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Investigation of Layered Calcium Phosphates and Related Materials for Biomaterial Applications

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Investigation of Layered Calcium Phosphates and Related Materials for Biomaterial Applications Investigation of Layered Calcium Phosphates and Related Materials for Biomaterial Applications By Matthew Robert Cave A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Chemistry University of Birmingham November 2009 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify and investigate novel layered materials with potential as biomaterials. This study has concentrated on layered calcium phosphate phases and their analogues due to their obvious biocompatibility and potential for resorption. Materials were prepared using a range of synthetic techniques including ceramic methods, acid flux and hydrothermal synthesis. Some of the layered phases prepared were then modified using intercalation and exfoliation. Characterisation was performed mainly using powder X-ray diffraction with thermogravimetric and fourier transform infrared providing further means of analysis. When possible, single crystal X-ray diffraction was also utilised. Investigations were performed on metal alkyl phosphates with strontium pentyl and phenyl phosphate phases being fully characterised by single crystal X-ray diffraction. To our knowledge, this represented a rare family of inorganic/organic hybrid materials whose structures have been characterised in any detail. These structures show inorganic metal phosphate layers separated by organic layers containing alkyl chains displaying an unexpected cooperative ordering. The intercalation and exfoliation properties of monocalcium phosphate monohydrate [MCPM] were studied and a monoamine intercalated version of this MCPM was successfully prepared. These materials were investigated as a component of a calcium phosphate bone cement system, whereby, the inclusion of this amine intercalated MCPM species had a potentially useful retarding effect upon the setting of the cement. Layered calcium pyrophosphates were investigated due to their similar lamellar structure and slower dissolution rates compared with MCPM. Two previously known layered calcium pyrophosphate phases were successfully synthesised, namely calcium pyrophosphate tetrahydrate (Ca2P2O7·4H2O) and calcium disodium pyrophosphate tetrahydrate (CaNa2P2O7·4H2O) and their intercalation, ion exchange and exfoliation reactions were studied to determine whether it was possible to exploit their layered structures. Results of this study indicated that these phases were highly stable, allowing limited modification. When modification was suggested it resulted in as yet unidentified new phases. ii Acknowledgments Acknowledgments I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Adrian Wright for all his help, support and encouragement throughout the past 4 years – without it; I wouldn’t have had the opportunity to complete a PhD in Birmingham. This PhD has been a great experience and I have thoroughly enjoyed the challenges and rewards that this research has brought. I should also like to thank Smith & Nephew and the School of Chemistry for providing the funding to enable me to complete my PhD. I would like to thank those who have been involved in my training and development, for providing analysis and interpretation of some of the results in this thesis. I am grateful to Dr Benson Kariuki for his work on the single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis of the strontium alkyl phosphate species. I am also thankful to Geology and Earth Sciences for their ICP-MS analysis of my metal alkyl phosphates and Paul Stanley for training on the use of the ESEM with EDX for general analysis of some of my samples. A special mention should go to members of the fifth floor, past and present that have provided help, guidance and many an enjoyable moment throughout my time at Birmingham. I would especially like to thank former and current members of the Wright Group, Lauren, Shezad, Tom, Fiona, Colin, Yasmin and Katie. iii Acknowledgments “There are some things so serious you have to laugh at them.” “An expert is a man who has made all the mistakes which can be made in a very narrow field.” Niels Bohr “If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research." Albert Einstein “The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds the most discoveries, is not "Eureka!" (I found it!) but "That's funny..."” Isaac Asimov When William Gladstone met Michael Faraday, he asked him whether his work on electricity would be of any use. "Yes, sir" remarked Faraday, "One day you will be able to tax it." iv Contents List Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Phosphate Chemistry 2 1.2 Zirconium Phosphate 3 1.2.1 Intercalation in Zirconium Phosphate 4 1.2.2 Intercalation Reactions in Layered Metal Phosphates 6 1.3 Calcium Phosphate Materials 8 1.3.1 Layered Calcium Phosphate Phases 9 1.3.1.1 Monocalcium Phosphate Monohydrate [MCPM] 9 1.3.1.2 Calcium Pyrophosphate Tetrahydrate 10 1.3.1.3 Brushite 11 1.4 Nanocomposites and Hybrid Materials 13 1.4.1 General Structure of Clay Minerals 15 1.4.2 Inorganic-Organic Hybrids Materials 16 1.4.3 Exfoliation of Clay-Like Materials 18 1.5 Biomaterials 21 1.5.1 Metals 21 1.5.2 Polymers 22 1.5.3 Ceramics 22 1.5.4 Natural Materials 23 1.5.5 Hard Tissue Replacement 27 1.6 Aims of This Research 28 1.7 References 29 Chapter 2: Experimental 32 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Synthesis Methods 34 2.2.1 Ceramic Method 34 2.2.2 Acid Flux Method 34 2.2.3 Hydrothermal Synthesis 34 2.2.4 Intercalation 35 2.2.5 Exfoliation 36 2.3 Characterisation Techniques 38 2.3.1 X-ray Diffraction 38 2.3.1.1 X-ray Generation 38 2.3.1.2 Diffraction of X-rays 38 2.3.1.3 Powder X-ray Diffraction 40 2.3.1.4 Absorption Factors 42 2.3.1.5 Powder X-ray Diffraction Instrumentation 42 2.3.1.6 Characterisation of Powder X-ray Diffraction Patterns 43 2.3.2 Single Crystal X-ray Diffraction 43 2.3.2.1 Single Crystal X-ray Diffraction Method 43 2.3.2.2 Single Crystal X-ray Diffraction Diffractometer Setup 45 2.3.2.3 Single Crystal X-ray Diffraction Refinement 46 v Contents List 2.3.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis with Differential Thermal Analysis 47 2.3.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis (FTIR) 48 2.3.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Theory 48 2.3.4.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Instrument 52 2.3.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 54 2.3.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy Instrument 54 2.3.5.2 Energy Dispersive Analysis of X-rays (EDX) 55 2.3.6 Inductively Coupled Plasma Analysis Linked to Mass Spectrometry 55 (ICP-MS) 2.3.6.1 Elemental Analysis of ICP-MS 57 2.3.7 Bone Cement Characterisation Techniques 58 2.3.7.1 Ultimate Compressive Strength Measurement 58 2.3.7.2 Gilmore Needles Measurement 59 2.4 References 61 Chapter 3: Formation and Characterisation of Calcium Alkyl Phosphates 62 and their Analogues 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Experimental 67 3.2.1 Preparation of Straight Chained Metal Alkyl Phosphates 67 3.2.2 Calcium Alkyl Phosphates – Larger Crystal Formation 68 3.2.3 Preparation of Monovalent Alkyl Phosphates 69 3.2.4 Preparation of Branched Alkyl Phosphates 69 3.2.5 Cyclohexyl and Aryl Phosphate Preparation 70 3.2.6 Formation of Alkyl Diphosphate Esters Using Diols 71 3.2.7 Modified Chain Alkyl Phosphates 71 3.2.8 Mixed Alkyl Chain Length Calcium Alkyl Phosphates 72 3.2.9 Modification of Calcium Phosphates Using Alkyl Phosphate 72 Intermediates 3.2.10 Exfoliation of Calcium Alkyl Phosphates 73 3.2.11 Characterisation of Prepared Alkyl Phosphates 74 3.3 Results and Discussion 76 3.3.1 Calcium Alkyl Phosphates Formation 76 3.3.2 Divalent Metal Alkyl Phosphate Formation 78 3.3.3 Monovalent Alkyl Phosphate Formation 86 3.3.4 TGA Analysis of Metal Alkyl Phosphates 87 3.3.5 FTIR Analysis of Metal Alkyl Phosphates 88 3.3.6 Environmental SEM Images and EDX Analysis of Metal Alkyl 90 Phosphates 3.3.7 Branched Metal Alkyl Phosphates 90 3.3.8 Cyclohexyl and Aryl Phosphates 93 3.3.9 Formation of Alkyl Diphosphate Esters Using Diols 97 3.3.10 Modified Chain Alkyl Phosphates 98 3.3.11 Mixed Alkyl Chain Length Calcium Alkyl Phosphates 99 3.3.12 Modification of Calcium Phosphates Using Alkyl Phosphate 101 Intermediates 3.3.13 Exfoliation of Calcium Alkyl Phosphates 108 3.3.14 Summary of Phases Attempted and Prepared 111 vi Contents List 3.4 Conclusions 113 3.5 References 115 Chapter 4: Intercalation and Exfoliation Studies in Monocalcium Phosphate 117 Monohydrate (MCPM) 4.1 Introduction 118 4.2 Experimental 123 4.2.1 Simple Molecule Intercalation Reactions in MCPM 123 4.2.2 Complex Molecule Intercalation Reactions in MCPM 124 4.2.3 Drug Molecules Used for Intercalation Experiments 125 4.2.4 Effect of Water on the MCPM Samples 126 4.2.5 Organic Solvent Effects on MCPM 127 4.2.6 Attempted Exfoliation of MCPM 127 4.2.7 Characterisation of Prepared MCPM Phases 128 4.3 Results and Discussion 130 4.3.1 Amine Intercalation 130 4.3.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis of Amine Intercalated MCPM 138 4.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis of Amine Intercalated MCPM 141 4.3.4 Intercalation of Diamines and Molecules Possessing Other 142 Functional Groups 4.3.5 Attempted
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