” Enhancing political commitment and whereas “2,500 teachers for mass literacy, advocacy is key to improveing literacy (16/28). non-formal and community-based education in In Rwanda, government officials intend to raise

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Literacy for All Ito political awareness through the mass media. The Review and implementation of policies on NFE government of Mozambique also reports to (13/28) is crucial to improve literacy. In Pakistan, “mobilize and sensitize all stakeholders to for example, “the National Framework of Action ensure the participation of an increasing number and Strategic Literacy Plans has been prepared of learners in Literacy and Adult Education by the National Commission for Human programs.” The action plan of Guinea Bissau Development.” In Yemen, “the Literacy reports that the use of various channels of Mid-Term plan is being implemented as part of information and communication for a public Medium Term Results Framework 2013-2015.” awareness campaign will disclose the activities As the review of the NFE monitoring and toward the elimination of illiteracy and evaluation framework, In Gambia, government education. officials intend to align “the program objectives Many countries regard the improvement of and activities with development policies and coordination and management mechanisms frameworks such as the national program for (16/28) as a means of improving literacy. The accelerated growth and employment.” government of Senegal, for example, recognizes Institutional capacity building (12/28) is the importance of the “reinforcement of considered essential to improve literacy. The capacities [of coordinators] for nonformal government of Niger focuses on “strengthening education management.” In Yemen, “efforts of the capacity of DGAENF [Ministry of Basic and various governments and non-governmental Literacy Education] executives and providers.” institutions to participate in achieving literacy Benin is engaged in “capacity building of the objectives have been mobilized and various actors in the literacy sub-sector.” The coordinated.” The government of Iraq promotes government of Mozambique strengthens “cooperation and coordination among the “institutional and organizational capacity for various public, national, and private sectors, and effective implementation of adult literacy to combine their efforts to achieve a society that education activities.” is free of illiteracy.” Improvement of partnerships (12/28) are Establishment and improvement of mentioned as prioritized strategies by many infrastructure is essential to make literacy countries. In Benin, for example, government programs more accessible (14/28). In Eritrea, officials make efforts to ensure “strengthening they open “more community reading rooms to the involvement of private providers.” The promote habit of reading and self-learning action plan of Guinea Bissau reports to improve among the population (to create a literate “quality of literacy and adult education in environment).” Some governments set numerical partnerships with different sectors” including objectives in improving infrastructure. The partners such as NGOs. In Gambia, stakeholders government of Senegal pursues “acquisition of integrate “the public-private-sector partnership 7,500 functional spaces (classrooms) for approach into the mainstream plan” by involving teaching-learning activities” and “the “stakeholders and adapting a participatory endowment of desks and benches for 4,500 program planning and implementation constructed spaces.” Pakistan appears to procedures.” The Pakistani government establish “40 000 adult literacy centers, 100 promotes “involvement of provincial community learning centers (CLCs) and 100 stakeholders” essential to strengthen Quranic literacy centers (QLCs) per year in the “coordination, liaison, mobilization and capacity 57 districts of the country.” building of the provincial stakeholders including

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Literacy for All Ito provincial departments and ministers, donor adoption of a linguistic policy allowing the use agencies, NGOs, and philanthropists.” of national languages in administration, Development and provision of literacy commerce and the development of materials (10/28), along with teacher training capacity-building programs for the newly and establishment of infrastructure, feeds into literate.” The government of Senegal supports the improvement of literacy programs. Benin “Regional Councils in the elaboration of their produces “training materials (teaching aids) development and literacy plans and national while Rwanda more widely distributes languages” such as “the elaboration of an action pedagogical and learning materials.” plan for introducing bilingualism in school” and Nine countries mentioned mobilization of “newspaper production in national languages.” resources as a strategy (9/28). In India, for Also, five countries report to be developing example, “in order to provide academic research programs and data bases (5/28) to deal resources in the support of literacy and adult with statistics issues. The government of Sierra education programs, State Resource Centers Leone, for example, “supports national literacy (SRCs) have been established throughout the survey on literacy levels of the population.” The country.” The action plan of Mozambique action plan of Papua New Guinea states that reports to “establish the National Funds for “research needs to be carried out to develop and Literacy and Non-Formal Education” for maintain an accurate picture of what literacy “identification, mapping and mobilization of activities are carried out at the national, potential donors (public and private companies, provincial, district and local levels.” The civil society, etc.)” to raise funds for literacy. Eritrean plan reports to develop “adult and Quite a few countries focus on improving non-formal education data base system female literacy (6/28). In Benin, “incentives for (documentation and publication).” women on the basis of merit” have been The strategies commonly employed to introduced for “development and address literacy challenges are: implementation of a [literacy] program to teacher/facilitator training; improvement of strengthen the capacity of girls and women monitoring and evaluation system; enhancing involved in micro-enterprises.” In Yemen, political commitment and advocacy; and “Basic and female training centers have been improvement of coordination and management rehabilitated and provided with modern mechanisms. Institutional capacity building, equipment.” ranked 7th, is related to teacher/facilitator Five countries find important promotion of training, the most commonly cited strategy national and local languages (5/28) rather than because institutional support is essential for official languages. The government of Sierra individual training. Improvement of partnerships, Leone prioritizes “development, adaptation, also ranked 7th, is also part of that of testing, printing and distribution of teaching and coordination mechanisms, ranked 2nd. learning materials in five Sierra Leonean Mobilization of resources are ranked 10th, but is languages.” The government of Burkina Faso also related to enhancing political commitment seems to have a concrete policy in “promotion and advocacy, ranked 2nd. Developing and of national languages by making available provision of literacy materials are essential for authors of quality didactic material, the effective improving literate environments that require implementation of editorial policy, the pursuit of review and implementation of literacy and subsidized national language newspapers, the nonformal education policies. Establishment and

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Literacy for All Ito improvement of infrastructure serve for coordination mechanisms. These issues are also narrowing the regional and gender disparities. closely related each other: Teacher/facilitator Relevant strategies combined, institutional and training requires funding, which also requires individual (e.g., teachers, facilitators) capacity political commitment while advocacy is development is the top priority strategy followed essential to motivate adult learners. Monitoring by improvement of coordination and and evaluation systems and coordination partnerships mechanisms, enhancing political mechanisms are also important to assess the commitment and resource mobilization, review literacy programs, avoid overlapping literacy and implementation of literacy policies, and then activities, seeking and/or spending funding improvement of monitoring and evaluation effectively. systems. Both the challenges and the strategies in the action plans suggest the significance of a 5. Discussion and Conclusion political commitment and the subsequent action, which seem to have a huge impact on mobilizing This paper reviewed progress in adult financial, human, and technical resources; literacy since the 2000 Dakar Forum and however it is difficult to promote adult literacy, challenged articulated in the previous literature. compared to some other EFA goals such as This paper then analyzed challenges and universal primary education and to a lesser strategies in 28 countries’ action plans submitted extent gender equality. Policy makers know to the 2012 High-Level International Round what primary education is or at least how it Table for Literacy. The findings show that the looks like, if nothing else, from their experiences issues most commonly cited include a lack of of having gone to school themselves. The image financial and human resources, the low quality of a poor rural girl wishing to go to school, for of literacy programs, and a lack of dedicated example, has been popularly used by commitment to reducing adult literacy, all of development organizations in an attempt to which are closely interconnected. The lack of attract investment in education (Heyneman financial and human resources affect negatively 2009). The image of adult illiterates, on the other the quality of education as it also indicates a lack hand, is perhaps less appealing. Virtually no of technical resources. Insufficient financial, policy makers, including policy makers, have human, and technical resources arguably stem been illiterate adults. Few have actually been from the lack of commitment. Many other directly involved in adult literacy programs. literacy issues are related to these three. For Thus, adult illiteracy may be difficult for them to instance, wide regional disparity and weak identify with, lessening their personal empathy institutional capacity, both of which are the with it. Indeed, most governments invest very fourth most commonly cited issues, often derive little on adult education, including adult literacy from a lack of financial, human, and technical training. One may argue that they may be simply resources. following the logic of the market: investment in These challenges are addressed through adult literacy can be wasteful without strategies in the action plans submitted to corresponding returns. One intellectual, for UNESCO. Teacher/facilitator training was example, told me that the reason that adult placed as the top priority followed by enhancing literacy “is not seen as important as primary a political commitment, improving monitoring school is a simple matter of economics: unlike and evaluation systems, and establishing adults, children have an entire lifetime to

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Literacy for All Ito contribute to their country’s economy, so they like to thank Mr. Olav Seim, the director of may be viewed as ‘worth’ more of an investment. UNESCO’s EFA Global Partnerships Team and Also, some may assume that if adults have my former supervisor at the organization. He gotten this far without a literacy program, they provided me with an opportunity to participate can do fine without it and there is thus no real in the preparation of the High-Level need for it” (personal communication). This International Round Table on Literacy. This view may be shared by many others, including conference was the closing event not only for policy makers.4 the UNLD but also for myself as an Associate Many of us EFA stakeholders seem to Expert at UNESCO. I would also like to Mr. appreciate the idea that everyone should be Ezra Greene for editing this paper. He gave provided opportunities to learn to be literate, but invaluable comments as well as corrected we do not seem to be convinced to the extent grammar errors. I admire his sharp writing and that we take further actions. The 2011 GMR analytical skills. The author is responsible for all (UNESCO 2011: 7) asserts, “When political mistakes. leaders do acknowledge the need to tackle illiteracy, swift progress is possible.” I argue, Biography however, that commitment to literacy will not be HIROSHI ITO is an associate professor of made prior to convincing ourselves first of its Management at the Nagoya University of real importance of why national governments Commerce and Business. He holds a Ph. D. in need to spend more on literacy by demonstrating Education from University of California, Los how programs will be implemented and what the Angeles, MA in Education from Teachers consequences and returns will be for their College, Columbia Univeristy, and MBA from respective countries. By the same token, we University of Paris, Pantheon-Sorbonne. He also might educate illiterates on what they stand to worked for various international organizations gain through literacy training. Otherwise, neither including UNICEF and UNESCO. governments nor illiterates will likely invest more of their own time, energy, and limited References resources into gaining literacy. Convincing Ahmed, M. (2011). “Defining and Measuring governments and adult learners of the Literacy: Facing the Reality. International significance of literacy should be possible if Review of Education, 57 (1-2): 179-1. literacy is truly essential for a better life. Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of Bilingual Acknowledgements Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: This paper could not have been written without Multilingual Matters. the support of several individuals. I first would Brisk, M. E. (2006). Bilingual Education From Compensatory to Quality Schooling. 4 This statement has two possible limitations. First, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erbaum this does not fully explain why pre-primary school enrolment has been stagnant. If time is the most Associates. crucial factor for longer and higher returns, Bühmann, D. & B Trudell.(2008). Mother stakeholders and governments would have invested more in early childhood education. Yet, pre-primary Tongue Matters: Local Language as a Key education enrolment remains low at 48% in 2010 to Effective Learning. Paris: UNESCO. (UNESCO, 2012). This statement also disregards the Cummins, J. & Schecter, S. (2003). Multilingual benefits of educating adults for the benefits of educating children. According to UNESCO (2011), Education in Practices: Using Diversity as literate parents, especially mothers, tend to send their a Resource. Portsmouth, NH: Halnemann. children to school more than non-literate parents.

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Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Tse, L. (2001). Why don’t They Learn English? London: Bloomsbury Academic. Teachers College. The Hague: Columbia Heyneman, S. P. (2009). The Failure of University Press. Education for All as Political Strategy. UNESCO. (2000). Dakar Framework for Action. Prospects; Quarterly Review of Paris: UNESCO. Comparative Education 39(1): 5-10 UNESCO. (2003). EFA Global Monitoring Lester, L. (2012). Putting Rural Readers on the Report – Gender and Education for All: Map. The Reading Teacher 65 (6): 407-415 The Leap to Equality. Paris: UNESCO. Lind, A. (2008). Literacy for All: making UNESCO. (2006). EFA Global Monitoring difference. UNESCO. Report 2006 – Literacy for Life. Paris: Maddox, B. (2008). What Good is Literacy? UNESCO. Insights and Implications of the UNESCO. (2008). The Global Literacy Capabilities Approach. Journal of Human Challenge. UNESCO. Development 9 (2): 185-206 UNESCO. (2009). United Nations Literacy McKenna, R. & Fitzpatrick, L. (2004). Building Decade: International Strategic Sustainable Adult Literacy Provision. Framework for Action. Paris: UNESCO. NCVER. UNESCO. (2011). EFA Global Monitoring Nussbaum, M. (2006). Frontiers of Justice: Report 2011 – The hidden crisis. Paris: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership. UNESCO. MA and London: Belkap. UNESCO. (2012). EFA Global Monitoring Oxenham, J. (2008). Effective literacy Report 2012 – Youth and Skills: Putting programmes: options for policy-makers. education to work. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. Wagner, D. A. (2003). Smaller, quicker, cheaper: Robinson, C. (2005). Promoting literacy; What alternative strategies for literacy assessment is the record of Education for All? in the UN Literacy Decade. International International Journal of Educational Journal of Educational Research, 39: Development, 25: 436-444 293-309 Rogers, A. (1999). “Improving the quality of Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. adult literacy programmes in developing Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. countries: the ‘real ’ approach.” McLuhan, M. (1970a). Culture is our business. International Journal of Educational New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Development, 19: 219-234 McLuhan, M. (1970b). From cliche to archetype. Sen, A. K. (1999). Development as Freedom. New York, NY: Viking Press. New York: Knopf. .

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