The London School of Economics and Political Science Principiis Rebellionis in India Orientalis: Taming British Counterinsurgency in Malaya 1944-1954 Meor Alif Meor Azalan A thesis submitted to the Department of Government of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, June 2018 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 97,718 words (excluding quotes; including quotes: 112,810) 2 Abstract This work dissects Britain's counter-insurgency campaign during the Malayan Emergency and her wider experience at decolonisation in Southeast Asia. The Darurat - as it is known in the local Malay language - is considered as the typical case of a successful modern-day counter-insurgency campaign. The conventional theoretical wisdom posits; that in order to win a counter- insurgency campaign, the force responsible for such a campaign must, similar to Malaya, embark upon a policy of ‘winning hearts and minds’. However, as more official colonial documents pertaining to the Emergency are uncovered and released to the public, the increasing publication of memoirs from individuals directly involved in the Emergency across the political spectrum, and the increased willingness of ex-insurgents as well as members of previously besieged communities affected by mass resettlement to come forward and share their accounts; there is ground to doubt the accuracy of our inherited and imbalanced knowledge of the Emergency along with the ‘lessons’ we have derived from it. This thesis has strengthened the argument, with an emphasis on Malay language and Jawi scripted sources, that; (1) through the accounts of native actors, both Malay and Chinese, the Malayan Emergency is an artefact of the earlier anti-Japanese experience during World War Two. And that (2) force which was used in the conduct of concluding the shooting war in 1954 was regarded as ‘exempted’ force wrapped in a grand narrative despite the on- the-ground reality for the people. 3 Acknowledgments There are no words to describe the debt of gratitude which myself, and this humble manuscript, owes to each person who has assisted in seeing its completion. Nevertheless, from the outset I want to mention that the supervision, guidance, and tutelage I have received from my dear supervisor Professor James Hughes has been nothing short of exemplary, and at times, defies logic. His patience, counsel, perseverance, friendship, and understanding has been the backbone of this entire endeavour. It would be very remiss of me if I did not equally mention Dr Bill Kissane for his care and companionship and for being nothing short of inspirational. I am also grateful to Dr Kai Spiekermann and Dr Paul Mitchell for their unending support and assistance on this project. My sincerest thanks also goes to Mr. Quek Ngee Meng, Ms. Mizan Muhammad, Dr Ishtiaq Hossain, Dr. ElFatih Abdelsalam, and my colleagues and fellow students whom I admire at the Department of Government London School of Economics and Political Science for their indefatigable advice and assistance. I should also like to record my deepest appreciation to the staff at the Department of Government LSE, British Library of Political and Economic Science, Arkib Negara Malaysia, The National Archives UK, National Archives of Singapore, Imperial War Museum, British Library, National Army Museum, The Guards Museum, New Era University College and the Senate House Library. To my family, my beloved parents, and beloved aunt, thank you for teaching me that the secret to life lies in reading and writing. And finally, to my wife, thank you for your belief in this adventure, and for the bravery of your gamble, and I will let you rest and sleep now, for when you are rested, you always move mountains. 2018 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 7 1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 10 1.2 THIS RESEARCH ................................................................................................................................ 34 1.3 MALAYA AND COUNTER-INSURGENCY ................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER TWO: TEN THOUSAND YEARS ...................................................................................... 57 2.1 WORLD WAR TWO AND THE MALAYAN EMERGENCY ...................................................... 59 2.2 COMMUNISM AND MALAYA ......................................................................................................... 61 2.3 SINGAPORE SLING ........................................................................................................................... 70 2.4 MALAYA’S POST-WAR MENACES ................................................................................................ 74 CHAPTER THREE: POST-WAR MALAYA. ............................................................................................. 85 3.1 COMPREHENDING ECONOMIC RETREAT............................................................................... 88 3.2 A NATION OF SHOPKEEPERS ...................................................................................................... 91 3.3 MALAYA IS ‘RED’ ............................................................................................................................... 96 3.4 POST-WAR SOCIAL CHANGES AND IDENTITY IN MALAYA: 1941-1951 ......................... 101 3.5 A SOPHISTICATED POST-WAR MCP ......................................................................................... 109 3.6 THE EARLY DAYS OF THE MALAYAN EMERGENCY ........................................................... 116 CHAPTER FOUR: MALAYAN SUPREMOS AND THE USE OF FORCE ....................................... 128 4.1 NEO-INVASION MALAYA, THE EMPIRE’S POSSESSION REPOSSESED .......................... 130 4.2 EX-ANTE MALAYAN EMERGENCY, MALAYA’S ‘SUPREMOS’ ............................................ 133 4.3 A SPECTRE AND A SHADOW COME TOGETHER ................................................................. 136 4.4 PERSISTING OPPRESSION OF THE MALAYAN PEACE AND DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT ..................................................................................................................................................... 145 4.5 BRASH RESPONSE AT BRAS BASAH .......................................................................................... 148 4.6 A SUPREMO OF MANY NAMES ................................................................................................... 154 4.7 THE LEAD-UP TO THE 1948 SHOOTING WAR ....................................................................... 159 CHAPTER FIVE: EMERGENCY AND COUNTERINSURGENCY ................................................. 171 5.1 FIRST STAGES OF ORGANISING DEPORTATIONS AND CONCENTRATION CAMPS 177 5.2 ORGANISING THE COUNTERINSURGENCY .......................................................................... 179 5.3 BATANG KALI MASSACRE ........................................................................................................... 189 CHAPTER SIX: NEW VILLAGES, CONCENTRATION CAMPS AND DETENTION .............. 208 6.1 DETENTION AND ‘REHABILITATION’ .................................................................................... 223 CHAPTER SEVEN: MALAYA’S MONOMYTH AS A ‘MODEL’ FOR COUNTERINSURGENCY .. 242 7.1 CHINESE IS BANDIT, MCP IS ENEMY ........................................................................................ 248 7.2 MALAYA’S BLACK AREAS, AND WHITE AREAS .................................................................... 249 7.3 FIGHTING THE INSURGENTS, FIGHTING THE WATERS .................................................. 256 7.4 MALAYA THE COLONIAL POSSESSION .................................................................................. 260 7.5 THE STATE BY MANY NAMES .................................................................................................... 263 BIBLIOGRAPHY 268 5 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Organisation of Malayan Communist Party ......................................................................................... 20 Figure 2: Total number of casualties, 1948-1955 ................................................................................................. 34 Figure 3: Total number of persons killed, 1948-1955 ......................................................................................... 35 Figure 4: Total number of persons killed, detailed breakdown, 1948-1955....................................................... 36 Figure 5: Total number of terrorists captured and surrendered, 1948-1955 ...................................................... 37 Figure 6: The Political Situation in Malaya leading up to